UNIT 2 cluster. To establish communication between nodes and their cluster head, LEACH employs 2.

cluster. To establish communication between nodes and their cluster head, LEACH employs 2. List and explain components of Sensor MAC.
TDMA. Messages from the cluster head's cluster nodes are forwarded to the base station.
1. Explain in brief common MAC protocols used in WSN. 1 Protocol overview
Random access-based protocols
The most important consideration for designing scalable and reliable MAC layer protocols for The protocol design anticipates a sizable number of sensor nodes with constrained
WSNs is the requirement to conserve energy. Overhead that is too high, listening that isn't Standard random-access Contention-based protocols, also referred to as MAC-layer computing, communication, and storage resources. Ad hoc, self-organized, and self-managed
being used, packet collisions, and overhearing are some of the factors that lead to energy protocols, don't need cooperation from the nodes accessing the channel. Nodes that have wireless networking is how the nodes are set up. Sensor data is processed and transmitted in
waste. The competition between the nodes necessitates the sharing of control and collided back off for an arbitrary period of time before trying to access the channel once more. a store-and-forward fashion. It is expected that the applications supported by the network
synchronization information in order to control access to the media. Nevertheless, WSN environments are not well suited for these protocols.The addition of alternate between extended periods of inactivity, during which nothing happens, and brief
collision avoidance, request-to-send (RTS), and clear-to-send (CTS) techniques to these active times, during which data flow towards the base station through peer sensor node
Schedule-based protocols
protocols boosts their functionality and increases their resistance to the hidden terminal messaging occurs. Additionally, it is anticipated that the applications will tolerate higher
The existence of a timetable that controls access to resources to prevent contention between issue. Yet, due to collisions, idle listening, overhearing, and significant control overhead, latency for a longer network lifespan. The protection of vital infrastructure as well as
nodes is presummated by schedule-based MAC protocols for WSNs. Resources like time, a contention-based MAC-layer protocols continue to have low energy efficiency. The design of surveillance and monitoring of natural ecosystems are typical uses that come under this
frequency range, or a CDMA code are typical. Schedule-based MAC protocols' primary goal is random-access MAC-layer protocols made an effort to address this flaw by focusing on category. In these applications, the sensors must be on guard for protracted periods of time,
to maximize energy efficiency in order to increase the lifespan of the network. Scalability, minimizing energy waste in order to increase the network lifetime. after which they go dormant until an event happens. These events often happen orders of
adaptability to shifts in traffic load, and network topology are further desirable qualities. The magnitude less frequently than it takes for a message to be transmitted across the network
By using a separate signaling channel, the power aware multiaccess protocol with signaling
majority of scheduled-based protocols for WSNs employ a kind of TDMA that divides the towards the base station.
(PAMAS) prevents overhearing between nearby nodes. In order to enable nodes to turn off
channel into time slots.
their radio transceivers when they are not actively sending or receiving packets, the protocol 2. Periodic listen and sleep operations
combines the usage of a busy tone with RTS and CTS packets. Nevertheless, the protocol does
By reducing idle listening, the S-MAC architecture aims to cut energy consumption.
not offer any techniques to cut down on energy loss brought on by inactive listening.
Establishing low-duty-cycle activities for sensor nodes allows for this. Nodes periodically enter
Latency is exchanged for energy efficiency in the sparse topology and energy management a sleep state during which their radios are fully disabled. When there is activity on the
(STEM) protocol. Two radio channels: a data radio channel and a wake-up radio channelare network, nodes become active. the fundamental periodic listen and sleep schedule.Each
used to accomplish this. In a STEM form, the wake-up signal is not encoded data but a busy node in this system sets a wake-up timer and sleeps for the allotted amount of time. As the
1. Self organizing medium access control for sensornets (SMACS): A medium access control tone. A pseudoasynchronous planned scheme is called as STEM. According to this technique, timer runs out, the node awakens and starts listening to see whether it needs to connect with
protocol called SMACS enables the creation of haphazard network topologies without the a node disables its data radio channel until it needs to communicate with another node. A other nodes. A frame is the collective term for the full cycle of listening and sleeping. The
need for network node global synchronization. Nonsynchronous scheduled communication, node starts sending on the wake-up radio channel when it has data to send. Similar to a listening interval to frame length ratio, or duty cycle, is what distinguishes each frame. The
a major characteristic of SMACS, enables links to be generated and planned concurrently paging signal, the wake-up signal channel is used. This signal is transmitted for a sufficient listening interval duration can be separately chosen by sensor nodes, however for the sake of
throughout the network without the requirement for expensive global connectivity amount of time to page all nearby nodes.A node may stay awake long enough to receive a simplicity, the protocol takes the value to be the same for all nodes.
information exchange or time synchronization. "session" of packets after being roused from sleep. Moreover, a node may be awakened in
order to receive all of its pending packets before entering the sleep mode once more. Because
2. Bluetooth: A centralized TDMA-based protocol serves as the main media access control
it is a broad protocol, STEM can be utilized with other MAC-layer scheduling techniques.
mechanism for the developing technology known as Bluetooth. With one common short-
However, the approach only works in network situations when events happen seldom. If Fig. S-MAC period listen and sleep modes of operations
range radio link, Bluetooth is intended to replace cables and infrared links used to connect
events happen often, the energy lost from sending wake-up signals continuously may equal
various electronic devices, including cell phones, headsets, PDAs, digital cameras, laptop 3 Schedule selection and coordination
or even be greater than the energy obtained from sleeping modes.
computers, and their accessories. The ISM frequency range at 2.45 GHz is where Bluetooth In order for everyone to listen and sleep at the same time, the nearby nodes coordinate their
operates. Its physical layer is based on a technique for allocating hopping sequences and a Using RTS and CTS packets, a variety of contention-based protocols modelled after IEEE
listening and sleeping schedules. Each node chooses a schedule and shares it with its
pseudorandom frequency-hopping scheme with a hopping frequency of 1.6 kHz. With 1-MHz 802.11 avoid overhearing. These protocols frequently employ the technique of forcing a
neighbors during the synchronization time in order to coordinate their listening and resting.
spacing, a set of 79 hop carriers are defined. Each hop sequence establishes a Bluetooth contending node into sleep mode by overhearing the RTS and CTS packet exchange between
Every node has a schedule table with all of its known neighbors' schedules.
channel with a 1 Mbps data rate. A piconet is a collection of devices that communicate via a two other contending nodes. To prevent idle listening, these protocols also rely on
single channel. coordinated schedules between nearby nodes. Particularly when the size of the data packets Fig. Border node
is of the same order of magnitude as the size of the RTS and CTS packets, these protocols schedule selection and
3. Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH): Nodes are clustered using a
differ in how they maintain low duty cycles and achieve energy economy. synchronization
hierarchical approach using LEACH. Nodes take turns acting as cluster heads inside each

