REVIEWER

RESEARCH CAPSTONE

THE PROJECT TABLE 1. LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

DESCRIPTION
NOMINAL
PROJECT DESIGN Description
★ This part illustrates the project’s design, ★ Data are assigned to categories without
materials, and parts. any numeric significance.
Examples
★ Gender, race, hair color
Characteristics
★ No order or distance between categories,
which means mathematical operations
are not applicable.

ORDINAL
Description
★ Data are assigned to categories that can
be ordered, but the intervals between the
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT categories are not necessarily consistent.
★ This part demonstrates the process of Examples
building the project. ★ Economic status (low, medium, high),
education level (high school, bachelor's,
PROJECT TESTING AND EVALUATION master's)
★ This part represents how the project is Characteristics
tested and pre-evaluated. ★ Ordinal data allow for ranking of the
categories, but the differences between
ranks might not be equal.

INTERVAL
Description
★ Data are measured along a scale in which
LEVELS OF each point is placed at a specific distance
MEASUREMENTS from another, with no true zero point.
Examples
DATA LEVELS OF MEASUREMENTS ★ Temperature in Celsius, IQ scores
★ Collected data become significant when Characteristics
they are interpreted. ★ Allows for the meaningful calculation of
★ Without interpretation, numbers have no differences between data points. However,
meaning. The purpose of the analysis is to ratios of measurements are not
describe and summarize the data, identify meaningful because there is no true zero.
relationships between variables, compare
variables, determine the difference RATIO
between variables, and forecast outcomes. Description
★ There are different levels of measurement ★ Interval data with a true zero point,
that will dictate what statistical analysis allowing for meaningful calculation of
and graphical representations to use in a ratios of measurements.
set of data. Examples:
★ Weight, height, annual income
Characteristics
★ Supports all mathematical operations. It
is the most precise level of measurement,
providing the most flexibility in statistical
methods.
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RESEARCH CAPSTONE

TABLE 2. DIFFERENT STATISTICAL TOOLS AND SPEARMAN RANK CORRELATION

THEIR FUNCTIONS Usage
★ Association between two variables
Different Statistical Tools and Their Functions Level of Measurement
★ Interval data or Ordinal data
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION Visual Representation
Usage ★ Scatterplot
★ The number of observations within a given
interval PEARSON CORRELATION
Level of Measurement Usage
★ Nominal or Ordinal data ★ Association between two variables, normal
Visual Representation distribution
★ Histogram, pie chart bar graph Level of Measurement
★ Interval data
PERCENTAGE Visual Representation
Usage ★ Scatterplot
★ The proportion of observations within a
given interval LINEAR REGRESSION
Level of Measurement Usage
★ Nominal or ordinal data ★ Association between two variables, normal
Visual Representation distribution
★ Pie chart, donut chart, stacked bar, Level of Measurement
stacked area chart ★ Interval data
Visual Representation
MEAN ★ Scatterplot
Usage
★ The average within a range of values T-TEST
Level of Measurement Usage
★ Interval or ratio data ★ Two groups, two treatments, normal
Visual Representation distribution
★ Histograms, bar charts ➢ Paired or dependent t-test (for
before and after tests)
MEDIAN ➢ Unpaired or independent t-test (for
Usage comparing two different groups)
★ The central value within a range of values Level of Measurement
Level of Measurement ★ Interval data
★ Interval or ratio data Visual Representation
Visual Representation ★ Tabular Form
★ Histograms, bar charts
CHI-SQUARE
STANDARD DEVIATION Usage
Usage ★ Two groups and two treatments or
★ Shows the degree to which a response multiple groups and multiple treatments
varies from a mean Level of Measurement
Level of Measurement ★ Nominal data
★ Interval or ratio data Visual Representation
Visual Representation ★ Tabular Form
★ Histograms, bar charts
REVIEWER
RESEARCH CAPSTONE

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) ★ Final results are shown in forms of tables

Usage and graphs.
★ Multiple groups and multiple treatments, ★ Tools: measures of central tendency &
normal distribution dispersion.
➢ One-way ANOVA (one independent
variable, three or more levels of one INFERENTIAL
factor) ★ Use data to make inferences or
➢ Two-way ANOVA (two independent generalizations about population.
variables, multiple levels of two ★ Make conclusions for populations that are
factors) beyond available data.
Level of Measurement ★ Compare, test and predict future
★ Interval data outcomes.
Visual Representation ★ Final results are the probability scores.
★ Clustered Column, Tabular Form ★ Tools: hypothesis tests

TYPES OF DATA

STATISTICS
STATISTICS
★ It is the science of dealing with numbers.
★ It is used for collection, summarization,
presentation, and analysis of data.
★ It provides a way of organizing data to get
information on a wider and more formal
(objective) basis than relying on personal SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION
experience (subjective).

