Math in The Modern World Book
Math in The Modern World Book
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
A Survey for Symmetries
Materials:
printer, bond paper manila paper
plane mirror glue or scotch tape
pencils or colored camera (smartphone’s
pens camera will do)
ruler
2
made by series of circular shapes revolving around a central
ern is very common in nature – from the biological molecules
plans of certain plants and animals to typhoons and galaxies.
bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 2 08.10.2018 2:18:49 PM
implies that zooming in the lensExamples
on the digital of
image
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fractalsthe object (fractal)
in nature do not give
include new details,
geological fault lines, mounta
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Examples of fractals in nature include geological fault lines, mountain ranges, coastlines,
but only the same as that of thecoloration
original image. The imagepineapples,
patterns, justpineapples,
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over
heart and over again
rates,
and the and
no system.
the circulatory syste
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coloration patterns, rates,
matter how many times the object is magnified. Examples of these fractals in nature include the
circulatory
retainand
lightning; trees, and its branches, the caption)
a leaf and its veins, as shown in the photos.
Spirals. Spirals are curved patterns made by series of circular shapes revolving around a
Spirals. Spirals are
point. Just like curved
fractals, thepatterns
spiral patternmade by series
is very common in natureof circular
– from shape
the biological mo
FractalsChaos.
in nature Chaotic
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examples demonstrating
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is very
spiral patterns common
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plants and animals to typhoons
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of a typhoon,to
andthe of adefinitions
hornsbody ramplans whichplants
of certain
(see photo). relate anditanima
to c
chaotic
Examples of fractals in nature include pattern
geological
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fault lines, to describe
mountain theacoastlines,
ranges, kindpatterns
of order
animal inwhich
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3. Spirals. Spirals are
coloration curved
patterns, patterns
pineapples, made byexamples
heartunderlying
rates, and the
demonstrating spiral are seen
images of acirculatory
patterns,
typhoon, system.
constant
and horns feedback
of a ramloops, repetition, self-sim
(see photo).
series of circular shapes revolving around and reliance a on programming at the initial point exist within the
Spirals. Spirals are curved patterns made by series of circular shapes revolving around a central
central point. Just like fractals, the spiral
point. Just like fractals, the spiral pattern
pattern
complex
Fractals
is very systemsin and
in common
nature nature erratic
– from and turbulent
the biological processes. Chaos
molecules
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Among the examples of chaotic patterns
is very common
that makeinupnature
organisms from the plans
to the body biological
of certain plants and animals to typhoons andin nature can be seen
galaxies.
Examples of fractals in nature include geological fault lines, mountain ranges, coastlines, animal
molecules Some
that examples updemonstrating
make coloration
organisms the shell
tospiral of arates,
patterns
the heart
patterns, pineapples, body mollusk.
inand
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a Ram (researchgate.net)
images of a typhoon, and horns of a ram (see photo). com
plans of certain plantsSpirals.and Spirals
animals to typhoons
are curved patterns made by series of circular shapes revolving around a central
and galaxies. Some examples demonstrating
point. Just like theis very common in nature – from the biological molecules
fractals, the spiral pattern
that make up organisms to the body plans of certain plants and animals to typhoons and galaxies.
spiral patterns in nature are seen in shells of a
Some examples demonstrating the spiral patterns in nature are seen in shells of a snail, satellite
snail, satellite
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images of a typhoon,
images of a typhoon,andand horns
hornsThe ofram
a (see
of aSpirals photo). (Left to Right):
in Nature. (LOA Growth delete
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retain
ram (see photo). the caption) (phys.org); The Spiral Aloe (imgur.com); Spirals in the Horns of a Ram (researchgate.net)
Chaos. Chaotic patterns (or chaos) are simple patterns created from complicated underlying
4. behavior.patterns
Chaos. Chaotic In contrast(or to popular
chaos) definitionsare simple which relate it to complete it complete disorder, a
chaotic
patterns The
created pattern
from is used to
complicateddescribe a kind
underlying of order which lacks predictability. Vortex Street of Chaos cloudsillustrates that
Shell of m
underlying
Spirals inpatterns,
Nature. (Leftconstant feedback
to Right): Growth Spiralsloops,
in the Shell ofimgur.com
repetition, self-similarity,
a Snail (http://oproot.com); fractals,
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Satellite Image self-organization,
of a Typhoon
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behavior.and Inreliance
contrast
(phys.org); The Spiral Aloeto popular
(imgur.com); Spirals indefinitions
the Horns of a Ram (researchgate.net)
on programming at the initial point exist within the apparent randomness of chaotic
which relate
complexit tosystems
complete and it complete
erratic disorder,
and turbulent processes. Chaos is often associated with fractals.