4 Schedule synchronization 6. Message passing 3. Explain Routing Strategies in Wireless Sensor Networks.
To stop long-term clock drift, neighboring nodes must periodically synchronize their S-MAC introduces the idea of message forwarding, where a message is a meaningful unit of 1. Flooding and Its Variants
schedules. Sending a SYNC packet is used to update the schedule. Figure 4 illustrates how the data that a node can process, to enhance applicationlevel performance. The messages are
In both wired and wireless ad hoc networks, flooding is a typical approach widely employed
listen interval is split into two subintervals to allow a node to receive both SYNC packets and broken up into little pieces. Then, a single burst of these fragments is delivered. A single
for path discovery and information dissemination. The routing approach is straightforward
data packets. Three cases are represented in this figure. The sender sends simply a SYNC RTS/CTS exchange is used to transport the message fragments between the transmitting and
and doesn't rely on pricey network topology upkeep or difficult route discovery algorithms.
packet in the first scenario, a data packet in the second scenario, and a SYNC packet along receiving nodes.The medium is set aside following this exchange for the duration required to
Each node that receives a data or control packet delivers the packet to all of its neighbors as
with the data packet in the third scenario. successfully transfer the entire message. Each fragment also includes the time required to
part of the reactive strategy known as flooding.An information package follows every route
transmit all of the next pieces and their related acknowledgments in its duration field. Figure
after transmission. The packet will ultimately get there unless the network is shut down.
6 illustrates this process.
Moreover, the transmitted packet takes the new routes when the network architecture
changes. The idea of flooding in a data communications network is depicted. As seen in the
image, flooding in its most basic form can lead to network nodes endlessly replicating packets.

Fig. Flooding in data

communications networks

Fig. Timing relationship between a receiver and a variety of senders

Fig. S-MAC message passing
5. Access control and data exchange 7.Adaptive listening
S-MAC uses a CSMA/CA-based technique, incorporating physical and virtual carrier sensing As a message is stored and transferred across nearby network nodes, it may experience
and the use of RTS/CTS handshake to lessen the impact of the hidden and exposed terminal increased latency, according to a closer examination of the periodic listen and sleep scheme. 2. Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation
difficulties, to govern access to the communication channel among competing sensor nodes. Data packets could be delayed at each hop if a sensor must precisely adhere to its sleep A family of data-centric negotiation-based information dissemination protocols for WSNs is
The network allocation vector (NAV), a variable whose value contains the amount of time left pattern. The protocol makes use of an assertive method known as adaptive listening to called Sensor Protocols for Information through Negotiation (SPIN). These protocols' principal
in the current packet transmission, is used to implement virtual carrier sensing. The NAV value remedy this flaw and enhance latency performance. According to this method, a node that goal is to effectively distribute observations made by individual sensor nodes to all of the
is initially set to the value contained in the transmitted packet's duration field.As time goes hears, during its listen period, a neighboring node and another node exchanging a CTS or RTS network's sensor nodes. In WSNs, straightforward protocols like flooding and gossiping are
on, the value decreases until it eventually equals zero. A node cannot start a transmission on packet assumes that it might be the next hop along the routing path of the overheard RTS/CTS frequently proposed to achieve information dissemination. Flooding calls for sending copies
its own until the NAV value is zero. When doing physical carrier sensing, the channel is packet, disregards its own wake-up schedule, and schedules an additional listening period of the data packet to each node's neighbors until it reaches every node in the network. In
listened to for signs of active transmission. To prevent collisions and hunger, carrier sensing around the time the transmission of the packet terminates.The duration field of the contrast, gossip just needs that a node receiving a data packet transmit it to a randomly
is randomly distributed within a contention window. If the channel is clear according to both overheard CTS or RTS packet is used by the overhearing node to calculate the amount of time chosen neighbor, using randomization to decrease the number of duplicate messages.
virtual and physical carrier sensing, a node is permitted to transmit.
required to finish transmitting the packet. The node sends an RTS packet to start an RTS/CTS
handshake with the overhearing node as soon as it receives the data packet. If the latter node
is awake, it is ideal since then the packet forwarding process between the two nodes can start
right away. The overhearing node returns to sleep until the next scheduled listen interval if it
doesn't receive an RTS packet during adaptive listening.