USES OF MEDICAL STATISTICS:

★ Planning, monitoring & evaluating
community health care programs.
★ Epidemiological research studies.
★ Diagnosis of community health problems.
★ Comparison of health status & diseases
in different countries and in one country
over years. PRESENTATION OF DATA
★ Form standards for the different biological
measurements as weight, height. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
★ Differentiate between diseased & normal ★ Graphic presentations usually accompany
groups tables to illustrate & clarify information.

TYPES OF STATISTICS TABULAR PRESENTATION

★ Tables are essential in presentation of
DESCRIPTIVE scientific data & diagrams are
★ Describe or summarize the data of a target complementary to summarize these
population. tables in an easy way.
★ Describe the data which is already known.
★ Organize, analyze & present data in a
meaningful manner.
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TABULATION
★ Tables Must be self-explanatory.
★ Title: Written at the top of table to define
precisely the content, the place and the
time.
★ Clear heading of the columns & rows
★ Units of measurements should be
indicated.
★ The size of the table depends on the
number of classes “2 - 10 rows or classes”

TYPES OF TABLES
➢ List GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
➢ Frequency Distribution Table ★ Simple easy to understand.
★ Save a lot of words.
LIST ★ Simple easy to understand. Save a lot of
★ The simplest form of presentation. words.
★ A table consisting of two columns, the 1st ★ Self explanatory.
giving an identification of the ★ Has a clear title indicating its content “
observational unit & the 2nd giving the written under the graph”.
value of the variable for that unit. ★ Fully labeled.
★ The y axis (vertical) is usually used for
frequency.

GRAPHS
➢ Bar Chart
➢ Pie Diagram
➢ Histogram
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLES ➢ Scatter Diagram
★ Provide the most convenient format for ➢ Line Graph
summarizing & presenting data. ➢ Frequency Polygon
★ For qualitative data, it is straight forward;
the main task is to count the number of BAR CHART
observations in each category. These ★ Used for presenting discrete or qualitative
counts are called frequencies. data.
★ For quantitative data, we have to form a ★ It is a graphical presentation of
frequency distribution which consists of a magnitude (value or percentage) by
series of predetermined classes together rectangles of constant width & lengths
with counts of the number of observations proportional to the frequency & separated
whose values fall within the interval of by gaps.
each class.
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RESEARCH CAPSTONE

SIMPLE BAR CHART

PIE DIAGRAM
★ Consist of a circle whose area represents
the total frequency (100%) which is divided
into segments.
★ Each segment represents a proportional
composition of the total frequency.

MULTIPLE BAR CHART

COMPONENT BAR CHART

HISTOGRAM
★ It is very similar to a bar chart with the
difference that the rectangles or bars are
adherent (without gaps).
★ It is used for presenting class frequency
tables (continuous data).
★ Each bar represents a class and its height
represents the frequency (number of
cases), its width represents the class
interval.
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LINE GRAPH
★ It is diagram showing the relationship
between two numeric variables (as the
scatter) but the points are joined together
to form a line (either broken line or
smooth curve)

FREQUENCY POLYGON
★ Derived from a histogram by connecting
the midpoints of the tops of the
rectangles in the histogram.
SCATTER DIAGRAM
★ The line connecting the centers of
★ It is useful to represent the relationship
histogram rectangles is called frequency
between 2 numeric measurements, each
polygon. We can draw polygons without
observation being represented by a point
rectangles so we will get a simpler form of
corresponding to its value on each axis.
line graph.
★ A special type of frequency polygon is “the
Normal Distribution Curve”.
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NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE SKEWED DATA

“GAUSSIAN DISTRIBUTION CURVE” ★ If we represent a collected data by a
frequency polygon & the resulted curve
★ The NDC Is the frequency polygon of a does not simulate the NDC (with all its
quantitative continuous variable characteristics) then these data are
measured in large numbers. “Not normally distributed”
★ It is a form of presentation of frequency “Curve may be skewed to the Rt. or to the Lt. side”
distribution of biologic variables “weights,
heights, hemoglobin level and blood pressure“.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CURVE:

