Chapter 1: Introduction

Lecture# 2
• What Operating Systems Do
• Computer-System Organization
• Computer-System Architecture
• Operating-System Structure
• Operating-System Operations
• Process Management
• Memory Management
• Storage Management
• Protection and Security
Computer Startup
• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
• Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
• Initializes all aspects of system
• Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
 Computer System Organization
• Computer-system operation:
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory.
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles.
 Computer-System Operation

• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

• Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.

• Each device controller has a local buffer.

• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers.

• I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.

• Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation

by causing an interrupt.
 Common Functions of Interrupts
• Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine
generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines.
• Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction.
• Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is
being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
• A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an
error or a user request.
• An operating system is interrupt driven.
 Interrupt Handling
• The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing
registers and the program counter.

• Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:

• polling
• vectored interrupt system

• Separate segments of code determine what action should be

taken for each type of interrupt.
I/O Structure
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion.
• Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
• Wait loop (contention for memory access)
• At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O
processing.
• After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O
completion.
• System call – request to the operating system to allow user to wait for I/O
completion.
• Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type,
address, and state.
• Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine device status
and to modify table entry to include interrupt.
 Direct Memory Access Structure
• Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to
memory speeds.

• Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to

main memory without CPU intervention.

• Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per
byte.
Storage Structure
• Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly.

• Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large

nonvolatile storage capacity.

• Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic

recording material.
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors.
• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer.
Storage Hierarchy

• Storage systems organized in hierarchy

• Speed
• Cost
• Volatility

• Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory

can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage
Storage-Device Hierarchy
 Caching
• Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)

• Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily

• Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is

there
• If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
• If not, data copied to cache and used there

• Cache smaller than storage being cached

• Cache management important design problem
• Cache size and replacement policy
Clustered Systems

Types of Clustered
• Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
• Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
• Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
• Applications must be written to use parallelization
Operating System Structure

• Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

• Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
• Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute
• A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
• One job selected and run via job scheduling
• When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
 Operating System Structure (Cont.)

• Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so

frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing.
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
 Operating-System Operations
• Interrupt driven by hardware
• Software error or request creates exception or trap
• Division by zero, request for operating system service
• Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each other or
the operating system
• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components
• User mode and kernel mode
• Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel
code
• Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
• Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
• Set interrupt after specific period
• Operating system decrements counter
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program
that exceeds allotted time
Process Management
• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system.
Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
• Process needs resources to accomplish its task
• CPU, memory, I/O, files
• Initialization data
• Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next
instruction to execute.
• Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion.
• Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread.
• Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system
running concurrently on one or more CPUs.
• Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads.
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:
• Creating and deleting both user and system processes
• Suspending and resuming processes
• Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
• Providing mechanisms for process communication
• Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management
• All data in memory before and after processing

• All instructions in memory in order to execute

• Memory management determines what is in memory when

• Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

• Memory management activities

• Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
• Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of
memory
• Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
 Storage Management
• OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
• Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
• Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
• Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate, access method (sequential
or random)
• File-System management
• Files usually organized into directories
• Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
• OS activities include
• Creating and deleting files and directories
• Primitives to manipulate files and directories
• Mapping files onto secondary storage
• Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
 Protection and Security
• Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes
or users to resources defined by the OS.
• Security – defense of the system against internal and external
attacks.
• Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft,
theft of service
• Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine
who can do what
• User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
• User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
• Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls
managed, then also associated with each process, file
End of Chapter 1