Fig. S-MAC collision avoidance scheme

Fig. SPIN basic protocol operations

3. Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy Fig. Chain-based data gathering 4. Explain Transport Control Protocol. Explain its design issue.
A routing technique called Low-energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) is created to and aggregation scheme OR
gather and send data to a base station or other data sink. The primary goals of LEACH are:
4. What are the issues need to consider to design transport protocols for WSNs.
• Prolongation of the network's life
• Each sensor node in the network using less energy
• Using data aggregation to minimize communication messages Physical, data link, network (or internetworking), transport, and other higher levels like
session, presentation, and application make up the architecture of computer and
Directed Diffusion communication networks. For its immediate upper layer, a service consumer, each lower layer
Fig. LEACH network model serves as a service provider. Via service access points, neighboring layers communicate with
A data-centric routing protocol for information collection and sharing in WSNs is called one another (SAPs). For instance, the network layer, which sits directly above the link layer,
directed diffusion. The protocol's primary goal is to generate significant energy savings in receives link services from the data link layer. The transport layer, which is the layer above it,
order to increase the network's lifespan. This goal is accomplished through directed diffusion, receives addressing and routing services from the network layer, while the layers above it
which maintains message-exchange interactions between nodes contained inside a certain receive message transportation services from the transport layer. In this architecture,
network area. Direct diffusion can nevertheless achieve resilient multipath delivery and adapt practically all nodes only include the lower three layers.Yet, the transport and the layers above
to a small portion of network pathways by using localized contact. Significant energy savings it only exist at end points or hosts and carry out endto- end protocol operations.
are achieved by the protocol's special feature and the nodes' capacity to aggregate responses
to queries. End-to-end segment transportation is offered by the transport layer, in which messages are
LEACH's fundamental processes are divided into two separate phases. presents an illustration split up into a series of segments at the source and then put back together again at the
of these stages. Cluster creation and cluster-head selection are the two steps that make up destination nodes. The procedures utilized to deliver the segments to the target nodes and/or
the setup phase's initial phase. Data gathering, aggregation, and delivery to the base station the underlying delivery protocol structures are not concerns of the transport layer. Examples
are the main objectives of the second phase, often known as the steadystate phase. To reduce of transport protocols include the user datagram protocol (UDP), the sequenced packet
the protocol overhead, it is believed that the setup will last considerably less time than the exchange protocol (SPX), the transport control protocol (TCP), and NWLink (Microsoft's
steady-state phase. Fig. Interest propagation implementation of IPX/SPX). The Internet frequently uses TCP and UDP.TCP can be classified
as either connection-oriented and connectionless.

Fig. LEACH phases Design issues:

WSNs should be developed with consideration for energy conservation, traffic control, data
dissemination reliability, security, and management. These challenges can be studied
independently in each layer or cooperatively across layers and frequently include one or more
Fig. Initial gradient setup Fig. Data delivery along a reinforced path tiers of the hierarchical protocol. Congestion control, for instance, might just affect the
Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information Systems transport layer, whereas energy conservation might affect the physical, data connection,
A family of routing and information-gathering protocols for WSNs includes hierarchical network, and even all other upper layers. Congestion control and loss recovery are the two
PEGASIS and the power-efficient collecting in sensor information systems (PEGASIS) primary objectives of the design of transport control protocols. Finding the beginning of
extension. PEGASIS has two dual-purpose goals. Secondly, by establishing a high level of congestion and pinpointing its location and timing is necessary for congestion control.For
energy efficiency and uniform energy usage across all network nodes, the protocol attempts instance, monitoring node buffer occupancy or link load can be used to find congestion (such
to increase the lifespan of a network. Second, the protocol aims to shorten the time that data as wireless channel). Selective packet dropping at a congestion point, as in active queue
takes to reach the sink. management (AQM) schemes, rate adjustment at the source node, as in the technique of
additive increase multiplicative decrease (AIMD) in TCP, and the use of routing techniques are
some of the methods used to control congestion in the traditional Internet. Because sensors
have limited resources, it is important to carefully evaluate how to identify congestion and
how to avoid it in WSNs.These protocols must take into account energy conservation, 5. Explain WSN Middleware Architecture. vi. WSN middleware should provide data management functions since it is dealing with a data
simplicity, scalability, and strategies for extending the lifespan of sensor batteries.One may, centric technology. These data management functions can include the following:
for instance, use an end-to-end mechanism, like the one found in TCP, or hop-by-hop
• Data dissemination:
backpressure, like the kind used in frame relay networks or the asynchronous transfer mode
(ATM).End-toend strategies are highly straightforward and reliable;however, they could i. In WSN the data sensed by the sensor nodes need to be transmitted to a special node or a
increase network traffic. Yet, hop-by-hop methods typically identify congestion rapidly and sink for more analysis, control, and management.
add less extra network traffic as a result. While developing congestion control algorithms for ii. Data dissemination protocols which are related to routing protocols are required to provide
WSNs, significant consideration should be given to the trade-off between end-to-end and an effective data transmission.
hop-by-hop processes due to energy constraints at the sensors.
iii. The major difference between a data dissemination protocol and a routing protocol is that
1) Regulate traffic flow and ensure data delivery reliability: Since the majority of the data the former is general and designed to find a path between source and destination, and the
come from the sensor nodes to the sink, there may be congestion around the sink.Although latter should guarantee successful transmission from nodes to sink.
the MAC protocol can recover packets that have been lost due to bit errors, it is unable to
handle packets that have been lost due to buffer overflow. A packet loss recovery mechanism, • Data compression:
similar to the ACK and selective ACK used in TCP, is required for WSNs.Furthermore, whereas Many characteristics of WSN make it possible to implement effective data compression
in traditional networks every packet's accurate transmission is ensured, trustworthy delivery techniques.
with WSNs may mean something else.For some sensor applications, WSNs simply need to
reliably receive packets from a portion of the local sensors, not from every sensor node. The i. First, neighboring sensor nodes tend to collect correlated data especially when their
design of WSN transport protocols may benefit greatly from this discovery. Also, as it may deployment is dense in the network.
reduce packet loss and hence increase energy conservation, using a hop-by-hop strategy for ii. Second, this correlation may become more apparent on the path from the sensor nodes to
congestion control and loss recovery may be more successful. The intermediary nodes' need the sink due to the treelike logical topology of most Wireless Sensor Networks.
for buffers can be reduced by the hop-by-hop technique.
iii. Third, the occurrence of an event in WSN may be assimilated as a random process whose
2) In order to hasten connection establishment, increase throughput, and decrease information content can be extracted easily.
transmission latency, transport protocols for wireless sensor networks should be made Fig. General WSN Middleware Architecture
iv. Fourth, the application semantics in WSN may enable data aggregation and data fusion.
simpler or use a connectionless protocol. The majority of WSN applications are reactive,
i. The middleware generally gathers information from both the application and network
which means they observe passively and hold data until an event occurs before delivering it vi. Fifth, the data reading and reporting in WSN can be reduced thanks to the tolerance of
protocols, determines how to support the connected applications, and at the same time
to the sink. Due to an occurrence, these programs might only need to send a few packets. applications for possible errors in data.
adjust network protocol parameters.
3) As packet loss results in energy loss, WSN transport techniques should minimize packet Compression includes the following techniques: Information theoretic-based techniques such
ii. Sometimes the middleware goes under the network protocols layer and interfaces with the
loss. The transport protocol should employ active congestion control (ACC) to prevent packet as Distributed Source Coding Using Syndromes (DISCUS), data aggregation-based
operating system directly. WSN middleware needs to dynamically adjust network protocol
loss at the cost of slightly lower connection usage. Congestion avoidance is started by ACC compression schemes such as tiny aggregation service for TAG, and sampling of a random
parameters and configure the sensor nodes based on application requirements in terms of
before congestion actually happens.As an illustration of ACC, the sender (or intermediary process.
performance improvement, QoS, and energy conservation.
nodes) may lower its sending (or forwarding) rate when the downstream neighbors’ buffer • Data storage:
size rises above a particular threshold. iii. The WSN middleware can abstract the common properties of applications and offer
general purpose services that can be used by a wide range of applications. i. Data storage sensor nodes store data related to the sensed events for future use. When
4) Fairness for a range of sensor nodes should be ensured by the transport control protocols.
considering data storage, several questions need to be answered concerning the type of data
iv. In general, a middleware solution may consist of three components: resource
5) A transport protocol should, if at all possible, be created with crosslayer optimization in that need to be stored, where this data should be stored, and for how long.
management, which is a functional element that monitors the network status and gets
mind. For instance, if a routing algorithm alerts the transport protocol of a route failure, the ii. This will help defining the data storage requirements of WSN. There exist two types of data
application requirements, event detection and management that is used to detect and
protocol can infer that packet loss is not due to congestion but rather to the failure of the in WSN: the raw data collected directly by the sensor nodes and the results from the
manage events, and API (Application Programming Interface) which is invoked by the
route rather than congestion. In this scenario, the sender is free to stick with its current rate. processed data collected initially.
applications in order to use services of the middleware and achieve the required performance
and QoS parameters. Figure below shows a general architecture of a WSN middleware.

