The

Evolution of
USB 2.0
Speed, Power & Applications

By Prasanthi Chanda
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Evolution of USB
1.1 How USB Became the Universal Standard for Connectivity
CHAPTER 1:
1.2 From USB 1.0 to 2.0 – Major Improvements and Speed Advancements
1.3 Visual Timeline of USB Evolution

Understanding USB 2.0 Architecture

CHAPTER 2: 2.1 The Fundamental Structure of USB
2.2 Host, Hubs & Devices – Understanding Data Flow

Physical Interface of USB

3.1 USB Cables and Connectors
3.2 USB Signaling and Data Transfer
CHAPTER 3:
3.3 Encoding Schemes
3.4 USB Power Delivery
3.5 USB States and Power Management

USB Endpoints and Transfer Types

4.1 USB Endpoints
CHAPTER 4:
4.2 USB Transfer Types
4.3 Comparison of USB Transfer Types

USB Descriptors – The Blueprint of USB Devices

5.1 What Are USB Descriptors?
CHAPTER 5:
5.2 Key Types of USB Descriptors
5.3 Why Are Descriptors Important?

USB Device Classes

6.1 USB Enumeration & Configuration
CHAPTER 6: 6.2 USB Class Codes & Their Importance
6.3 USB Transfer Types
6.4 USB 2.0 Speed Levels

Debugging USB designs

7.1 Debugging on the Host Side
7.2 Debugging Communication with USB Analyzers
CHAPTER 7:
7.3 Debugging on the Device Side
7.4 Comparing 100G, 400G, and 800G Ethernet for Enterprise Networks
7.5 Future Ethernet Innovations: Predictions for the Next Decade

Debugging USB designs

8.1. USB-IF Compliance Testing
CHAPTER 8
8.2 Microsoft Hardware Certification Testing (WHQL)
CHAPTER 1
THE EVOLUTION OF USB
1.1 How USB Became the Universal
Standard for Connectivity
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) has revolutionized the way we
connect devices. Introduced in the mid-1990s, USB was designed to
simplify the chaos of multiple ports and cables. Before USB,
computers had a variety of ports like serial, parallel, and PS/2, each
serving a specific purpose. This made connectivity cumbersome
and inefficient.
USB emerged as a single, universal solution to replace them all. Its
plug-and-play functionality, combined with the ability to power
devices, made it an instant game-changer. Over the years, USB has
evolved to meet the growing demands of speed, power delivery, and
versatility, becoming the backbone of modern connectivity.

The Need for a Universal Interface –

Why USB Replaced Older Ports
Before USB, connecting devices was a hassle. Each peripheral
required a unique port:
Serial Ports: Used for modems and older mice, but slow and
limited in functionality.
Parallel Ports: Primarily for printers, but bulky and inefficient
for data transfer.
PS/2 Ports: Dedicated to keyboards and mice, but not hot-
swappable.
 These ports were not only inconvenient but also limited in speed
and compatibility. USB addressed these issues by offering:
Universal Compatibility: One port for all devices.
Hot-Swapping: Devices could be connected or disconnected
without restarting the computer.
Power Delivery: USB could power devices like keyboards, mice,
and even smartphones.
By the early 2000s, USB had replaced most older ports, becoming
the standard for personal and professional computing.

1.2 From USB 1.0 to 2.0 – Major Improvements

and Speed Advancements
The journey of USB began with USB 1.0 in 1996, offering a
maximum speed of 12 Mbps (megabits per second). While this
was a significant improvement over older ports, it was still
relatively slow for transferring large files.
In 2000, USB 2.0 was introduced, marking a major leap forward.
With a maximum speed of 480 Mbps, it was 40 times faster than
USB 1.0. This advancement made USB 2.0 ideal for a wide range of
applications, from external hard drives to digital cameras.

