Discrete Mathematics

Explore the fundamentals of discrete mathematics

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Overview
This course provides an introduction to the basic concepts and techniques of
discrete mathematics. Topics covered include sets, logic, proof techniques,
mathematical induction, counting principles, relations, functions, graphs, and
trees. Through a series of lectures, examples, and exercises, students will develop
problem-solving skills and gain a solid foundation for further studies in computer
science, mathematics, and related fields.

01 Reasoning

Logic and Proofs

01 Logic and Proofs

Introduction

In the realm of Discrete Mathematics, one fundamental aspect is the study of

logic and proofs. Logic is concerned with reasoning and making valid arguments,
while proofs are the means through which we establish the truth of mathematical
statements. This topic dives deep into the principles of logic, introduces various
proof techniques, and equips learners with the tools to construct rigorous
mathematical arguments. Throughout this exploration, we will encounter logical
operators, truth tables, logical equivalences, and different proof methods,
ultimately enhancing our ability to reason effectively and justify mathematical
claims.
Propositional Logic

Propositional logic, also known as sentential logic, is a branch of logic that deals
with the manipulation and evaluation of propositions. A proposition is a declarative
statement that is either true or false but not both. In propositional logic, we
analyze the logical relationships between propositions using logical connectives.
Logical Connectives

Logical connectives are symbols or words used to combine propositions to form

more complex ones. The main logical connectives are:
Negation: Denoted as ¬, it flips the truth value of a proposition. For instance, if P is true,
then ¬P is false.
Conjunction: Denoted as ∧ (logical AND), it represents the intersection of two
propositions. For example, P ∧ Q is true only when both P and Q are true.
Disjunction: Denoted as ∨ (logical OR), it represents the union of two propositions. If P ∨
Q is true, either P or Q (or both) must be true.
Implication: Denoted as → (implies), it establishes a conditional relationship between
two propositions. P → Q is true unless P is true and Q is false.
 Equivalence: Denoted as ↔ (if and only if), it signifies that two propositions have the
same truth value. P ↔ Q is true if P and Q have the same truth value.
Truth Tables and Logical Equivalences

To determine the truth values of compound propositions, truth tables are

constructed. A truth table exhaustively lists all possible combinations of truth
values for the component propositions, allowing us to evaluate the truth value of
the compound proposition for each case.
Logical equivalences are important tools that help establish relationships between
compound propositions. They allow us to simplify expressions, prove identities,
and manipulate statements efficiently. Some common logical equivalences
include:
De Morgan's Laws: ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡ (¬P) ∨ (¬Q) and ¬(P ∨ Q) ≡ (¬P) ∧ (¬Q)
Double Negation: ¬(¬P) ≡ P
Idempotent Laws: P ∧ P ≡ P and P ∨ P ≡ P
Identity Laws: P ∨ F ≡ P and P ∧ T ≡ P
Domination Laws: P ∨ T ≡ T and P ∧ F ≡ F
Commutative Laws: P ∧ Q ≡ Q ∧ P and P ∨ Q ≡ Q ∨ P
Associative Laws: (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R) and (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
Distributive Laws: P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R) and P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
Conditional Laws: P → Q ≡ (¬P) ∨ Q
Contrapositive: P → Q ≡ (¬Q) → (¬P)
Biconditional: P ↔ Q ≡ (P → Q) ∧ (Q → P)
Proof Methods

Proofs serve as the backbone of mathematics, allowing us to formally establish

the truth of mathematical statements. Various proof methods have been
developed to tackle different types of problems and situations.
Direct Proof

The direct proof is the most straightforward and commonly used method. It
involves assuming the hypothesis (P) and showing that it implies the conclusion
(Q) by a series of logical deductions and application of logical equivalences. By
working step-by-step from the hypothesis to the conclusion, the direct proof
confirms the validity of the statement.
Proof by Contradiction

Proof by contradiction, also known as reductio ad absurdum, proves a proposition

by assuming the negation of the conclusion and demonstrating that it leads to a
contradiction. This contradiction confirms that the assumption is false, and thus
the original proposition must be true.
Proof by Contrapositive

Proof by contrapositive establishes the validity of a proposition by proving its

contrapositive. The contrapositive of a statement is formed by negating both the
hypothesis and the conclusion and reversing the implication arrow. By showing
that the contrapositive implication is true, we indirectly establish the truth of the
original proposition.
Proof by Mathematical Induction

Proof by mathematical induction is particularly useful for proving statements

about integers or other well-ordered sets. It consists of two steps: the base step,
which establishes the truth of the statement for the first value (typically 0 or 1),
and the induction step, which assumes the statement holds for an arbitrary value
(k) and proves that it holds for the next value (k+1). By showing that the statement
holds for the base case and implies the truth for subsequent cases, mathematical
induction concludes that the statement is true for all corresponding values.
Contradiction Proof

A contradiction proof establishes the truth of a proposition by assuming its

negation and deriving a contradiction. By showing that the negation leads to an
inconsistency or illogical situation, a contradiction proof demonstrates that the
original proposition must be valid.
Proof by Exhaustion

Proof by exhaustion, also known as proof by cases, checks for the truth of a
statement by examining all possible cases exhaustively. It establishes that the
proposition holds by demonstrating that it is true in each individual case.

