section 3: hardware

computer architecture
central processing unit

● it is also known as a microprocessor or processor

● responsible for the execution or processing of all the instructions and data in a
computer
● a microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip
● integrated circuit: usually a chip made from a semi- conductor material which
carries out the same tasks as a larger circuit made from individual components
● central to all modern computers systems and gadgets
● has the responsibility of the execution and processing of all the instructions and data
in a computer application

consists of:

● control unit (CU)

● arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
● registers
● buses
● a system clock

von neumann architecture

● a type of computer architecture which introduced the concept of the stored

progRAMin the 1940s
● concept of a CPU
● CPU can directly access the memory
● storage of programs and data by computer memories
● stored programs were made up of instructions that had to be followed or executed in
a sequential order

arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

● the component of the CPU that carries out all arithmetic and logical operations
● a computer can have more than one ALU
● multiplication and division are carried out by a sequence of addition,
subtraction and left or right logical shift operations
control unit (CU)

● the component of a computer’s CPU that ensures synchronisation of data flow and
programs throughout the computer by sending out control signals along the control
bus

● reads instruction from the memory

● address of the instruction’s location is found from progRAMcounter (PC)
● PC: a register that stores the address where the next instruction to be read can
be found
● instruction is interpreted using the fetch-decode-execute cycle
● ensures the synchronisation of data flow
● program instructions throughout the computer by sending out control signals
● decodes an instruction using an instruction set

● the system clock: produces timing signals on the control bus to ensure
synchronisation takes place
● the RAM holds all the data and programs needed by the CPU
● RAM is also often referred to as the immediate access store or IAS
● IAS: memory that holds all data and programs needed to be accessed by the
control unit
● the CPU takes data and programs held in the HDD or backing store, and puts them in
the RAM temporarily
● a secondary storage device (such as HDD or SSD) used to store data
permanently even when the computer is powered down
● this is because the RAMcan read/write operations work faster when carried out on the
RAM rather than on the HDD since there are no moving parts in RAM

registers
registers full form function

CIR current stores the current instruction being decoded and executed
instruction
register

ACC accumulator used when carrying out ALU operations; it stores the data
temporarily during the calculations

temporary general-purpose register that stores numerical

values at any part of a given operation

MAR memory address stores the address of the memory location being currently
register read or written to

MDR memory data stores data which has just been read from memory data or
register that which is about to be written to memory

PC progRAMcounter stores the address of the next instruction to be fetched

memory

● computer memory is made of a number of partitions

● each partition has an address and its content
● the address will uniquely identify every location in the memory and the contents will
be in binary
● values stored in each location in a READ operation, the memory address of the
contents that are to be read are copied to the MAR
● this sends a READ signal to the computer memory, and it will put the contents of that
specific address into the MDR
● in a write operation, the memory content is first written into the MDR to be stored a
WRITE
● signal will be sent to the computer, and then the memory location’s address is written
into the MAR.

system buses

● used in computers as parallel transmission components

● each wire in the bus transmits one bit of data
● three types:
● data bus
● address bus
● control bus
address bus

● the system bus that carries the addresses throughout the computer system
● between the CPU and memory: address bus is unidirectional
● bits can travel in one direction only
● this prevents addresses being carried back to the CPU
● wider the bus, the more memory locations that can be directly addressed at any given
time
● a bus of width 16 bits can address 216 (65536) memory locations whereas a bus
width of 32 bits allows 232 (4294967296) memory locations to be simultaneously
addressed

data bus

● bidirectional: allows data to be sent in both directions along the bus

● data can be carried from CPU to memory (and vice versa) and to and from
input/output devices
● important to point out that data can be an address, an instruction or a numerical
value
● wider the bus the larger the word length that can be transported

control bus

● bidirectional: carries signals from the control unit (CU) to all the other computer
components
● usually 8-bits wide
● no need for it to be any wider since it only carries control signals.

fetch-decode-execute cycle

● to carry out a set of instructions, the CPU first fetches some data and instructions
from memory and stores them in suitable registers.
● the address and data bus are used in this.
● once fetched, each instruction needs to be decoded before being executed this cycle
is known as fetch-decode-execute or FDE cycle

1 PC contains the address of the memory location of the next instruction that
has to be fetched
2 the memory address of the instruction is copied to mar from the pc

the address bus is used here

3 the contents/ instructions/data at the memory location or address in the mar

are temporarily copied in the MDR from memory (RAM) using the data bus

4 the contents or instructions of the MDR are then copied and placed in CIR

5 the PC is incremented by 1.

this means the next instruction is ready to be copied and decoded.

6 the content or instructions stored in CIR/IR are decoded

7 the CPU sends out signals through the control bus to the respective
components (e.g arithmetic and logic unit) of the computer to execute the
instruction, if required

cores, cache and internal clock

clock speed

● refers to the number of electrical pulses that the clock inside the CPU can produce
each second.
● clock cycle: clock speeds are measured in terms of GHz; this is the vibrational
frequency of the system clock which sends out pulses along the control bus
● for example, a 3.5GHZ clock cycle means 3.5 billion clock cycles a second usually
measured in Hz or GHz.
● increasing the clock speed can increase the processing speed as more instructions
than before will be addressed in the same time
● one issue of increasing the clock speed is overclocking: it can lead to un-
synchronisation of operations, causing the computer to glitch and crash or cause
overheating of the CPU.
overclocking

● clock speed can be changed by accessing the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) and
altering the settings
● a suite of programs on firmware that are used to perform the initialisation of a
computer system during the boot-up process
● using a clock speed higher than the computer’s original:
● execution of instructions outside design limits can lead to seriously
unsynchronised operations
● an instruction is unable to complete in time before the next one is due to
be executed)
● the computer would frequently crash and become unstable
● overclocking can lead to serious overheating of the CPU
● leading to unreliable performance.