Key improvements in USB 2.0 included:

Faster Data Transfer: Reduced wait times for file transfers.
Backward Compatibility: USB 2.0 worked with older USB 1.0
devices.
Wider Adoption: USB 2.0 became the standard for consumer
electronics, cementing USB’s dominance.
These advancements laid the foundation for future iterations,
ensuring USB’s place as the universal interface for decades to
come.
1.3 Visual Timeline of USB Evolution

Year
USB Version Max Speed Key Features
Released

USB 1.0 1996 12 Mbps First universal standard

USB 1.1 1998 12 Mbps Bug fixes, improved adoption

USB 2.0 2000 480 Mbps High-speed data transfer

CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTANDING USB 2.0 ARCHITECTURE
2.1 The Fundamental Structure of USB
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a widely adopted interface standard
that allows devices to communicate with a host, typically a
computer. USB 2.0, introduced in April 2000, brought significant
improvements over its predecessors, including higher data
transfer speeds (up to 480 Mbps) and backward compatibility
with USB 1.1 and 1.0 devices. The architecture of USB 2.0 is
designed to be simple, scalable, and efficient, making it ideal for a
wide range of applications, from keyboards and mice to high-
speed storage devices.
At its core, USB 2.0 operates on a tiered-star topology, where a
single host controls multiple devices through hubs. This structure
allows for easy expansion and connection of up to 127 devices,
including hubs, to a single host. The host is responsible for
managing data flow, power distribution, and device enumeration,
ensuring that all connected devices operate seamlessly.

2.2 Host, Hubs & Devices –

Understanding Data Flow
1. The Host:
The host is the central controller in a USB system, typically a
personal computer (PC). It contains two main components:
Host Controller: Manages data flow between the host and
connected devices. It detects device
attachment/removal, handles data transfers, and provides
power to devices.
Root Hub: Acts as the primary connection point for
devices. It provides the physical USB ports on the host
machine.
The host initiates all communication on the USB bus. Devices cannot
transfer data without a request from the host, ensuring orderly data
flow and preventing conflicts.
2. Hubs:
Hubs are intermediary devices that expand the number of
available USB ports. They act as both a downstream device
(connected to the host) and an upstream device (connected to
other devices or hubs). Hubs repeat data signals between the host
and connected devices, allowing for longer cable runs and more
device connections.
Upstream Port: Connects to the host or another hub.
Downstream Ports: Connect to devices or additional hubs.
Hubs can be bus-powered (drawing power from the host) or self-
powered (using an external power source). A maximum of five hubs
can be chained together, creating a seven-tiered system.
1. Devices:
2. USB devices are the endpoints in the USB architecture. They can
be anything from a simple mouse to a complex storage device.
Each device has one or more endpoints, which are buffers used
for data transfer. Endpoints are unidirectional (IN for data to the
host, OUT for data from the host) except for the control
endpoint (Endpoint 0), which is bidirectional and used for
device configuration and management.
3. When a device is connected, the host assigns it a unique
address and reads its descriptors—data structures that provide
information about the device's capabilities, power requirements,
and supported configurations.
Hub Connections

USB Connection Tier

Interface Abstraction
CHAPTER 3:
PHYSICAL INTERFACE OF USB
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a widely used standard for
connecting peripherals to computers and other electronic
devices. The physical interface of USB includes various
components such as cables, connectors, signaling methods,
encoding schemes, and different power states. Understanding
these aspects is crucial for efficient data transmission and
device compatibility.

Inside a USB Cable

3.1 USB Cables and Connectors

USB cables and connectors are designed for high-speed data
transfer and power delivery. The major types of USB connectors
include:
USB Type-A: Standard rectangular connector, commonly
used in computers and chargers.
USB Type-B: Square-shaped connector, often found in
printers and external hard drives.
Mini-USB: Smaller than Type-B, used in older mobile devices.
Micro-USB: Slimmer design, widely used in smartphones and
portable gadgets.
USB Type-C: Reversible design, supports high-speed data
transfer and power delivery up to 100W.
 USB Connector Size
Comparison

USB Ports and Connectors

3.2 USB Signaling and Data Transfer

USB communication relies on differential signaling, where two wires
(D+ and D-) carry data signals in opposite phases to reduce noise
and improve signal integrity. USB supports different signaling rates:
Low Speed (1.5 Mbps): Used for simple peripherals like
keyboards and mice.
Full Speed (12 Mbps): Suitable for audio devices and some older
peripherals.
High Speed (480 Mbps): Found in USB 2.0 devices for faster
data transmission.
SuperSpeed (5 Gbps - 40 Gbps): Introduced in USB 3.x and
USB4, enabling high-bandwidth applications.
 USB Speed Detection

Full-Speed: 48 MHz / 12 Mb/s = 4 clocks per bit time.