6. Give the examples existing Transport Control Protocols for WSN. 2. ESRT (Event-to-Sink Reliable Transport) 5. GARUDA
Examples of several transport protocols designed for WSNs are shown in Table. Most ESRT which provides reliability and congestion control, belongs to the upstream reliability The downstream reliability category includes GARUDA. It is built on a two-tier node design,
examples can be grouped in one of the four groups: upstream congestion control, guarantee group. It periodically computes a reliability figure (r), representing the rate of and core sensor nodes are chosen from nodes that are 3i hops away from the sink (i is an
downstream congestion control, upstream reliability guarantee, and downstream reliability packets received successfully in a given time interval. ESRT then deduces the required sensor integer). Second-tier nodes are the noncore nodes that are still present. A nearby core node
guarantee. reporting frequency (f) from the reliability figure (r) using an expression such as f = G(r). is selected by each noncore sensor node to serve as its core node. Core nodes are used by
Finally, ESRT informs all sensors of the values of (f) through an assumed channel with high noncore nodes to recover lost packets. GARUDA detects and notifies losses via a NACK
power. ESRT uses an end-to-end approach to guarantee a desired reliabilityfigure through message. Loss recovery is done in two different ways: between core sensor nodes and
adjusting the sensors’ reporting frequency. It provides overall reliability for the application. between noncore sensor nodes and their core node.Retransmission to recover lost packets
The additional benefit of ESRT is energy conservation through control of reporting frequency. appears to be a combination of pure hop by hop and end to end, for this reason. In order to
Disadvantages of ESRT are that it advertises the same reporting frequency to all sensors (since ensure the success of single or first packet delivery, GARUDA designs a repeating wait for first
different nodes may have contributed differently to congestion, applying different packet (WFP) pulse transmission. In order to create a two-tier node architecture, the hop
frequencies would be more appropriate) and considers mainly reliability and energy number and core sensor nodes are also computed and chosen via pulse transmission.
conservation as performance measures. Inconsistency in the upstream direction and a lack of congestion control are two drawbacks
of GARUDA. At the time of this writing, GARUDA's published results were devoid of any
3. RMST (Reliable Multisegment Transport)
reliability findings or performance evaluations against alternative algorithms like PSFQ.
The upstream direction of packet transmission is guaranteed by RMST. Either intermediate
6. ATP (Ad Hoc Transport Protocol)
nodes operate in noncache mode, where only end hosts cache the sent packets for end-to-
end recovery, or they cache each packet to enable hop-by-hop recovery. Both cache and A receiver and network-assisted end-to-end feedback control algorithm underlies ATP's
noncache modes are supported by RMST. Moreover, for loss detection and alerting, RMST operation. It makes use of selective ACKs (SACKs) to recover from packet loss. The sum of
employs timer-driven and selective NACK techniques. Lost packets are tracked down in the exponentially distributed packet queuing and transmission delay, or D, is computed by
1. CODA (Congestion Detection and Avoidance) cache mode hop by hop using the intermediary sensor nodes. The NACK will be forwarded intermediate network nodes in ATP. The inverse of D is chosen as the needed end-toend rate.
The three components of CODA, an upstream congestion control method, are closed-loop upstream towards the source node if an intermediate node is unable to find the lost packet The values of D are calculated over all packets that pass through a certain sensor node, and
end-to-end multisource regulation, open-loop hop-by-hop backpressure, and congestion or if it is operating in noncache mode. In order to assure application reliability, RMTS is if they are greater than the value piggybacked in each outgoing packet, the field is updated
detection. By keeping track of wireless channel load and current buffer occupancy, CODA created to run above the routing protocol directed diffusion. Problems with RMST are lack of before the packet is forwarded.Inverse of D is calculated by the receiver and fed back to the
makes an effort to identify congestion. When buffer occupancy or wireless channel load congestion control, energy efficiency, and application-level reliability. sender to determine the necessary end-to-end rate. As a result, the transmitter is able to
surpasses a certain level, congestion is assumed to have taken place.Using an open-loop hop- intelligently modify its transmission rate based on the value obtained from the receiver.
4. PSFQ (Pump Slowly, Fetch Quickly)
by-hop backpressure, the node that has detected congestion will then alert its upstream Selective ACKs (SACKs) are used by ATP as an end-to-end technique for loss detection to
By pacing data at a reasonably moderate rate and allowing sensor nodes that suffer from data ensure reliability. Because ATP separates congestion control from reliability, it outperforms
neighbor to lower its rate. The upstream neighbor nodes use techniques like AIM to reduce
loss to recover any missing segments from close neighbors, PSFQ distributes data from sink TCP in terms of fairness and throughput. The question of whether ATP is best for an end-to-
their output rate.Finally, CODA regulates a multisource rate through a closed-loop end-to-end
to sensors. This strategy is a part of the downstream reliability guarantee category. The goal end control method is raised by the fact that energy concerns are not taken into account for
approach, as follows: (1) When a sensor node exceeds its theoretical rate, it sets a
is to localize data recovery among close neighbors in order to minimize loss recovery and this design.
‘‘regulation’’ bit in the ‘‘event’’ packet; (2) If the event packet received by the sink has a
achieve loose delay bounds. Pump, fetch, and report are the three processes that make up
‘‘regulation’’ bit set, the sink sends an ACK message to the sensor nodes and informs them to
PSFQ. PSFQ functions as follows: Until all of the data fragments have been sent, Sink
reduce their rate; and (3) if the congestion is cleared, the sink will send an immediate ACK
broadcasts a packet to its neighbors every T time units. The sensor node enters fetch mode
control message to the sensor nodes, informing them that they can increase their rate.
when a sequence number gap is found and sends a NACK in the reverse path to retrieve the
CODA’s disadvantages are its unidirectional control, only from the sensors to the sink; there
lost fragment.Unless the number of times the NACK is sent exceeds a set limit, the neighbor
is no reliability consideration; and the response time of its closed-loop multisource control
nodes do not relay the NACK. Lastly, using a straightforward and scalable hop-by-hop report
increases under heavy congestion since the ACK issued from the sink will probably be lost.
method, the sink can request information from sensors regarding the status of data delivery.
The following drawbacks of PSFQ: Its slow pump causes a significant delay, it cannot detect
packet loss for single packet transmission, and its hop-by-hop recovery with cache requires
bigger buffer sizes.