Among the
a chaotic pattern is used examples
The Spiralsto
of chaotic
describe
in Nature.
patterns
aretain
The kind
Source:
(Left to Right):
in
currents
Source:
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nature
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of a Snail (http://oproot.com); flow Street
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researchgate.net blood
Image
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clouds,
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delete
of a Typhoon
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delete the
fractal
boxbox onlyonly
bloo
shell of a mollusk. (phys.org); The Spiral Aloe (imgur.com); retain
the
Spirals the
caption)
in the caption)
Horns of a Ram (researchgate.net)
order which lacks predictability. Chaos illustrates astronomy, epidemiology,
Chaos.
Chaos. Chaotic
Chaotic
patterns
patterns
The
(or chaos)
(or
Spirals
chaos) are
in
are and
simple
Nature.
simple the
patterns effects
patterns
(Top
created created
toitcomplete of
from
Bottom):
fromair turbulence.
complicated
complicated underlying
underlying
behavior.
behavior. In contrast
In contrastto popular
to populardefinitions
definitions whichwhich
relate
relate
it to to completeit complete
it complete disorder,
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that underlying patterns, constant feedback chaotic
chaotic
pattern
pattern
is used
is used
to describe
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of order
of order
inloops,
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Shell lacks
oflacks
predictability.
predictability.
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illustrates
illustrates
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Theshell
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the ocean, the flow of made bloodwith through a clouds
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fractal blood through vessels, an object
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the branches trees, it into two
astronomy, epidemiology, and the effects ofTheeach
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The currents of the ocean, the flowtwo) ofastronomy,
blood
astronomy, epidemiology,
mirror images.
epidemiology,
org and and the effects
the effects of airofturbulence.
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air turbulence.
through Symmetries
fractal blood of Our Surroundings
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Symmetries
Symmetries ofof Ourof Our
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Reflection Symmetry. Also called mirror symmetry or line symmetry, reflection symmetry is
In our everyday language, we refer to symmetry
made with a line going through an object which divides it into two pieces which are mirror images
as a sense ofofharmonious and itbeautiful
each other. Often, balance
is termed as bilateraland
symmetry as pinterest.com
Source: it divides the object into two (“bi” means
proportion. Like what is said earlier, an objectfollowing:
two) mirror images. Examples are the is said Bilateral Symmetry in Insects. Left: Butterfly with the line of Symmet
to have symmetry when it remains unchanged after Dragonfly with the line of Symmetry (researchgate.net).
transformations such as rotations and scaling are Bilateral
Bilateral
Symmetry
Symmetryin Insects.
in Insects.
Left: Butterfly
Left: Butterfly
with the
withline
theofline
Symmetry
of Symmetry
(pinterest.com);
(pinterest.com);
Right:Right:
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applied into it. Nature is filled with patterns especially Symmetry.
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theofline
Symmetry
Also
of Symmetry
called radial symmetry in Biology, t
(researchgate.net).
(researchgate.net).
Ice crystals of a
Translational Symmetry in a Honeycomb.
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Translational Symmetry in a Stem.