Low-Speed: 48 MHz / 1.5 Mb/s = 32 clocks per bit time.

3.3 Encoding Schemes

USB employs different encoding schemes for efficient data
transmission:
NRZI (Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted): Used in USB 1.1 and 2.0 to
reduce power consumption.
8b/10b Encoding: Used in USB 3.0 to ensure sufficient
transitions for clock synchronization.
128b/132b Encoding: Employed in USB 3.1 and above to improve
efficiency and reduce overhead.

USB Hardware Interface at the Device

3.4 USB Power Delivery
USB not only transmits data but also delivers power to connected
devices. The power levels vary across USB versions:
USB 2.0: Provides up to 500mA at 5V.
USB 3.0 and 3.1: Delivers up to 900mA at 5V.
USB Power Delivery (USB PD): Supports variable voltage (5V, 9V,
15V, 20V) and power up to 100W, enabling fast charging and
powering larger devices.

USB Transfer Speeds

3.5 USB States and Power Management

USB devices operate in different power states to optimize energy
consumption:
Active State: The device is fully powered and actively
communicating.
Suspend Mode: The device enters a low-power state when idle.
Resume State: The device wakes up from suspend mode upon
receiving a signal.
Reset State: The device resets itself for initialization or
recovery.

USB Bus-powered USB Self-powered

Device Device
CHAPTER 4:
USB ENDPOINTS AND TRANSFER TYPES
One of the fundamental concepts in USB communication is the
endpoint, which plays a crucial role in data transfer between the
host and the device. Understanding USB endpoints and their
transfer types is essential for designing efficient USB-based
systems.

4.1 USB Endpoints

A USB endpoint is a uniquely addressable source or sink of data
on a USB device. Endpoints serve as communication channels
between the USB host (e.g., a computer) and the USB device
(e.g., a keyboard, flash drive, or printer). Each endpoint is
unidirectional, meaning it can either send or receive data but not
both.

Key Characteristics of Endpoints:

1. Direction:
IN Endpoint: Transfers data from the device to the host.
OUT Endpoint: Transfers data from the host to the device.
2. Endpoint Number: Each endpoint is assigned a unique
number (0–15 for both IN and OUT directions).
3. Endpoint Types: Different endpoints support different types
of USB transfers.
4. Endpoint 0: Every USB device must have at least one control
endpoint (Endpoint 0) used for enumeration and control
commands.
4.2 USB Transfer Types
USB defines four primary transfer types, each optimized for
specific applications:
1. Control Transfers
Purpose: Used for device management, configuration, and
command execution.
Characteristics:
Always supported by Endpoint 0.
Used during enumeration (device identification).
Consists of setup, data, and status stages.
Examples:
Setting device address.
Retrieving device descriptors.
2. Bulk Transfers
Purpose: Used for transferring large amounts of non-time-
critical data.
Characteristics:
Error detection with retransmission.
Uses remaining bandwidth after other transfer types.
No guaranteed timing.
Examples:
File transfers in USB flash drives.
Printer data transmission.
3. Interrupt Transfers
Purpose: Used for low-latency, periodic data transfers.
Characteristics:
Polled by the host at regular intervals.
Small data packets (up to 64 bytes in USB 2.0).
Guaranteed latency and reliable delivery.
Examples:
Keyboard and mouse inputs.
Game controller button presses.
 4. Isochronous Transfers
Purpose: Used for real-time, high-bandwidth data streaming.
Characteristics:
No error checking or retransmission.
Guaranteed bandwidth and timing.
Suitable for applications where data loss is acceptable but
timing is critical.
Examples:
Audio and video streaming.
VoIP communication.