cores

● more cores will improve overall computer performance

● each core includes an ALU, CU and registers
● many computers are either dual core or quad core
● many operations are carried out simultaneously.
● more cores lower the need of increasing the system clock speed
● however, this causes the time taken for the CPU to communicate with each core to
increase, as more cores are added

cache

● use of cache memory can also improve CPU performance

● cache memory is located in the CPU itself, and hence has much faster data access
time than ram
● it allows for faster data access as it stores the instructions and data that needs to be
accessed frequently, improving CPU performance
● when a CPU wishes to read the memory, it will first check the cache, and then move
on to the main memory/RAMif the required data isn't there
● the larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU performance

instruction set

● a set of common instructions have been developed by processor manufacturers so

that CPUs operate as efficiently as possible
● this instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU
the instructions, called operations, are in machine code and are the most basic types
of commands that computers can process
● these operations can ensure that the control unit and arithmetic logic unit can carry
out their respective jobs easily
 ● operations are made up of opcodes and operands
● opcode: part of a machine code instruction that identifies what action the CPU has to
perform
● stored on the computer's hard disc, and would usually be copied into the RAM
when the computer is powered on.
● operand: part of a machine code instruction that identifies what data is to be used
● the most regularly used opcodes would then be shifted from RAMto the cache
memory.
● operand is the data that needs to be acted on
● the operand may be a piece of data itself, or it may be an address location within the
main RAM or register

embedded systems

● a combination of hardware and software designed to carry out a specific set of

functions
● embedded systems have a microprocessor, either analogue or digital input, a user
interface and output the data is input either manually (from a keypad or such) or is
collected automatically from a source, such as sensors
● the input data can be either analogue or digital the output will be the specific
function of that embedded system.
● it can be sending signals to problem-respective actuators, or more.

● examples of embedded system include: motor vehicles, set-top box, security systems,
lighting systems, vending systems, washing machines

benefits drawbacks

small in size and easy to fit in devices can be difficult to upgrade certain devices to
new technology

low cost to manufacture troubleshooting faults: specialist task

dedicated to only one task and therefore interface appears simple, but it can still be
have a simple interface and system more confusing for people

there is no requirement of an operating any device is susceptible to attacks from

system hackers and viruses

can be controlled remotely using a mobile difficult to upgrade and troubleshoot; cause
phone or remote control devices to be thrown away rather than fixed

fast reactions to changing inputs throwing away can start a "throw away" culture
among users who will often discard the
devices when they become out of date

operate in real time and are feedback

orientated
are mass produced and hence, reliable

less power consuming

input devices
barcode scanners (readers)

● barcodes are a series of dark and light parallel lines with varying thickness
● that represent numbers from 0 to 9 barcode numbers are looked up in the stock
database, and item details are sent back to checkout
● scanning allows automatic stock control and finding new values of stock items
benefits of using barcodes for the store management include easy and fast updates,
automatic stock control, and time-saving

process

1 a barcode scanner emits a red laser on led in the barcode

2 the black and white parts of the barcode reflect light differently (the black
parts reflect little to no light, whereas the light parts reflect almost all of it)

3 white is 0 and black is 1

4 this reflected light is captured by the sensors in the barcode scanner

5 a pattern is generated and it is converted into digital data

● the barcode number is looked up in the stock database (the barcode is known as the
key field in the stock item record); this key field uniquely identifies each stock item
 ● when the barcode number is found, the stock item record is looked up
● the price and other stock item details are sent back to the checkout (or point of sale
terminal (POS)
● the number of stock items in the record is reduced by 1 each time the barcode
is read
● this new value for number of stock is written back to the stock item record
● the number of stock items is compared to the re-order level; if it is less than or equal
to this value, more stock items are automatically ordered
● once an order for more stock items is generated, a flag is added to the record to stop
reordering every time the stock item barcode is read
● when new stock items arrive, the stock levels are updated in the database.

advantages to the management of using barcodes

● much easier and faster to change prices on stock items

● much better, more up-to-date sales information/sales trends
● no need to price every stock item on the shelves (this reduces time and cost
to the management)
● allows for automatic stock control
● possible to check customer buying habits more easily by linking barcodes to, for
example, customer loyalty cards.

advantages to the customers of using barcodes

● faster checkout queues (staff don’t need to remember/look up prices of items)

● errors in charging customers is reduced
● the customer is given an itemised bill
● cost savings can be passed on to the customer
● better track of ‘sell by dates’ so food should be freshers

qr codes

● a matrix of dark and light squares which represent data; the pattern can be read and
interpreted using a smartphone camera and QR app
● they hold considerably more information than traditional barcodes
● a QR code consists of a block of small squares (light and dark) known as pixels.
● it can presently hold up to 4296 characters (or up to 7089 digits)
● allows internet addresses to be encoded within the QR code.
● as more and more data is added, the structure of the QR code becomes more
complex.
● three large squares at the corners of the code function as a form of alignment;
● the remaining small corner square is used to ensure the correct size and correct angle
of the camera shot when the QR code is read.
 ● used for advertising products, accessing websites, phone numbers, and storing
boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations
● being updated to frame qr codes that include advertising logos, but the software
needed for this isn't free

● advantages of qr codes include:

● can hold much more information
● fewer errors
● the higher capacity of the QR code allows the use
of built-in error-checking systems
● normal barcodes contain almost no data redundancy (data which is
duplicated) therefore it isn’t possible to guard against badly printed or
damaged barcodes
● are easier to read: they can be read by the cameras on smartphones or tablets
● don’t need expensive laser or LED (light emitting diode) scanners like
barcodes
● easy to transmit QR codes either as text messages or images
● possible to encrypt QR codes which gives them greater protection
than traditional barcodes.

● disadvantages of qr codes include:

● more than one QR format is available
● attagging: QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes
● there are a large number of free apps available to a user for generating
QR codes, that means anyone can do this
● relatively easy to write malicious code and embed this within the QR
code
● when the code is scanned, it is possible the creator of the malicious code
could gain access to everything on the user’s phone
● the user could also be sent to a fake website or it is even possible for a
virus to be downloaded.

frame QR codes: a type of QR code that includes a space for advertising

● DAC: (digital to analogue converter) – device that converts digital data into electric
currents that can drive motors, actuators and relays, for example
● ADC (analogue to digital converter) – a device that converts analogue data (for
example, data read from sensors) into a form understood by a computer
process

1
point a phone camera towards the qr code

2
the app will process the image taken by the camera by converting it into a
readable format.