7. What are Requirements and design constraints for wireless MAC protocols. 5. Stability: The ability of a communications system to manage changes in the traffic load 8. Discuss issues in designing MAC protocol for adhoc-networks.
over extended periods of time is referred to as stability. For instance, a stable MAC protocol
OR Design issues of MAC Protocol :
must be capable of handling sudden loads that are greater than the maximum sustained load,
12. Explain different performance requirements of MAC protocol. provided that the channel's maximum capacity is not exceeded by the promised long-term
load. Usually, a MAC protocol's scalability is examined in terms of either delay or throughput. • Bandwidth Efficiency –
The breadth of the research has been fairly extensive in attempting to ascertain the
If the message waiting time is constrained, a MAC protocol is regarded as stable in terms of The shortage of data transfer capacity assets in these networks requires its proficient
performance requirements of MAC protocols. Delay, throughput, robustness, scalability,
latency. There is a limited backlog of messages in the transmission queue, which can be used use. To evaluate this, we could state that
stability, and fairness have historically dominated MAC protocol design. The description of
to identify these systems. A MAC protocol is stable in terms of throughput if the throughput bandwidth capacity is the proportion of the bandwidth used for data transmission to
these performance metrics is provided below.
does not decrease as the load being delivered rises. In time-varying large-scale WSNs, it is the complete accessible bandwidth capacity.
1. Delay: The length of time a data packet spends in the MAC layer before it is successfully challenging to accommodate load changes while preserving system stability. The careful
transferred is referred to as delay. In addition to network traffic volume, the MAC protocol's scheduling of bursty traffic is one potential method for the MAC protocol to respond to • Quality of Service Support –
design decisions also affect delay. The MAC protocol must enable delay-bound guarantees for significant swings in the traffic load. Quality of service support is difficult due to the mobility of the nodes. Once a node
time-critical applications in order for those applications to comply with QoS standards. The
6. Fairness: If a MAC protocol distributes channel capacity among competing communicating moves out of reach, the reservation in it is lost. In these networks, QoS is extremely
specific QoS requirements' semantics vary depending on the application. With proper
nodes fairly without unnecessarily slowing down the network throughput, it is said to be fair. important because if it is being used in military environments, the service support
message scheduling, both locally within a communicating node and globally across all nodes
To ensure equitable QoS and prevent instances where certain nodes perform better than needed time to time.
in the network, guaranteed delay limitations are typically established.
other nodes, it is desirable to achieve fairness across competing nodes. No application is
2. Throughput: The rate at which messages are handled by a communication system is known therefore starved or harshly penalized. It should be noted that the definition of fairness given • Synchronization –
as throughput. It is typically expressed as a number of messages or bits per second. It reflects above makes the assumption that the channel capacity requirements of all communication Some instruments must be found so as to give synchronization among the nodes.
the portion of the channel capacity that is utilized for data transmission in wireless contexts. nodes are equal. But, it's possible that the network may need to support a variety of traffic Synchronization is significant for directing the bandwidth reservation.
As the initial load on the communication system rises, throughput rises. The throughput stops sources with varying traffic production patterns and a wide range of QoS
increasing and, in certain situations, may even begin to decrease once the load hits a certain requirements.Communicating nodes are given various weights to reflect their relative
threshold. To maximize channel throughput while decreasing message delay is a key goal of resource shares in order to accommodate varied resource needs. Then, based on the weights • Hidden Terminal Problem –
a MAC protocol. assigned, proportional fairness is attained. If it is impossible to increase any competitive When there are two nodes, both are outside of each other’s range and try to
node's allocation without lowering another node's service rate below its proportional fair communicate with same node within their range at the same time, then there must
3. Robustness: In terms of reliability, availability, and dependability requirements, robustness
share, a MAC protocol is said to be proportionally fair. be packet collision.
measures how sensitive the protocol is to errors and false information. Error confinement,
error detection and masking, reconfiguration, and restart are only a few of the multifaceted 7. Energy efficiency: A sensor node has one or more integrated sensors, a small embedded
concerns that robustness must concurrently solve. It is challenging to achieve robustness in a processor, and short-range radio communication capabilities. These sensor nodes are • Exposed Terminal Problem –
time-varying network like a WSN since it heavily depends on the failure models of the links powered by small-capacity batteries. Wireless sensor nodes are frequently installed in Uncovered nodes might be denied channel access pointlessly, which implies under
and communication nodes. unsupervised locations, which makes it challenging to replace their batteries. Additionally, it usage of the bandwidth resources.
4. Scalability: The ability of a communications system to maintain its performance is difficult and unstable to recharge sensor batteries using scavenged energy. The lifespan of
characteristics regardless of the size of the network or the number of competing nodes is a sensor node is directly impacted by these harsh restrictions.In order to increase the lifespan
referred to as scalability. In WSNs, the total number of sensor nodes may surpass thousands of sensor nodes in WSNs, energy conservation becomes of utmost importance. One of the
and, in some situations, millions. Scalability in these networks becomes crucial. Scalability is most crucial considerations in the design of the MAC protocol for wireless sensor nodes is
difficult to achieve, particularly in time-varying contexts like wireless networks. Avoiding energy economy. The MAC-layer protocols' energy inefficiency is caused by a number of
relying on globally consistent network states is a typical strategy for achieving scalability. With factors.