★ Bell shaped, continuous curve CAUSES OF SKEWED DATA
★ Symmetrical i.e. can be divided into two ★ The data collected are form:
equal halves vertically ➢ Heterogeneous group
★ Tails never touch the baseline but ➢ Diseased or abnormal population
extended to infinity in either direction . ★ So; the results obtained from these data
★ The mean, median, and mode values can not be applied or generalized on the
coincide. whole population.
★ Described by 2 parameters: arithmetic
mean (X) “location of the center of the curve” ★ NDC can be used in distinguishing
& standard deviation (SD) “scatter around between normal from abnormal
the mean” measurements.

AREAS UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE:

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DATA SUMMARIZATION

★ If data is presented in a frequency table

with class intervals we calculate mean by
the same equation but using the midpoint
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY of class interval.
ARITHMETIC MEAN
★ Sum of observation divided by the number
of observations.

MEDIAN
★ The middle of observation in a series of
observation after arranging them in an
ascending or descending manner

ARITHMETIC MEAN MEDIAN

★ In case of frequency distribution data we ★ First, arrange the observations in an
calculate the mean by this equation: ascending order.
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MEDIAN

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF THE

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:

MEAN
★ Usually preferred since it takes into
account each individual observation.
★ Main disadvantage is that it is affected by
the value of extreme observations.

MEDIAN
★ Useful descriptive measure if there are
MEDIAN one or two extremely high or low values

MODE
★ Seldom used.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION

MEASURE OF DISPERSION
★ Describes the degree of variations or
scatter or dispersion of the data around
MODE its central values (dispersion = variation =
★ The most frequent spread = scatter).
occurring value in the
data.

RANGE
★ The difference between the largest &
smallest values.
★ It is the simplest measure of variation

★ It can be expressed as an interval such as

4 - 10, where 4 is the smallest value and 10
is highest .
REVIEWER
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★ But often it is expressed as interval width.

For example, the range of 4 - 10 can also be
expressed as a range of 6.

RANGE (Disadvantages)

COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION “COV”

★ The coefficient of variation expresses the
standard deviation as a percentage of the
sample mean.

VARIANCE C.V is useful when we are interested in the relative

★ To get the average of differences between size of the variability in the data.
the mean & each observation in the data;
we have reduce each value from the mean
and then sum these differences and
divided by the number of observation .

★ The value of this equation will be equal to

zero, because the differences between
each value and the mean will have
negative and positive signs that will
equalize zero on algebraic summation.
★ To overcome this zero we square the
difference between the mean & each value
so that sign will be always positive pass
we get:

STANDARD DEVIATION (SD)

★ The main disadvantage of the variance is
that it is the square of the units used.
★ So, it is more convenient to express the
variation in the original units by taking
the square root of the variance.
★ This is called the standard deviation ().
Therefore (SD) = √V
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HYPOTHESIS TESTING
★ To find out whether the observed variation
among sampling is explained by sampling
variations, chance or is really a difference
between groups.
★ The method of assessing the hypothesis
testing is known as a “significance test”.
★ Significance testing is a method for
assessing whether a result is likely to be
due to chance or due to a real effect.

NULL & ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES:

★ In hypothesis testing, a specific
hypothesis is formulated & data is
collected to accept or to reject it.
★ Null hypothesis means: H0: x1=x2 this
means that there is no difference between
x1 & x2.
★ If we reject the null hypothesis, i.e there is
a difference between the 2 readings,it is
either H1: x1 < x2 or H2: x1 ＞x2
★ In other words the null hypothesis is
rejected because x1 is different from x2.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE

★ Set up a null hypothesis and its
alternative.
★ Find the value of the test statistic.
★ Refer the value of the test statistic to a
known distribution which it would follow if
the null hypothesis was true.
★ Conclude that the data are consistent or
inconsistent with the null hypothesis.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
★ If the data are not consistent with the null
hypotheses, the difference is said to be
INFERENTIAL MATCHING
“statistically significant”.
★ The first step towards mastering your
data.