3
white squares reflect more light while black squares reflect less light

4 the browser software on the mobile phone or tablet automatically reads the
data generated by the app; it will also decode any web addresses contained
within the QR code

5 the user will then be sent to a website automatically (or if a telephone

number was embedded in the code, the user will be sent to the phone
app)

if the QR code contained a boarding pass, this will be automatically sent to

the phone/tablet.

digital cameras

● connect to a computer system via USB or bluetooth

● cameras are controlled by an embedded system and perform tasks like:
● adjusting shutter speed
● focusing on the image
● operating the flash gun
● adjusting the aperture size
● adjusting the image size
● removing red-eye
● when an image is taken, light passes through the lens onto a light-sensitive cell made
up of millions of tiny sensors acting as photodiodes
● the sensors are called pixels, which make up the image
● the image is converted into tiny electric charges using charged coupled device (CCD)
● a light sensitive cell made up of millions of tiny sensors acting as photodiodes
● passed through an ADC to form a digital image array
● the ADC converts the electric charges from each pixel into levels of brightness
the sensors also measure colour, which produces another binary pattern. most
cameras use a 24-bit rgb system
● the file size is determined by the number of pixels, and image quality depends on the
device used, the resolution, the levels of light, and the storage type of the image
keyboard

● most common method/input device used for data entry

● it can be physical: connected to a device through a USB connection or bluetooth

● tablets and mobile phones the keyboard is often:

● virtual: an onscreen keyboard which uses the features of the touch screen to
emulate a physical keyboard
● touch screen technology: a screen that allows the user to select or manipulate
a screen image using the touch of a finger or stylus; touch screens most
frequently use capacitive, infra- red or resistive technology

● relatively slow method of data entry and are also prone to errors
● frequent use of these devices can lead to injuries, such as repetitive strain injury (RSI)
in the hands and wrists.
● RSI: pain felt in the muscles, nerves and tendons caused by a repetitive action
(for example, excessive clicking of a mouse button over a period of time)
● ergonomic keyboards can help to overcome this problem
● these have the keys arranged differently
● designed to give more support to the wrists and hands when doing a lot of
typing.
process:

1 there is a circuit board at the base of the keys, composed of conductive layers
with an insulating layer present between them.

2 a character key is pressed. now, as there is a gap between the conductive

layers right below the character; the conductive layers touch each other when
the character is pressed. this completes a circuit.

3 when the circuit is completed, the CPU/microprocessor determines which

character’s key was pressed

4 CPU refers to an index file to identify which character key was pressed by the
user

5 each character on the keyboard has a corresponding ascii value, which also has
a binary value

6 this binary value can be processed by the CPU to, for example, show up on the
screen

microphones

● are either build-in or connected through a USB or bluetooth connection a

microphone
● converts sound waves into an electric current current is converted into a digital
format to be processed by the computer
process:

1 the air vibrates when sound is created

2 the diaphragm in the microphone picks up the air vibrations and starts to
vibrate itself

3 a copper coil is wrapped around the cone and is connected to the diaphragm

4 when the diaphragm vibrates, the cone moves in and out, causing the coil to
move forwards and backwards

5 the coil's movement causes the it to cut the magnetic field around the
permanent magnet, changing magnetic flux

6 this induces an electric current

7 this current is analogue in nature

8 the electric current is then either amplified or sent to a recording device

9 electric current is converted to digital from using an ADC

optical mouse

● captures 1500 images per second using tiny cameras

 ● works on any surface with the help of a red led and a CMOS sensor
● CMOS: a chip that generates an electric current (or pulses) when light falls on its
surface
● optical mouse: a pointing device that uses a red LED to track the movement of the
device and then relays its coordinates to a computer
● pointing device: an input device that allows the user to control the movement of an
onscreen cursor or to allow onscreen selection by clicking a button on the device

processor (DSP: digital signal processor)

● the DSP calculates the coordinates of the mouse based on the changes in image
patterns and sends them to the computer
● an optical mouse has no moving parts and is more reliable, with no dirt traps or
special surface requirements
● a wired mouse doesn’t have the problem of continuous signal loss as it has a direct
USB connection, is cheaper to operate, and has fewer environmental issues (as
compared to a wireless mouse)

benefits of an optical mouse over a mechanical mouse

● no moving parts, therefore it is more reliable.

● dirt can’t get trapped in any of the mechanical components.
● no need to have any special surfaces.
● use bluetooth connectivity rather than using a USB wired connection: makes the
mouse more versatile

a wired mouse has the following advantages:

● no signal loss since there is a constant signal pathway (wire)

● cheaper to operate (no need to buy new batteries or charge batteries)
● fewer environmental issues (no need to dispose of old batteries).

2D scanners

input devices that are used to convert paper documents to digital form how does a 2d
scanner work?
1 the cover of the scanner is opened, a document is placed on the glass panel,
and the cover is closed

2 a xenon lamp or led emits a bright light on the document

3 the document is moved from side to side, and then advanced slightly, until the
whole document is scanned

4 the document is scanned using a scan head

5 the reflected image is sent to a lens using a series of mirrors; the lens focuses
the image of the document

6 the focused image now falls on a CCD (charge coupled device). this converts
light into electric current.
(a CCD is made up of thousands of light-sensitive pixels. each pixel creates an
electric charge when light falls on it)

7 the scanned image has now turned into an electronic form

● computers equipped with optical character recognition (OCR) software allow the
scanned text from the document to be converted into a text file format.
● means the scanned image can now be edited and manipulated by importing it into a
word processor.

applications of 2D scanners:

● CPU used to read passports at airports

● CPU make use of ocr (optical character recognition) technology to produce digital
images that represent the passport pages
● CPU the person's image on the passport is scanned and stored in jpeg format and
another picture is taken of the person
● CPU both pictures are compared using a face recognition software, which will tell if
the pictures belong to the same person or not
3d scanners