Conclusion - Logic and Proofs

 In conclusion, the Logic and Proofs topic in Discrete
Mathematics provides the foundation for understanding
formal reasoning and deductive reasoning. It introduces
concepts like propositional logic, predicate logic, and proof
techniques, which are essential in various areas of computer
science and mathematics.

Set Theory

02 Set Theory

Set theory is a fundamental branch of mathematics that deals with the study of
sets, which are collections of distinct objects called elements. It provides a
rigorous framework for understanding and analyzing relationships between
objects and facilitates reasoning and problem-solving in various areas of
mathematics and beyond.
Basics of Sets

A set is defined by its elements, and sets can contain anything from numbers and
letters to other sets or even abstract concepts. For example, a set can consist of
the integers {1, 2, 3}, the colors {red, blue, green}, or the planets in our solar
system {Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune}.
Sets are typically denoted by capital letters in mathematical notation. For
instance, if we have a set "A", we can denote its elements with lowercase letters
within braces, like {a, b, c}. If an element is in a set, we use the symbol "∈"
(epsilon) to represent membership. On the other hand, if an element is not in a set,
we use the symbol "∉" (epsilon with a slash) to denote non-membership.
Set Operations

Set theory provides several operations that allow us to combine, compare, and
manipulate sets.
Union

The union of two sets, denoted by the symbol "∪" (cup), is an operation that
combines all the elements from both sets, excluding any duplicates. For example,
given sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, their union A ∪ B would be {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Intersection
The intersection of two sets, denoted by the symbol "∩" (cap), is an operation that
returns a new set containing only the elements that are present in both sets.
Taking the previous example, the intersection of sets A and B would be {3}, as it is
the only element common to both sets.
Difference

The difference between two sets, denoted by the symbol "" (backslash), is an
operation that removes the elements present in the second set from the first set.
Continuing with the previous example, if we have sets A and B, the difference A \
B would be {1, 2}, as we exclude the elements from set B.
Complement

In set theory, the complement of a set with respect to another set refers to the
elements that are in one set but not in the other. The complement of a set A with
respect to a universal set U, denoted as A', is defined as A' = U \ A. This means
that the complement of A consists of all the elements not found in A but present in
the universal set U.
Set Relations and Functions

Set theory also explores the relationships between sets, such as set equality,
subset, and power set.
Set Equality
Two sets are said to be equal if they contain the same elements, regardless of
their order or repetition. If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 2, 1}, we can say that A = B.
Subset

A set A is considered a subset of another set B if all the elements of A are also
elements of B. We represent this as A ⊆ B. For example, if A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2,
3}, it can be stated that A is a subset of B.
Power Set

The power set of a set is the collection of all possible subsets of that set. It
includes the empty set and the set itself. For instance, if we have a set A = {1, 2},
then the power set of A, denoted as P(A), would be {{}, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}.
Set theory forms the foundation for many other branches of mathematics,
including logic, algebra, and analysis. Its concepts and techniques are not only
applicable within mathematics but also find value in computer science, statistics,
and other disciplines. By understanding and applying set theory, mathematicians
and scientists can solve complex problems and analyze relationships within
various systems.

Conclusion - Set Theory

To summarize, Set Theory is a fundamental topic in Discrete
Mathematics that deals with the study of sets and their
 properties. It covers concepts like union, intersection,
complement, power set, and cardinality. Set Theory forms
the basis for many mathematical and computational models,
making it an essential topic to master.