INFERENCE
★ Involves making a generalization about a ★ In medicine we usually consider that
larger group of individuals on the basis of differences are significant if the
a subset or sample. probability is <0.05.
★ This means that if the null hypothesis is
true, we shall make a wrong decision <5 in
a 100 times.
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RESEARCH CAPSTONE

Degree of freedom = (n1+n2)-2

★ The value of t will be compared to values

in the specific table of “t distribution test”
at the value of the degree of freedom.
★ If t-value is less than that in the table,
then the difference between samples is
insignificant.
TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE ★ If t-value is larger than that in the table so
the difference is significant i.e. the null
hypothesis is rejected.

COMPARING TWO MEANS OF LARGE SAMPLES USING

THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION: (Z TEST OR SND
STANDARD NORMAL DEVIATE)

COMPARING TWO MEANS OF SMALL SAMPLES USING

T-TEST
★ If we have a small sample size (<60), we PAIRED T-TEST
can use the t distribution instead of the ★ If we are comparing repeated observations
normal distribution. in the same individual or difference
between paired data, we have to use
paired t-test where the analysis is carried
out using the mean and standard
deviation of the difference between each
pair.
REVIEWER
RESEARCH CAPSTONE

★ A chi-squared test is used to test whether

there is an association between the raw
variable & the column variable or, in other
words whether the distribution of
individuals among the categories of one
variable is independent of their
distribution among the categories of the
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE “ANOVA”

ONE-WAY ANOVA
★ Subgroups to be compared are defined by
just one factor.
★ Comparison between means of different
socio-economic classes.

TWO-WAY ANOVA
★ When the subdivision is based upon more
than one factor

The main idea in ANOVA is that we have to take

into account the variability within the groups &
between the groups.

EXAMPLE HYPOTHETICAL STUDY

★ Two groups of patients are treated using
different spinal manipulation techniques
➢ Gonstead vs. Diversified
★ The pressure or absence of pain after
treatment is the outcome measure.
★ Two categories
➢ Technique used
➢ Pain after treatment

GONSTEAD VS. DIVERSIFIED EXAMPLE - RESULTS

TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE

CHI-SQUARED TEST
★ Qualitative data are arranged in tables
formed by rows & columns. One variable
defines the rows & the categories of the
other variable define the columns.
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★ First find the expected values for each cell EXAMPLES:

★ If the no. of anemic patients in group 1
which includes 50 patients in 5 and the
number of anemic patients in group to
which contain 60 patients is 20.

CORRELATION & REGRESSION

CORRELATION:
★ Measures the closeness of the association
between 2 continuous variables.

LINEAR REGRESSION
2
★ Gives the equation of the straight line that
★ Use the 𝑋 formula with each cell and then best describes & enables the prediction of
add them together. one variable from the other

2
★ Find df and then consult a 𝑋 table to see
CORRELATION
if statistically significant.
Relationship Between Two Quantities Such That
When One Changes, the Other Does
★ There are two categories for each variable
in this case, so df=1 POSITIVE CORRELATION
Critical value at the 0.05 level and one df is ★ The points lie close to a
3.4 straight line, which has a
2 positive gradient.
Therefore, 𝑋 is not statistically significant
★ This shows that as one
variable increases the
Z TEST FOR COMPARING TWO PERCENTAGES
other increases.

NEGATIVE CORRELATION
★ The points lie close to a
straight line, which has a
negative gradient.
★ This shows that as one
variable increases the
other decreases.
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NO CORRELATION SCATTERPLOTS
★ There is no pattern to the ★ An X-Y graph with symbols that represent
points. the values of two variables.
★ This shows that there is
no connection between
the two variables.

MULTIPLE REGRESSION
★ The dependency of a dependent variable
on several independent variables, not just
one.
★ Test of significance used in the ANOVA. (F
test).

CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION!!!

FOR EXAMPLE:
★ If neonatal birth weight depends on these
factors; gestational age, length of baby
and head circumference. Each factor
correlates significantly with baby birth
weight (i.e. has +ve linear correlation). We
can do multiple regression analysis to
obtain a mathematical equation by which
we can predict the birth weight of any
LINEAR REGRESSION neonate if we know the values of these
factors.
SAME AS CORRELATION
★ Determine the relation & prediction of the
change in a variable due to changes in
other variables.
★ T-test is also used for the assessment of
the level of significance.

DIFFER THAN CORRELATION GOODLUCKS!! (๑ ˃̵ᴗ˂̵)‫و‬

★ The independent factor has to be specified - rie
from the dependent variable.
★ The dependent variable in linear
regression must be a continuous one.
★ Allows the prediction of dependent
variable for a particular independent
variable “But, should not be used outside
the range of original data”.