● scans solid, 3D objects in x, y, z directions

● produces a digital image which represents the solid object that was scanned
● scanned images are then either used in a cad (computer aided design) and/or sent to
a 3d printer, which will produce a working model of the scanned image
● CAD: software used to create drawings (for example, to send to a 3D printer or
to produce blue-prints of a microprocessor design)

application of 3d scanning:

● CPU computed tomographic (CT) scanners

● technology that can create a 3D image of a solid object by slicing up the object
into thin layers (tomography)
● all these slices come together to form an image. x-rays are used.
● CPU have other names, such as mri (magnetic resonance imaging), which uses radio
frequencies
● to build the slices, and spect (single photon emission computed tomography), which
uses gamma rays

touch screens

● allow simple touch selection from a menu to launch an application (app)

● allow the user to carry out the same functions as they would with a pointing
device, such as a mouse.

capacitive touch screen: a type of touch screen that uses the change in the screen’s
capacitance (the ability to store an electrical charge) when it is touched by a finger or stylus

infra-red touch screen: a type of touch screen that uses infra-red beams and sensors to
detect where the screen has been touched

resistive touch screen: a type of touch screen that uses two conductive layers which make
contact where the screen has been touched
capacitive infra-red resistive

composed of a layer of glass an invisible grid of infra-red uses multiple layers of

(protective layer), a beams is made; infra-red beams material
transparent electrode are sent out from two edges of
(conductive layer) and a the screen
glass substrate

current is sent/flows out when the screen is touched, the these transmit electric
from all 4 corners of the infra-red beams are broken currents
screen

when the finger/stylus the microprocessor is able to when the top layer/screen
touches the screen, the detect the coordinates of the is pushed into the
current changes touch lower/bottom layer, a
the coordinates of the circuit is completed

touch are calculated by the the voltage produced

microprocessor enables the microprocessor
to pinpoint the coordinates
of the point of contact

the coordinates of the touch

are calculated by the
microprocessor

● surface capacitive screens: sensors are placed at the corners of a screen

● small voltages are also applied at the corners of the screen creating an electric
field
● finger touching the screen surface will draw current from each corner reducing
the capacitance.
● microcontroller measures the decrease in capacitance and hence determines
the point where the finger touched the screen.
● system only works with a bare finger or stylus.
● projective capacitive screens
● transparent conductive layer is now in the form of an X-Y matrix pattern.
● creates a three dimensional (3D) electrostatic field
 ● finger touches the screen, it disturbs the 3D electrostatic field allowing a
microcontroller to determine the coordinates of the point of contact
● system works with bare fingers, stylus and thin surgical or cotton gloves. It also
allows multi-touch facility (for example, pinching or sliding).

screen type advantages disadvantages

better image quality

capacitive surface capacitive screens work only
don’t need to be calibrated fast with bare fingers or a stylus
response times
sensitive to electromagnetic radiation
register touch even when the screen will break upon impact
screen is broken

very durable screens that have a

high resistance to scratches allows
multi-touch

good visibility in sunlight

allows multi-touch
infra-red screen can be sensitive to water or
good visibility in sunlight moisture

accidental activation if the infrared

has good durability
beam is disturbed in any way
don’t need to be calibrated sensitive to light
fast response times
screen will break upon impact
the operability isn't affected if the expensive to manufacture
screen is scratched or cracked

resistive good resistance to dust and water low touch sensitivity; need to press
can be used with bare fingers, harder for it to register touch

gloved, and a stylus poor visibility in strong sunlight

easier to manufacture vulnerable to scratches and
cheaper to manufacture/buy more
weatherproof cracks
screen is less likely to shatter low quality

does not support multitouch

output devices
actuators

● an output device that converts electrical energy into mechanical movement

● actions can include ‘start’, ‘stop’, ‘close’, ‘open’, ‘pull’, ‘push’, and more, depending on
the machine they are present in and work they are required to do

light projectors:

● projector are used to project computer outputs onto larger sized screens or
whiteboards
● there are two common types of light projectors: DLP and LCD

digital light processing (DLP) projector:

● DLP projectors use a DMD chip

● DMD: a chip that uses millions of tiny mirrors on its surface to create a video
display
● the number of micro mirrors and the way they are arranged on the DMD chip
determines the resolution of the projected image
● when the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source, they turn on, and this creates a
light pixel on the screen
● when micro mirrors tilt away from light source, they turn off, and this creates a dark
pixel on the screen
● micro mirrors can switch on and off multiple times a second in order to create varying
shades of grey
● light shades of grey are obtained if on > off dark shades of grey are obtained if off > on
this is known as a greyscale image

process:

a bright white light passes through a condensing lens and then through the
1 colour filters

white light is split into the primary colours - red, blue and green - through
2 which the projector creates a lot of colours

3 it then passes through a shaping lens and falls on the dmd chip

a dmd chip is a micro-opto-electro-mechanical system (moems) that consists

4 of several thousand microscopic mirrors on the chip’s surface. each mirror
corresponds to a pixel in the projected image.

the light then passes through the lens and the image is projected on the
5 screen
the advantages of DLP are:

● CPU higher contrast ratios

● CPU higher reliability
● CPU quieter running than LCD projectors
● CPU uses a single dmd chip, so there is no issue when images are being lined up
● CPU smaller and lighter than LCD projectors
● CPU better suited to a dusty and smoky atmosphere, as compared to LCD projectors

the disadvantages of DLP are:

● CPU image has a "shadow" effect when showing a moving image

● CPU doesn't have grey components in image
● CPU colour definition is not as good as LCD projectors

liquid crystal display (LCD) projector:

LCD projectors use a high intensity light beam to produce an image on a screen this is how
it works:

1 a strong beam of white light is generated from an led or bulb that is present
inside the projector

2 the beam of light travels to a group of chromatic-coated mirrors, which are

also known as dichromic mirrors

3 the light is reflected back at different wavelengths, corresponding to red,

green and blue light components

4 these three light components will pass through three LCD screens and
subsequently produce three monochromatic images