Combinatorics

03 Combinatorics

Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics that focuses on counting, arranging,

and selecting objects or elements in a systematic manner. It provides the
foundation for solving problems related to arranging objects, counting
possibilities, and analyzing the structure of different arrangements.
Permutations
Permutations are a fundamental concept in combinatorics, referring to the various
ways in which a set of objects can be ordered. The number of possible
permutations of a given set can be calculated using permutation formulas.
The Factorial Function

The factorial function, denoted as "n!", represents the product of all positive
integers from 1 to n. For example, 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24. Factorials are used in
counting the number of permutations.
Permutations without Repetition

When dealing with permutations without repetition, each object is unique, and
once an object is chosen, it cannot be chosen again. The number of permutations
can be calculated using the formula:
nPr = n! / (n - r)!

where n is the total number of objects and r is the number of objects being
selected.
Permutations with Repetition

Permutations with repetition occur when there are identical objects in the set. In
such cases, the formula for calculating permutations is slightly modified. If there
are n objects in total, but a subset of them are identical, the number of
permutations can be found using the formula:
nPr = n! / (n1! * n2! * ... * nk!)
where n1, n2, ..., nk represent the number of times each identical object occurs.
Combinations

Combinations, unlike permutations, do not take the order of objects into account.
Instead, they focus on selecting a subset of objects from a larger set.
Combinations are often used in scenarios when the arrangement of objects is
irrelevant.
Combinations without Repetition

Combinations without repetition involve selecting objects without regard to their

order. The formula for calculating the number of combinations is:
nCr = n! / (r! * (n - r)!)

where n is the total number of objects and r is the number of objects being
selected.
Combinations with Repetition

Combinations with repetition occur when there are identical objects in the set,
and the order remains unimportant. The formula for calculating combinations with
repetition is slightly modified. If there are n objects in total, but a subset of them
are identical, the number of combinations can be found using the formula:
nCr = (n + r - 1)! / (r! * (n - 1)!)
where n is the total number of objects, and r is the number of objects being
selected.
Pigeonhole Principle

The Pigeonhole Principle is a useful combinatorial principle that states that if there
are more pigeons than pigeonholes, at least one pigeonhole must contain more
than one pigeon. In combinatorics, this principle is often employed to prove the
existence of certain configurations or the impossibility of certain scenarios.
Binomial Coefficients

Binomial coefficients involve selecting a subset of objects from a larger set, similar
to combinations. Binomial coefficients have various applications, including the
binomial theorem and probability theory. They are calculated using the formula:
(n choose k) = nCk = n! / (k! * (n - k)!)

where n is the total number of objects, and k is the number of objects being
selected.

Conclusion - Combinatorics
In conclusion, Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics
that focuses on counting, arranging, and selecting objects. It
involves concepts like permutations, combinations, and the
 inclusion-exclusion principle. Combinatorics finds
applications in various fields, including computer science,
statistics, and cryptography, making it a crucial topic to
understand in Discrete Mathematics.

Practical Exercises
Let's put your knowledge into practice

04 Practical Exercises

In the this lesson, we'll put theory into practice through hands-on activities. Click
on the items below to check each exercise and develop practical skills that will
help you succeed in the subject.
Truth Table

Create a truth table for the statement: p ∧ q → p ∨ q.

Set Operations

Perform the following set operations: A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A - B, B - A, where A =

{1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}.

Permutations and Combinations

Calculate the number of permutations and combinations of selecting 3

items from a set of 6 items.
Wrap-up
Let's review what we have just seen so far

05 Wrap-up

In conclusion, the Logic and Proofs topic in Discrete Mathematics provides the
foundation for understanding formal reasoning and deductive reasoning. It
introduces concepts like propositional logic, predicate logic, and proof techniques,
which are essential in various areas of computer science and mathematics.

To summarize, Set Theory is a fundamental topic in Discrete Mathematics that

deals with the study of sets and their properties. It covers concepts like union,
intersection, complement, power set, and cardinality. Set Theory forms the basis
for many mathematical and computational models, making it an essential topic to
master.

In conclusion, Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics that focuses on

counting, arranging, and selecting objects. It involves concepts like permutations,
 combinations, and the inclusion-exclusion principle. Combinatorics finds
applications in various fields, including computer science, statistics, and
cryptography, making it a crucial topic to understand in Discrete Mathematics.

Quiz
Check your knowledge answering some questions

06 Quiz

Question 1/6
Which of the following is a valid logical expression?
A∧B
A∨B
A⊕B
Question 2/6
How many subsets does a set with n elements have?
n
2^n
2n

Question 3/6
Which of the following is an example of a valid proof technique?
Contradiction
Induction
Converse

Question 4/6
In set theory, the complement of a set A contains all elements that are
________ of A.
Subset
Intersection
Not in

Question 5/6
Which of the following is an example of a combinatorial identity?
 n!
n^n
nCr

Question 6/6
How many elements are in the power set of a set with n elements?
n-1
2n
n^2

Submit

Conclusion

Congratulations!
Congratulations on completing this course! You have taken an important step in
unlocking your full potential. Completing this course is not just about acquiring
knowledge; it's about putting that knowledge into practice and making a positive
impact on the world around you.
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