the creation of hierarchical structures and information aggregation techniques, localizing
interactions among the communication nodes is another strategy.For instance, creating
clusters of sensor nodes enables the development of highly scalable shared medium access
protocols. Similar to this, combining data from various sensors enables the creation of traffic
patterns that can be effectively used to scale the MAC protocol to many sensor nodes.
9. Explain SPIN protocol. adaptability function enables nodes to prolong their lives and, as a result, the network's 10. Explain periodic listen and sleep operation in S-MAC.
lifespan.
Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation By reducing idle listening, the S-MAC architecture aims to cut energy consumption.
Three different sorts of messages are used by SPIN-running nodes for negotiation and data Establishing low-duty-cycle activities for sensor nodes allows for this. Nodes periodically enter
A family of data-centric negotiation-based information dissemination protocols for WSNs is
delivery. New data is advertised among nodes using the first message type, ADV. A network a sleep state during which their radios are fully disabled. When there is activity on the
called Sensor Protocols for Information through Negotiation (SPIN). These protocols' principal
node can advertise its data to the other nodes in the network by first sending an ADV message network, nodes become active.Figure 2 shows the fundamental periodic listen and sleep
goal is to effectively distribute observations made by individual sensor nodes to all of the
that contains the information describing the data. Requesting an advertised piece of valuable schedule.Each node in this system sets a wake-up timer and sleeps for the allotted amount of
network's sensor nodes. In WSNs, straightforward protocols like flooding and gossiping are
data is done using the second message type, REQ.A network nnode interested in obtaining time. As the timer runs out, the node awakens and starts listening to see whether it needs to
frequently proposed to achieve information dissemination. Flooding calls for sending copies
specific data sends a REQ message to the metadata advertising node after receiving an ADV connect with other nodes. A frame is the collective term for the full cycle of listening and
of the data packet to each node's neighbors until it reaches every node in the network.In
containing metadata, and the node subsequently sends the requested data. The actual data sleeping. The listening interval to frame length ratio, or duty cycle, is what distinguishes each
contrast, gossip just needs that a node receiving a data packet transmit it to a randomly
gathered by a sensor and a metadata header are both included in the third message type, frame. The listening interval duration can be separately chosen by sensor nodes, however for
chosen neighbor, using randomization to decrease the number of duplicate messages.
DATA.Generally speaking, the data message is bigger than the ADV and REQ messages. The the sake of simplicity, the protocol takes the value to be the same for all nodes.
Both flooding and gossiping are easy and appealing because they don't require topology latter messages are typically much smaller than the corresponding data packet and just carry
upkeep and use basic forwarding principles. Nevertheless, as the network's size and traffic metadata. Energy use can be significantly reduced by limiting the duplicate transmission of
load increase, these algorithms' performance quickly deteriorates in terms of packet latency data messages utilizing semantic-based negotiation.
and resource use. This performance flaw is often brought on by geographic overlap and traffic
The fundamental operation of SPIN is shown in Figure 3, where sensor node A, the data
implosion.Several copies of the same data are sent to the same sensor node as a result of
source, sends an ADV message containing the information characterizing its data to sensor Figure 2: S-MAC period listen and sleep modes of operations
traffic implosion.Geographic overlap, on the other hand, results in nodes covering the same
node B, its close neighbor. Node B sends a REQ message to request the data after expressing
region disseminating identical data items to network sensor nodes unnecessarily. Basic Nodes have complete control over the times they sleep and listen. To minimize the amount
interest n it. Node B transmits an ADV message after receiving the data to inform its close
protocols like floods and chitchat do not modify their behavior to adjust communication and of management required to establish connections between these nodes, it is preferred that
neighbors of the new information. Only nodes C, E, and G, three of these neighbors, show
computation to the present status of their energy supply. This lack of resource awareness and the schedules of nearby nodes be coordinated.S-MAC nodes build virtual clusters around
interest in the information. These nodes send node B a REQ message, and node B responds
flexibility could significantly shorten the network's lifespan as highly active nodes risk quickly schedules, but instead of communicating through a master node like a cluster head to achieve
by sending the requested data to each of the requesting nodes.
running out of energy. coordination, they speak directly with one another to exchange and coordinate their sleep
The fundamental goal of SPIN and its associated family members is to fix the flaws and and listen schedules.
improve the performance of traditional information distribution protocols. This family of
protocols' fundamental principles are resource adaptability and data negotiation. Before any
data are sent across network nodes, semantic-based data negotiation demands that nodes
running SPIN "learn" about the content of the data. By having nodes associate metadata with
the data they produce, SPIN takes advantage of data naming to undertake negotiations before
delivering the actual data.A receiver may send a request to access the advertised data if they
show interest in its content. By ensuring that data are sent only to interested nodes, this type
of negotiation prevents traffic implosion and greatly lowers the amount of redundant data
that is transmitted over the network. Furthermore, by allowing nodes to limit their requests
to mention only the data they are interested in receiving, the usage of meta data descriptors
avoids the chance of overlap.
Resource adaption enables SPIN-powered sensor nodes to adjust their operations to the state
of their available energy sources. Before sending or processing data, each node in the Figure 3: SPIN basic protocol operations
network can probe the corresponding resource management to keep track of its resource
usage. When the energy level drops, the node may scale back or stop performing specific
tasks, such forwarding third-party information and data packets. The SPIN resource