5 these images will be combined together using a prism; this produces a fully
coloured image

6 the image passes through the projector lens and falls on the screen

the advantages of LCD projectors are:

● CPU sharper image, as compared to DLP projectors

● CPU better colour saturation and quality
● CPU more energy efficient, as they generate less heat
the disadvantages of LCD projectors are:

● CPU contrast ratios are not as good as DLP projectors

● CPU longevity is lower than DLP projectors
● CPU LCD panels are organic, and hence turn yellow over the passage of time

inkjet printer

● usually have a print head (consists of nozzles that sprays ink droplets), ink cartridges, a
stepper motor and belt, and a paper feed
● ink droplets are produced using two different technologies; thermal bubble and
piezoelectric
 1 document that needs to be printed is sent to the printer driver

2 printer driver makes sure that the data is in a format that is understandable for
the printer device

3 a check is made by the driver to see the printer's status (out of ink/paper, busy,
etc.)

4 data from the document is sent to the printer, where it is stored in the printer
buffer, a temporary memory location

5 a sheet of paper is added; sensors detects the paper’s presence

6 as the sheet of paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves side to
side across the paper printing text or image

7 at the end of each full pass of the print head, the paper is advanced very
slightly in order to allow the next line to be printed

8 if there are more pages, the process will repeat (from paper being added) and
will continue until the printer buffer is empty

9 once the printer buffer is empty, printer sends an interrupt to the computer's
CPU; this is the request for more data to be sent to printer and will continue
until the whole document is printed

thermal bubble: inkjet printer technology whereby tiny resistors create heat and form an ink
bubble which is ejected onto paper in an inkjet printer

piezoelectric crystal: a crystal located in an ink reservoir within an inkjet printer; the crystal
vibrates and forces ink out onto paper

inkjet printers are often used for printing one-off photos

only a few pages of good quality, colour printing is needed

the small ink cartridges or small paper trays would not be an issue with such applications

laser printer

● uses dry powder

● uses static electricity to print text and images
● prints the whole document in one go
● usually prints monochrome documents but also supports coloured printing here is
how:
1 document that needs to be printed is sent to the printer driver

2 printer driver makes sure that the data is in a format that is understandable
for the printer device

3 a check is made by driver to see printer's status (out of ink/paper, busy, etc)

4 data from the document is sent to the printer where it is stored in the printer
buffer

5 the printing drum is positively charged, and when it rotates, a laser beam
scans it, removing the positive charge and leaving negatively charged areas
that match the document or image that needs to be printed

6 the drum is coated with positively charged powdered ink

7 a paper, which is negatively charged in the areas where there needs to be

text/images, is rolled onto the drum

8 the ink sticks onto the paper, producing an exact copy of the document

9 to prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge of the paper is
removed after one rotation of the drum

10 the paper then goes through fusers, which are a set of heated rollers, and this
causes the ink to melt and stick permanently on the paper

11 a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the drum to ready it for
the next print.

● this device produces high quality prints at high speeds

● often used when many documents are needed to printed (mass printing)
advantages:

● CPU larger toner cartridge and paper trays CPU can print in high volumes
● CPU can print very quickly

disadvantages:

● CPU larger footprint

● CPU need time to warm up
● CPU toner cartridges are expensive to buy

● produce high quality printouts

● very fast when making multiple copies of a document
● any application that needs high volume printing (in colour or monochrome) would
choose the laser printer
● they have large toner cartridges
● large paper trays (often holding more than a ream of paper).

3D printers

● produces 3D objects
● the mechanism is primarily based on inkjet and laser technologies
● powdered metal using a technology known as binder 3D printing.
● a 3D printing method that uses a two- stage pass; the first stage uses dry
powder and second stage uses a binding agent
 1 a design is made by using computer aided design (CAD) software

2 the final design is imported to a special software that turns it into a format
understandable by the 3d printer

3 3d printer is set up with the required materials

4 the command is given

5 the printer builds the object layer by layer (0.1mm thick layer)

6 continues for hours till the object is made

7 the object is removed from the printer and taken away to prepare

● 3D printers use additive manufacturing (ithe object is built up layer by layer)

● the more traditional method of subtractive manufacturing (removal of material to
make the object).

● direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology

● a print head can move left to right as in a normal printer
● the print head can also move up and down to build up the layers of an object.
● binder 3D printing is similar to direct 3D printing
● this method uses two passes for each of the layers
● the first pass sprays dry powder and then on the second pass a binder (a type of
glue) is sprayed to form a solid layer.
● newer technologies are using lasers and UV light to harden liquid polymers
● this further increases the diversity of products which can be made.

uses of 3D printers

● CPU making of prosthetic limbs

 ● CPU making items to allow precision reconstructive surgery CPU used in aerospace to
create lightweight parts
● CPU fashion and art
● CPU making parts of items that are no longer in production

LED screens

● a screen is made up of tiny lights emitting diodes (leds)

● led screens are not a frontlit display
● each led is either red, green or blue and are controlled to create different colours used
for outdoor displays
● the display is made up of pixels that are arranged in a matrix
● each pixel has red, green, and blue colour filters
● the rgb filters are mixed to create different colours
● light is shone at the pixels and an image is formed
● diffusers may be used to distribute light evenly

LCD screens

● made up of tiny liquid crystals

● these crystals make up an array of pixels that are affected by changes in applied
electric fields for LCDs to work, backlighting is needed
● backlighting is done using LED technology
● this was previously done using CCFL
● CCFL: cold cathode fluorescent lamp
● using led gives a very good contrast, sharpness and brightness range
● using led consumes very little power LEDs last indefinitely
● the display is made up of pixels that are arranged in a matrix
● each pixel has red, green and blue colour filters that can be mixed to create different
colours leds are arranged behind the display and light is shone at the it, forming an
image
● the pixels can turn on or off/transparent or opaque when their shapes are changed

organic light emitting diodes (OLED)