4.3 Comparison of USB Transfer Types

Timing
Transfer Type Speed Reliability Use Case
Guarantee

Control Low High No Device management

Bulk High High No File transfers

Input devices (keyboard,

Interrupt Medium Medium Yes
mouse)

Isochronous High Low Yes Audio/video streaming

CHAPTER 5
USB DESCRIPTORS – THE BLUEPRINT OF USB
DEVICES
When you plug a USB device into your computer, how does the
host know what it is, how to communicate with it, and what power it
needs? The answer lies in USB descriptors. These are structured
data tables embedded in the device’s firmware that provide the
host with all the necessary information to configure and interact
with the device. Think of descriptors as the "blueprint" of a USB
device, defining its capabilities, power requirements, and
functionality.

5.1 What Are USB Descriptors?

USB descriptors are data structures that describe the device’s
attributes, configurations, interfaces, and endpoints. When a device
is connected, the host reads these descriptors during the
enumeration process to understand the device’s capabilities and
configure it accordingly. Descriptors are hierarchical, meaning they
are organized in a tree-like structure, with the Device Descriptor at
the top, followed by Configuration, Interface, and Endpoint
Descriptors.

USB Descriptor Tree with

Two Configurations
5.2 Key Types of USB Descriptors
1. Device Descriptor:
Purpose: Provides an overview of the device, including its class,
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID), and supported USB version.
Key Fields:
bcdUSB: USB specification version (e.g., 0x0200 for USB
2.0).
idVendor and idProduct: Unique identifiers assigned by the
USB-IF and manufacturer.
bNumConfigurations: Number of configurations the device
supports.
Example: A USB flash drive might have a Device Descriptor
indicating it’s a Mass Storage Class device with one
configuration.
2. Configuration Descriptor:
Purpose: Describes a specific configuration of the device,
including power requirements and the number of interfaces.
Key Fields:
bMaxPower: Maximum power the device draws from the
bus (in 2 mA units).
bNumInterfaces: Number of interfaces in this
configuration.
Example: A webcam might have a configuration for high-power
mode (when connected to a powered hub) and a low-power
mode (when bus-powered).
3. Interface Descriptor:
Purpose: Defines a specific interface within a configuration,
including its class and number of endpoints.
Key Fields:
InterfaceClass: Class of the interface (e.g., 0x03 for HID, 0x08
for Mass Storage).
bNumEndpoints: Number of endpoints used by the interface.
Example: A USB audio device might have separate interfaces for
audio playback and volume control.
4. Endpoint Descriptor:
Purpose: Describes an endpoint, including its
direction (IN or OUT), transfer type, and maximum
packet size.
Key Fields:
bEndpointAddress: Endpoint number and direction
(e.g., 0x81 for IN endpoint 1).
bmAttributes: Transfer type (Control, Bulk,
Interrupt, or Isochronous).
Example: A mouse might have an Interrupt IN
endpoint for sending movement data.
String Descriptor:
Purpose: Provides human-readable information,
such as the manufacturer name, product name, or
serial number.
Key Fields:
bString: Unicode-encoded text string.
Example: A USB drive might have a string
descriptor for its manufacturer name ("SanDisk").

The Descriptor Hierarchy

5.3 Why Are Descriptors Important?
1. Device Identification: Descriptors tell the host what the device is
(e.g., a keyboard, mouse, or storage device).
2. Power Management: Descriptors specify the device’s power
requirements, ensuring it doesn’t overload the bus.
3. Driver Selection: The host uses descriptors to load the appropriate
driver for the device.
4. Configuration: Descriptors allow the host to configure the device
for optimal performance.
CHAPTER 6
USB DEVICE CLASSES
USB devices are grouped into different classes based on their
functionality. These classes help operating systems identify and load
the correct drivers automatically.
Class Code USB Device Class Example Devices

01h Audio Microphones, speakers

CDC
02h Modems, virtual COM ports
(Communications)

HID (Human
03h Keyboards, mice, game controllers
Interface Device)