11. How Power-efficient gathering in sensor information systems (PEGASIS) routing 14. Explain directional busy-tone-based MAC protocol in detail.
protocol works?
A directional busy-tone-based MAC protocol is a medium access control protocol that uses
In PEGASIS, data aggregation is accomplished along the chain. The aggregation procedure can directional antennas and busy tones to control access to the shared wireless medium. The
be carried out successively as follows in its most basic form. The last node on the right end of protocol works as follows:
the chain receives a token first from the chain leader. The end node sends its data to its
1. Each node in the network maintains a list of its neighbors.
downstream neighbor in the chain towards the leader after getting the token. The
downstream neighboring node receives the data from the neighboring node that aggregates 2. When a node wants to transmit data, it first sends a busy tone in the direction of its
them. The cycle repeats itself until the leader receives the compiled data.The same intended receiver.
aggregation method is used until the data reach the leader after the leader provides a token 3. If the receiver hears the busy tone, it knows that the channel is busy and will not
to the left end of the chain after getting the data from the right side of the chain. The leader attempt to transmit.
FigChain-based data gathering and aggregation scheme
gathers the data and sends it to the data sink after receiving it from both ends of the chain.
Although straightforward, the sequential aggregation approach may cause significant delays The chain-based binary technique uses significantly less energy because nodes work in close 4. If the receiver does not hear the busy tone, it knows that the channel is idle and can
in the delivery of the aggregated data to the base station. However, if arbitrarily close proximity to one another. In addition, the technique ensures that the leader will receive the transmit its data.
simultaneous transmission cannot be done without causing signal interference, then such a aggregated data after log2N steps because the hierarchical, treelike structure is balanced. In The use of directional antennas allows the protocol to reduce interference from other nodes
sequential system might be required. PEGASIS, a chain-based binary aggregation approach has been utilized as an alternative to in the network. The use of busy tones allows the protocol to avoid collisions between nodes
high parallelism. It has been demonstrated that the strategy works best with CDMA-capable that are trying to transmit at the same time.
Using parallel data aggregation along the chain is one possible method to lessen the time
sensor nodes in terms of the energy-delay product needed for each round of data collection,
needed to send aggregated data to the sink. If the sensor nodes have CDMA-capable Directional busy-tone-based MAC protocols have a number of advantages over other MAC
a parameter that balances the energy and delay costs.
transceivers, a high level of parallelism can be attained. A hierarchical structure can be protocols, including:
"overlaid" over the chain and utilized to do data aggregation using the additional capability
• Increased channel capacity: The use of directional antennas allows nodes to transmit
to carry out arbitrarily near transmissions without interference. Nodes at a specific level of 19. Write a short note on SMACS. data at higher rates without interfering with each other.
the hierarchy broadcast to a close neighbor at a higher level of the hierarchy once each round.
The leader at the top of the hierarchy receives the aggregated data at the end of this process. Self organizing medium access control for sensornets (SMACS): A medium access control • Reduced interference: The use of directional antennas and busy tones allows the
The latter sends the base station the final data aggregate. protocol called SMACS enables the creation of haphazard network topologies without the protocol to reduce interference from other nodes in the network.
need for network node global synchronization. Nonsynchronous scheduled communication,
Consider the scenario shown in Figure 6 to provide an example of the chain-based approach. a major characteristic of SMACS, enables links to be generated and planned concurrently • Improved fairness: The protocol ensures that all nodes have a fair chance to access the
In this illustration, it is assumed that every node uses a greedy algorithm to build the chain throughout the network without the requirement for expensive global connectivity shared wireless medium.
and has global knowledge of the network. Moreover, it is presumable that nodes transmit to information exchange or time synchronization. Each node in the network keeps a super Directional busy-tone-based MAC protocols are well-suited for use in ad hoc networks, where
the base station in rounds, with node i mod N where N is the total number of nodes frame, which is TDMA-like, for communication with recognizedneighbors. A superframe has nodes are mobile and the network topology is constantly changing. The protocol is also well-
transmitting the aggregate data to the base station in round i. Node 3, in the chain's third a defined length. The superframe is additionally broken into smaller frames. Each frame's size suited for use in sensor networks, where nodes are typically battery-powered and need to
position, is the round 3 leader according to this assignment.The neighbor to the right must is not constant and may change over time for a single node as well as from one node to conserve energy.
get data from every node in an even position. Node 3 stays in an odd position at the following another. Each node must conduct a neighborhood discovery operation on a regular basis in
level. Because of this, all nodes in an even position combine their data and send it to the order to identify nearby nodes according to SMACS. By giving each detected neighbor a time Here are some examples of directional busy-tone-based MAC protocols:
appropriate neighbors. Node 3 is no longer at an unusual position at the third level. The only slot, each node creates a link with them. The time slots are chosen so that at each slot, the DBTMA (Dual Busy-Tone Multiple Access), DBTMA/DA (DBTMA with Directional Antennas),
node other than node 3 to reach this level is node 7, which gathers its data and delivers it to node only converses with its neighbors. The link construction mechanism must make sure and B-MAC (Berkeley MAC).
node 3. Node 3 then combines the information received with its own information before that there is no interference between neighboring links, despite the fact that a node and its
sending it to the base station. Directional busy-tone-based MAC protocols are an important part of the MAC protocol
neighbors are not needed to transmit at distinct slot times.This is accomplished by spreading
landscape. They offer a number of advantages over other MAC protocols, making them well-
code (CDMA) or randomly selecting a channel from a vast pool of channels for each link. Each
suited for use in a variety of wireless networks.
node in the superframe structure keeps its own time slot schedules with all of its neighbors,
and to communicate, nodes must set their radios to the appropriate frequency channel or
CDMA code.