● a light-emitting diode that uses the movement of electrons between a cathode and
an anode to produce an on-screen image
● it generates its own light so no backlighting is required
● use organic materials to create flexible semiconductor
● organic films are added between two charged electrodes - one metallic (cathods) and
the other of glass (anode)
● when an electric field is applied to electrodes, they give off light.
● OLEDs make it possible to make very thin screens that can bend as well
advantages of oled over LCD and LED:

● plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than
the crystal structures used in LEDs or LCDs.
● light-emitting layers of an OLED are lighter(can be made from plastic rather
than the glass as used in LED and LCD screens)
● OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs.
● OLED do not require backlighting like LCD screens : OLEDs generate their own
light.
● they use much less power than LCD screens (most of the LCD power is used to
do the backlighting); this is very important in battery-operated devices such as
mobile phones.
● OLEDs are essentially plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets
(this means they could be used on large advertising boards in airports,
subways, and so on).
● OLEDs have a very large field of view, about 170º, which makes them
ideal for use in television sets and for advertising screens.

loud speakers

1 the sound file on a computer is converted to sound when it data is converted

from digital to analogue using a dac (digital to analogue convertor)

2 it is then passed through an amplifier to increase the current before reaching

the coil

3 there is a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core, positioned close to a strong
magnet; the current flows through that coil and becomes an electromagnet

4 as the electric current through the coil of wire varies, the induced magnetic
field in the iron core also varies. this causes the iron core to be attracted
towards the permanent magnet and vibrate as the current varies.

5 since the iron core is attached to a cone (made of paper or a thin synthetic
material), it starts to vibrate, producing sound waves
sensors
● sensors are input devices that measure physical data (e.g: temperature, light, etc.)
from their surroundings
● data is analogue in nature; this means it is constantly changing and doesn’t have a
single discrete value.
● analogue data needs some form of interpretation by the user
● computers cannot make any sense of these physical quantities so the data needs to
be converted into a digital format
● achieved by an analogue to digital converter (ADC)

sensor function examples of usage

acoustic microphones that convert sound security system (detects noises)

into digital data voice recognition in phones

accelerometer measure the acceleration and gaming

motion of an object
in cars to detect fast deceleration
and apply airbags in case of an
accident

flow measure the rate of flow of a gas measures gas flow in pipes
or liquid measures water flow in
underground pipes

gas detect the levels of various types monitors pollution levels

of gases, e.g: oxygen and carbon monitor methane levels in a kitchen
dioxide

humidity measures the amount of water monitors humidity levels in a

vapour in, for example, a specific greenhouse
volume of air monitors humidity levels in an iron
industry
infra-red detects movement when a beam security alarm system in which
(active) of infra-red radiation being given intruder breaks the infra-red beam
out is broken (the radiation levels
being detected by it decrease)

infra-red measures heat radiation given off security alarm system in which body
(passive) heat is detected

level measure the level of, for example, automatic plant watering system,
liquids in a container where plants are watered util the
water in the tank reaches a certain
level

light detects light (and often, its automated streetlights system

brightness)

magnetic field measures change in magnetic anti-locking system in cars

fields cd players, HDD, mobile phones

moisture measures water levels in, for monitoring moisture level of soil
example, soil present in a greenhouse
baking

ph measures the acidity or basicity of controls acidity or alkalinity levels in

a solution a chemical process
monitor the ph levels of soil

pressure measures pressure measuring gas pressure in a nuclear

reactor gaming

proximity detects the presence of someone automated door system automated

nearby lighting system

temperature measures temperature and monitoring temperature of a

 generates outputs based on greenhouse
temperature changes monitoring temperature of a
chemical reaction

monitoring temperature of a reactor

data storage
memory and storage:

● memory: the internal devices used to store data that the computer can access
directly
● known as primary memory
● memory can be the user’s workspace, temporary data or data that is key
to running the computer.
storage devices

● allow users to store applications, data and files

● user’s data is stored permanently and they can change it or read it as they wish
● storage needs to be larger than internal memory since the user may wish to
store large files
● can be removable to allow data,
● to be transferred between computers
● removable devices allow a user to store important data in a different
location in case of data loss.
memory and storage can be divided into two different groups CPU primary memory
CPU secondary storage

primary memory secondary memory

directly accessible by the CPU not directly addressable by the CPU

examples: RAM, ROM and all are non-volatile devices

cache memory

can be external or internal to the computer:

access time is longer

examples: HDD, SSD, DVD, USB memory stick,

blu-ray disc, etc.

primary memory
part of the computer memory accessible directly from the CPU includes RAM and ROM
memory chips

RAM

● primary memory that can be written to or read from

● CPU used to store data, files, parts of applications which are currently in use
● CPU it is volatile
● describes memory that loses its contents when the power is turned off
● CPU the larger the size, the faster the computer’s performance
● CPU never runs out of memory; it just becomes slow as more data is entered

applications:
CPU programming of routines CPU addition of new routines

there are two types of ram: DRAM and SRAM

DRAM SRAM

● a DRAM (dynamic ram) chip ● SRAM(static ram) makes use of flip

● each of these parts is tiny since a single flops to store each bit of data
RAM chip will contain millions of ● electronic circuit with only two
stable conditions
transistors and capacitors
● doesn't need to be refreshed
 constantly
● capacitors hold bits of information (0 or
1)
● a transistor is a switch; it allows the
● its advantages over DRAM are:
circuitry of the chip to read the ● CPU faster
capacitor and/or change its value ● CPU makes use of memory cache

● needs to be refreshed constantly (every

15 microseconds)
● recharge every few seconds in
order to maintain charge

● its advantages over SRAM are:

● CPU much less expensive to
manufacture CPU
● consume less power
CPU
● have a higher memory capacity

ROM

● memory data cannot be changed or written to

● they are non-volatile
● they are are permanent memories
● the contents cannot be changed or written to
by the user, the computer or any application/program
● contents can only be read
● store BIOS (basic input output system) or start up instructions applications:
● CPU storing factory settings
● CPU storing "start-up" routines CPU storing of set routines

secondary storage
● known as off-line storage as well
● not directly addressable by the CPU
● non volatile
● stores more data than primary memory
 ● but the data access time is longer than that for primary memory
● three types of secondary storage technologies: magnetic, solid state, optical

magnetic storage: hard disc drives (HDDs)

● data is stored in a digital format on magnetic platters in a hard disk drive (HDD)
● HDDs have multiple platters that can spin at high speeds, and the read-write arm
moves across the storage media
● read-write heads made of electromagnets read or write data to the platters by
controlling magnetic fields to determine binary values.