08h Mass Storage USB flash drives, external HDDs

0Eh Video Webcams, video capture devices

EFh Miscellaneous USB hubs, smart card readers

Each device has a class code that tells the host computer what type
of device it is and which driver to use.
6.1 USB Enumeration & Configuration
1. When a USB device is plugged into a computer, the enumeration
process happens. This is how the USB host (computer) recognizes
and configures the device. The steps include:
2. Power-up – The device gets power from the USB port.
3. Reset & Speed Detection – The host determines if the device is
Low-Speed (1.5 Mbps), Full-Speed (12 Mbps), or High-Speed (480
Mbps).
4. Device Descriptor Request – The host asks the device for its
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID), and class code.
5. Driver Loading – The operating system selects the appropriate
driver based on the class code.
This entire process takes just a few milliseconds and is plug-and-
play, meaning no manual setup is needed.
6.2 USB Class Codes & Their Importance
USB class codes help the host determine the correct driver for a
device.
For example:
A keyboard has a class code of 03h (HID), so Windows/macOS
loads a generic HID driver.
A USB flash drive has a class code of 08h (Mass Storage), so
the OS loads a Mass Storage driver to enable file transfer.
This allows standardized communication between different types
of devices and computers.

6.3 USB Transfer Types

USB devices use four different data transfer types depending on
their purpose:

Transfer Type Purpose Example Devices

Configuration &
Control USB enumeration, device descriptors
setup

Low-latency data
Interrupt Keyboards, mice, game controllers
transfer

Bulk Large file transfers USB flash drives, external HDDs

Continuous real-
Isochronous Audio, video, webcams
time streaming

Each transfer type ensures that USB devices work efficiently without
data loss or unnecessary delays.
6.4 USB 2.0 Speed Levels

Speed Mode Maximum Speed Used By

Low-Speed 1.5 Mbps Keyboards, mice

Full-Speed 12 Mbps Printers, older USB audio devices

High-Speed 480 Mbps USB flash drives, external HDDs, webcams

Note: USB 2.0 is backward compatible with USB 1.1, meaning older
devices will still work but at their original speed.
CHAPTER 7
DEBUGGING USB DESIGNS
Common debugging scenarios when a USB device fails to work after
development.
7.1 Debugging on the Host Side
1.Check Device Manager (Windows):
Step 1: Open Device Manager (Start > Control Panel > Device
Manager).
Step 2: Look for your device under “Universal Serial Bus
controllers” or “Other devices.”
Step 3: If the device appears as “Unknown Device,” it may
indicate a driver issue or improper configuration.
2.Common Issues:
Unknown Device: This usually means the host can’t recognize
the device. Possible causes:
Missing or incorrect drivers.
Device descriptor issues (e.g., invalid VID/PID).
Device Not Listed: If the device doesn’t appear in Device
Manager:
Check power requirements. Ensure the device isn’t drawing more
power than the hub can provide.
Try a different USB port or cable to rule out hardware issues.
3.Driver Troubleshooting:
Reinstall Drivers: Right-click the device in Device Manager,
select “Uninstall,” and reconnect the device.
Update Drivers: Use the “Update Driver Software” option to force
a driver update.
7.2 Debugging Communication with USB
Analyzers
1. Types of USB Analyzers:
Software Analyzers: Run on the host machine and intercept
USB traffic. Examples include Bus Hound and Wireshark.
Pros: Low cost, easy to set up.
Cons: Limited to host-side traffic; can’t capture low-level
signals like suspend/resume.
Hardware Analyzers: Dedicated devices that sit between the
host and device. Examples include TotalPhase Beagle and
LeCroy USB Protocol Analyzers.
Pros: Capture all USB traffic, including low-level signals.
Cons: Expensive, but essential for in-depth debugging.
2. What to Look For:
Enumeration Process: Check if the device is properly
enumerated. Look for missing or incorrect descriptors.
Data Transfers: Verify that data packets are being sent and
received correctly. Look for errors like NAKs or STALLs.
Timing Issues: Ensure that transactions are happening within
the expected timeframes.
3. Example:
If the host sends a SETUP token but the device doesn’t
respond with a DATA packet, there may be an issue with the
device’s firmware or endpoint configuration.
 Using Analyzer with Single Host
Using Analyzer with Dual Host