15. Explain Single-Hop versus Multi-Hop Networks. 17. Explain TCP operation. 18. Explain feasibility of using TCP/UDP for WSN.
On the Internet, TCP is the most widely used connection-oriented transport control protocol.
Because of limited distance the direct communication between source and sink is not always
TCP is where some applications, such HTTP and FTP, are located. In order to provide The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) are two of
possible. In WSNs, to cover a lot of environment the data packets taking multi hops from dependable, orderly, controllable, and elastic transmission, TCP makes advantage of network the most common transport protocols used in computer networks. TCP is a connection-
source to the sink. To overcome such limited distances it better to use relay stations, The data services offered by the IP layer. TCP operation is divided into three stages: oriented protocol, which means that it establishes a connection between the sender and
packets taking multi hops from source to the sink as shown in Figure 1.12, Depending on the receiver before sending data. UDP is a connectionless protocol, which means that it does not
particular application of having an intermediate sensor node at the right place is high. 1) Connection establishment: During this stage, a logical connection for TCP is formed. A establish a connection before sending data.
logical connection is an association between a TCP sender and recipient that can be uniquely TCP is more reliable than UDP, but it is also more overhead. TCP uses a three-way handshake
identified by their IP addresses and TCP port numbers. There could be many connections to establish a connection, and it uses sequence numbers and acknowledgments to ensure
active between endpoints at once. These connections will have separate TCP port numbers that data is delivered reliably. UDP does not use any of these mechanisms, so it is less reliable
despite sharing the same IP address. A three-way handshake is used by TCP to establish a than TCP.
connection. The TCP sender and receiver will negotiate parameters like the beginning WSNs are typically battery-powered devices, so energy efficiency is a major concern. TCP is
sequence number, window size, and others during the handshake and will let each other not very energy efficient, because it uses a lot of overhead to establish and maintain
know when data transmission can start. connections. UDP is more energy efficient than TCP, because it does not use any of this
Fig. Multi-hop networks: As direct communication is impossible because of distance and/or obstacles overhead.
Multi-hopping also to improves the energy efficiency of communication as it consumes less 2) Data transmission: TCP enables dependable and well-organized information transfer However, UDP is not as reliable as TCP, so it may not be suitable for all applications in
energy to use relays instead of direct communication, the radiated energy required for direct between the sender and the recipient. When a segment is lost, TCP utilizes (accumulative) WSNs. For example, UDP may not be suitable for applications that require real-time data
communication over a distance d is cdα (c some constant, α ≥ 2 the path loss coefficient) and ACK to find it. The segment header's sequence number allows for an ordered transmission. delivery, such as video streaming.
using a relay at distance d/2 reduces this energy to 2c(d/2)α. TCP also supports flow control and congestion control with senderadjustable transmission In general, TCP is not a good choice for WSNs because it is not energy efficient. UDP is a better
rates. This task is carried out via TCP using a window-based approach, in which the sender choice for WSNs, but it is not as reliable as TCP. The best transport protocol for a particular
This calculation considers only the radiated energy. It should be pointed out that only multi- manages a variable called cwnd (congestion window). The maximum number of segments WSN application will depend on the specific requirements of the application.
hop networks operating in a store and forward fashion are considered here. In such a that the TCP sender can send is cwnd. After receiving an ACK from the receiver or following
network, a node has to correctly receive a packet before it can forward it somewhere. a timeout, cwnd is updated. Both flow control and delivery notification are performed using Here is a table summarizing the feasibility of using TCP/UDP for WSNs:
Cooperative relaying (reconstruction in case of erroneous packet reception) techniques are ACK, therefore the two tasks are somewhat intertwined. Protocol Feasibility
not considered here.
3) Disconnect: The connection will be cut off and the relevant resource released once the TCP Not feasible
16. How Congestion Detection and Avoidance works? data transmission is finished.
CODA (Congestion Detection and Avoidance) The three components of CODA, an upstream UDP Feasible, but not as reliable as TCP
congestion control method, are closed-loop end-to-end multisource regulation, open-loop TCP mechanisms provide adaptable flow and congestion control as a result. As can be seen
hop-by-hop backpressure, and congestion detection. By keeping track of wireless channel from the foregoing,
(1) high throughput results from cwnd increasing quickly and oscillating around a big value Conclusion
load and current buffer occupancy, CODA makes an effort to identify congestion. When
when there is little to no congestion and few segment losses. On the other hand, if cwnd has TCP is not a good choice for WSNs because it is not energy efficient. UDP is a better choice
buffer occupancy or wireless channel load surpasses a certain level, congestion is assumed
a low value, the TCP throughput will be low. for WSNs, but it is not as reliable as TCP. The best transport protocol for a particular WSN
to have taken place.Using an open-loop hop-by-hop backpressure, the node that has
(2) When RTT is low, application will depend on the specific requirements of the application.
detected congestion will then alert its upstream neighbor to lower its rate. The upstream
neighbor nodes use techniques like AIM to reduce their output rate.Finally, CODA regulates ACKs are received rapidly, and cwnd rises similarly quickly. The sender will consequently
a multisource rate through a closed-loop end-to-end approach, as follows: (1) When a sensor experience significant throughput.
node exceeds its theoretical rate, it sets a ‘‘regulation’’ bit in the ‘‘event’’ packet; (2) If the (3) It goes without saying that high throughput also results from big segment sizes. Moreover,
event packet received by the sink has a ‘‘regulation’’ bit set, the sink sends an ACK message the theoretical analysis of TCP confirms these.
to the sensor nodes and informs them to reduce their rate; and (3) if the congestion is
cleared, the sink will send an immediate ACK control message to the sensor nodes, informing
them that they can increase their rate. CODA’s disadvantages are its unidirectional control,
only from the sensors to the sink; there is no reliability consideration; and the response time
of its closed-loop multisource control increases under heavy congestion since the ACK issued
from the sink will probably be lost.