● platters can be made of various materials

● have multiple surfaces with data stored in sectors and tracks are cheaper per unit of
data stored
● HDDs have slower data access times compared to RAM due in latency
fragmentation of data can occur, leading to degraded performance
● the lag in a system (the time it takes to find a track on a hard disk) which
depends on the time it takes for the disk to rotate around to its read- write
head
● the HDD will undergo numerous deletions and editing which leads to sectors
becoming increasingly fragmented resulting in a gradual deterioration of the HDD
performance
● defragmentation software can consolidate fragmented sectors
● removable HDDs can be connected using a USB port, and are useful for backup or
transferring files between computers

removable hard disk drives

● HDDs external to the computer that can be connected to the computer using one of
the USB ports
● they can be used as a back-up device or another way of transferring files between
computers

how does an HDD store data?

● CPU HDDs store data using electromagnets

● CPU platters are divided into tracks and sectors
● CPU has a read/write head which moves across the platters CPU uses magnetic fields
to control magnetic dots of data CPU the magnetic field determines a binary value

solid state storage: solid state drives (SSD)

● solid state drives (SSDs) offer many advantages over HDDs: no issue of latency, no
moving parts, and faster data retrieval
● SSDs use nand or nor gates to store data, which is stored as 0s and 1s in tiny
transistors acting as floating gates and control gates
 ● they are more reliable, lighter, and have lower power consumption, and run cooler
than HDDs however, the main drawback is their limited longevity due to the number
of read/write cycles,
● though this is improving, it is also not possible to overwrite existing data on a flash
memory device

how do SSDs store data?

● there are n0 moving parts

● CPU data is flashed onto silicon chips
● CPU use transistors as floating and control gates
● CPU use nand/nor gates
● CPU store data by controlling the flow of electrons
● CPU the electric current reaches the control gate and flows through the floating gate
to be stored CPU when data is stored, the transistor is converted from 1 to 0

solid state storage: memory sticks/flash memories:

● use solid state technology

● connect to computer through USB ports
● small and lightweight; suitable for transferring files between computers
● can be used as small back-up devices for music or photo files, for example
● dielectric coating separates the two transistors, which allows the floating gate
transistor to retain its charge (which is why the memory is non-volatile)
● The floating gate transistor has a value of 1 when it is charged and a value of 0
when it isn’t.
● voltage is applied to the control gate and electrons from the electron source
are attracted to it.
● the electrons become trapped in the floating gate.

benefits of this solid state technology over hard disk drives are:

● they are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)

● they are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
● they don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly
● they have a lower power consumption
● they run much cooler than HDDs (both these points again make them very
suitable for laptop computers)
● because of no moving parts, they are very thin
● data access is considerably faster than HDD.

The main drawback of SSD is still the longevity of the technology

● SSD endurance: the total guaranteed number of times data can be written to or read
from a solid state drive (SSD) in its usable life cycle
 ● SSD endurance is usually rated at only 20GB of write operations per day over a three
year period

memory sticks/flash memories

● use solid state technology.

● connect to the computer through the USB port.
● main advantage: very small, lightweight devices, which make them very suitable as a
method for transferring files between computers.
● can be used as small back-up devices for music or photo files
● has a dongle: contains additional files that are needed to run the software
● without it the software won’t work properly.
● prevents illegal or unauthorised use of the software,
● prevents copying of the software since, without the dongle, it is useless.

optical media: CD/DVD discs

● CDs and DVDs are optical storage devices that use laser light to read and write data
from their surfaces
● use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic dye to store the data
● data is stored in pits and lands on the spiral track, and a red laser is used to read and
write data
● DVDs have a larger storage capacity than CDs, due to smaller pit size and track width,
and can be dual-layered
● dual-layered: using two recording layers in storage media
● standard, single-layer DVDs have a larger storage capacity than CDs, and use lasers
with a wavelength of 650 nm compared to that used for cds, which is 780 nm

how is data stored in a CD/DVD?

● CPU both use a laser to write data

● CPU a laser is shone on the disc
● CPU a read/write head moves the laser across the disc CPU the laser burns pits onto
the surface to write data CPU the laser is also used to read pits and lands
● CPU a laser is shone on the disc
CPU the reflected light is captured by sensors

optical storage: blu-ray

● blu-ray discs are optical storage media that use a blue laser for read-write operations,
compared to CDs/DVDs, that use a red laser
● the smaller pits and lands on blu-ray discs, due to the shorter wavelength of blue
light, allow for up to five times more data to be stored than a normal DVD
 ● single-layer blu-ray discs use a 1.2mm thick polycarbonate disc, while dual-layer blu-
ray and normal DVDs use a sandwich of two 0.6mm thick discs
● blu-ray discs come with a secure encryption system to prevent piracy and copyright
infringement the data transfer rate for a blu-ray disc is 36 mbps, compared to 10 mbps
for a DVD, allowing for faster transfer of data
● blu-ray discs can come in single or dual- layer format, while DVDs are always dual-
layer
● the data transfer rate for a DVD is 10Mbps and for a Blu-ray disc it is 36Mbp

the capacity of the two technologies differs:

● dual-layered DVD has a storage capacity of 4.7GB (enough to store a 2-hour standard
definition movie)
● single-layer Blu-ray disc has a storage capacity of 27GB (enough to store a 2-hour high
definition movie or 13 hours of standard definition movies)
● dual-layer Blu-ray disc has a storage capacity of 50GB (enough to store 4.5hours of
high definition movies or 20 hours of standard definition movies).