7.3 Debugging on the Device Side

If the host and communication seem fine, the issue might lie in the
device itself. Here’s how to debug on the device side:
1. Firmware Debugging:
Use debugging tools like PSoC Creator or Keil uVision to set
breakpoints, inspect memory, and monitor register values.
Check if the device is responding to host requests correctly. For
example, ensure the device sends the correct descriptors during
enumeration.
2. Hardware Debugging:
Verify that the USB transceiver and Serial Interface Engine (SIE) are
functioning correctly.
Use an oscilloscope to check the D+ and D- lines for proper
signaling.
3. Common Issues:
Endpoint Configuration: Ensure endpoints are correctly configured
for the intended transfer type (Control, Bulk, Interrupt, or
Isochronous).
Power Issues: Check if the device is drawing too much current or
failing to enter low-power modes correctly.
CHAPTER 8
USB COMPLIANCE TESTING – ENSURING
YOUR DEVICE MEETS THE STANDARD
When developing a USB device, ensuring it complies with industry
standards is crucial for reliability, interoperability, and market
acceptance. Compliance testing verifies that your device adheres
to the USB specification, ensuring it works seamlessly with a wide
range of hosts and devices. In this chapter, we’ll explore the USB-IF
Compliance Testing process and the Microsoft Hardware
Certification Testing, providing a roadmap to certify your USB
device.

8.1. USB-IF Compliance Testing

The USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF) is the governing body that
ensures USB devices meet the required standards. Compliance
testing is mandatory for any device that wants to display the
“Certified USB” logo, a mark of quality and reliability.
Steps to USB-IF Compliance:
1. Complete the Compliance Checklists:
Before testing, you’ll need to fill out detailed checklists that
cover your device’s specifications, functionality, and
behavior. These checklists reference specific sections of
the USB specification, ensuring your device meets all
requirements.
2. Submit Your Device for Testing:
Option 1: Attend a Plugfest:
Plugfests are USB-IF-sponsored events where you can test
your device alongside other developers. These events are
free for USB-IF members and provide access to USB
experts for debugging.
Pros: Free, access to prototype hosts and hubs, and expert
support.
Cons: Limited to a few events per year.
3. Pass the Required Tests:
Functional Tests: Verify that your device operates correctly
under various conditions, including stress testing and
suspend/resume functionality.
Electrical Tests: Ensure your device meets signal quality
standards, such as rise/fall times, undershoot, and overshoot.
These tests often produce an eye diagram, a visual
representation of signal integrity.
Interoperability Tests: Confirm that your device works with a wide
range of hosts, hubs, and other USB devices. This includes testing
in different power states (e.g., S1, S3) and topologies (e.g., nested
hubs).
4. Receive Certification:
Once your device passes all tests, it will be added to the USB-IF
Integrators List, and you’ll be authorized to use the “Certified
USB” logo.

8.2 Microsoft Hardware Certification Testing

(WHQL)
If your USB device is designed for Windows, you’ll also need to pass
Microsoft’s Hardware Certification Testing (WHQL). This ensures
your device is compatible with Windows and can use digitally
signed drivers, avoiding annoying warning messages for end-users.
Steps to WHQL Certification:
1. Download the Hardware Certification Kit (HCK):
The HCK is a free tool provided by Microsoft that includes
all the software and tests needed for certification.
You’ll need a dedicated PC running Windows Server to
administer the tests and another PC with the Windows
version you’re targeting (e.g., Windows 10, 11).
 2. Run the Required Tests:
The HCK includes a series of tests tailored to your device’s
class (e.g., HID, Mass Storage). These tests verify:
Driver stability and performance.
Compatibility with different Windows versions (32-bit and
64-bit).
Proper handling of power states (e.g., sleep, hibernate)
3. Submit Your Results:
Once all tests are passed, the HCK will generate a submission
bundle. This bundle is sent to Microsoft for review.
If approved, you’ll receive a digitally signed driver, and your
device will be listed in the Windows Hardware Compatibility
List.
4. Display the Windows Logo:
Devices that pass WHQL testing can display the “Certified for
Windows” logo, assuring customers of compatibility and
reliability.

Microsoft Windows Certified Logos

By following these steps, you can ensure your USB device meets
industry standards, avoids compatibility issues, and stands out in the
market. Whether you’re building a simple peripheral or a complex
multi-function device, compliance testing is a critical step in bringing
your product to market.