the interactivity of the two technologies differs:

● record high definition television programs

● skip quickly to any part of the disc
● create playlists of recorded movies and television programmes
● edit or re-order programmes recorded on the disc
● automatically search for empty space on the disc to avoid over-recording
● access websites and download subtitles and other interesting features.

virtual memory

● virtual memory compensates for the limited physical memory (RAM) in a computer
● it creates an illusion of more memory by using space on the hard drive as additional
ram
● programs can run even if there isn't enough physical memory to hold all required
data
● pages’ of data that are not currently required are moved to secondary storage, freeing
up space for new pages on ram
● continue to occur until RAM is no longer being over-utilised by
the competing programs running in memory
 ● swapping data between RAM and secondary storage is known as paging
virtual memory can slow down a computer's performance but prevents crashes that
may be caused by memory shortage
● the operating system manages virtual memory, deciding which pages to swap in and
out of RAM virtual memory is essential for running multiple programs or large
programs that require more memory than available ram

allows data blocks (pages) to be moved in and out of a HDD/SSD

accessing data in virtual memory is slower so, the larger the RAM the faster the CPU
can operate.

benefits of virtual memory are:

● programs can be larger than physical memory and still be executed

● there is no need to waste memory with data that isn’t being used (e.g. during
error handling)
● it reduces the need to buy and install more expensive RAM memory (there are
limits to the value of doing this).

using HDD for virtual memory: main drawback is disk thrashing.

● disk thrashing: a problem in a hard disk drive (HDD) caused by excessive swapping in
and out of data causing a high rate of head movements during virtual memory
operations
● more time is spent on moving data in and out of memory than actually doing any
processing, then the processing speed of the computer will be considerably reduced.
● thrash point: the point at which the execution of a program comes to a halt because
the system is so busy moving data in and out of memory rather than actually
executing the program

thrashing can be reduced by:

● installing more RAM

● reducing the number of programs running at a time
● reducing the size of the swap file
cloud storage

● a method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers.

● the same data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or
repair, allowing clients to access data at any time.
● known as data redundancy.
● the unnecessary storing of the same data on several storage devices at the
same time
● three common systems:
● public cloud: storage environment where the customer/client and cloud
storage provider are different companies
● private cloud: storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a
company firewall; customer/client and cloud storage provider are
integrated and operate as a single entity
● hybrid cloud: this is a combination of the two above environments; some
data resides in the private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data
can be accessed from a public cloud storage provider.

● instead of saving data on a local hard disk or other storage device, a user
can save their data ‘in the cloud’

potential data loss when using cloud storage

● risk that important and irreplaceable data could be lost from the cloud storage
facilities
● actions from hackers could lead to loss or corruption of data
● users need to be certain that sufficient safeguards exist to overcome these risk
network hardware
● network interface card (NIC): needed to allow a device to connect to a network (such
as the internet)
● a hardware component (circuit board or chip) that is required to allow a device
to connect to a network, such as the internet
● part of the device hardware and contains the Media Access Control (MAC) address
generated at the manufacturing stage
● a unique identifier which acts as a network address for a device; it takes the
form NN-NN-NN-DD- DD-DD, where NN is the manufacturer code and DD is
the device code

Media Access Control (MAC)

A MAC address is made up of 48 bits which are shown as six groups of hexadecimal
digits with the general format:

types of MAC address

Universally Administered MAC Address (UAA)

● the most common type of MAC address

● one set by the manufacturer at the factory
● rare for a user to want to change this MAC address.
Locally Administered MAC Address (LAA).

reasons why the MAC address needs to be changed using LAA:

● certain software used on mainframe systems need all the MAC addresses of devices to
fall into a strict format
● necessary to change the MAC address of some devices to ensure they follow
the correct format
● it may be necessary to bypass a MAC address filter on a router or a firewall
● only MAC addresses with a certain format are allowed through, otherwise the
devices will be blocked if their MAC address doesn’t adhere to the correct
format
● to get past certain types of network restrictions it may be necessary to
emulate unrestricted MAC addresses
 ● require the MAC address to be changed on certain devices connected to the
network.

Internet protocol (IP) address

● when a device connects to a private network, a router assigns a private IP address to

it.
● unique on that network, but might be the same as an IP address on a separate
network.
● when a router connects to the internet it is given a unique public IP address.
● usually supplied by the internet service provider (ISP).
● mo other device on the internet has the same public IP address.
● all the devices connected to that router have the same public IP address as the router
but each have their own different private IP addresses on that network.
● protocols define the rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers of data
communicating through the internet.

two versions of IP:

IPv4 and IPv6

static and dynamic IP addresses

IP addresses can be either:

 ● static: an IP address that doesn’t change
● dynamic a temporary IP address assigned to a device each time it logs onto a network

static

● permanently assigned to a device by the internet service provider (ISP)

● don’t change each time a device logs onto the internet.
● usually assigned to:
● remote servers which are hosting a website
an online database
a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server. FTP servers are used when files need to be
transferred to various computers throughout the network.

dynamic

● assigned by the ISP each time a device logs onto the internet.
● done using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):
● a server that automatically provides and assigns an IP address

routers

● enable data packets to be routed between different networks

● takes data transmitted in one format from a network (which is using a
particular protocol)
● converts the data to a protocol and format understood by another network
● allowing them to communicate.
● typically has an internet cable plugged into it and several cables connecting to
computers and other devices on the LAN.

● broadband routers sit behind a firewall

● firewall protects the computers on a network.
● router’s main function is to transmit internet and transmission protocols
between two networks and also allow private networks to be connected
together.
● they inspect the data package sent to it from any computer on any of the
networks connected to it.
● since every computer on the same network has the same part of an IP address
● the router is able to send the data packet to the appropriate switch
● the data will then be delivered to the correct device using the MAC
destination address.
● if MAC address doesn’t match any device connected to the switch, it passes on
to another switch on the same network until the appropriate device is found.
● can be wired or wireless devices.