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A =A +A n n–1 n–2
The strange thing about the ratio of the Fibonacci numbers is that the ratios began
approaching the number 1.618 and then repeat this ratio over and over again. As a matter of
fact, even if we try to get the ratio of the numbers after 233, we will still arrive to an answer
with several decimal places but can be rounded to the fixed limiting value of roughly equal
to 1.618034. For instance, if we get the ratio of the 100th term in the sequence to the 99 th
term, we get,
354,224,848,179,261,915,075
= 1.618
218,922,995,834,555,169,026
This irrational number, 1.618034, is called the Golden Ratio, represented by the Greek
letter or (“phi”).
We have to take note that despite we can derive the Golden Ratio from the Fibonacci
Sequence, it doesn’t necessarily means that the Golden Ratio was discovered from the
series. In fact, the Golden Ratio has been known to man since the time of the ancient Greeks,
hundreds of years before Leonardo Fibonacci published his books.
The Golden Ratio is the ratio of two quantities when the ratio of their sums to the larger
quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller quantity. In symbols,
A+B A
= B = = 1.618034
A
where A is the larger quantity and B is the smaller quantity.
To illustrate this,
10
11
12
Decoding Nature’s Rule. Look around your surroundings and choose at least five
naturally-occurring objects. Take pictures and post them on the space below. Describe their
shapes, then try to figure out the possible reason or explanation as to why they are shap the
way they are. If you find it difficult, try looking for resources in the Internet. Use the table
below as a template for this activity. After the activity, answer the question for reflections.
Picture Description
Picture Description
13
Picture Description
Picture Description
What is the significance of knowing the rules and laws that govern the shape of objects
in nature? Why?
14
A. Fibonacci Rabbits in Five Years. Suppose the rabbits in the Fibonacci problem is left
undisturbed for five years and that none of the rabbits died, how many rabbits will be
there after five years?
B. Finding the Golden Ratio. Create a table to show the occurrence of the Golden Ratio
between the first 30 Fibonacci numbers.
C. In the Search for Beauty. Surf the Internet. Look and study at least five sacred architectural
works that show the Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Ratio. Is there anything to which
these architectural structures have in common? Why do you think? (Attach the picture
here.)
15
E. A Question for the Philosopher. Do you think that the Golden Ratio is the blueprint to
which nature and thus, the universe is based? Why or why not?
16
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
At the end of the lesson, students are
Visual Metaphor expected to:
• discuss the language, symbols,
Students should come up with a word or two that
and conventions of mathematics;
describes their own personal characteristics. Then,
• explain the nature of
compare those characteristics to something else with mathematics as a language;
similar characteristics. • categorize statements into
Name: mathematical expression and
mathematical sentence;
Personal Characteristics Visual Metaphor • differentiate mathematical
Personality Trait: Animal Metaphor: expression to mathematical
equation;
• identify operational terms in
Behavior: Animal Metaphor: english statement;
• convert english expressions to
mathematical sentence, vice
versa; and
Life at Home: Household Item Metaphor:
• give other mathematical symbols
and discuss its use.
17
EXAMPLE 2.1
Janice loves mathematics.
18
EXAMPLE 2.3
The value of the expression 1 + 2 × 3 is 7, because the expression is evaluated by first
multiplying 2 and 3 and then adding 1 to the result.
Mathematical Mathematical
Expression Sentence
1. 6 1. 6 is an even number
2. 7 + 6 2. 7 + 6 = 13
3. 5 × 6 3. 5 × 6 = 30
4. (2 + 3) – 1 4. (2 + 3) – 1 = 4
EXAMPLE 2.4
Ten and a number is fourteen
To translate a mathematical phrase:
Step 1: Identify the variable/s and/or constant/s
Constant – Ten and a number is fourteen
Variable - Ten and a number is fourteen
Step 2: Determine the connectors.
Connectors – Ten and a number is fourteen
Step 3: Perform the translation of the phrase into symbols.
Ten and a number is fourteen
10 + x = 4
19
EXAMPLE 2.6
Write each mathematical sentence in words
Algebraic Equation English Expression
1. 6 + a = 40 1. six more than a number is 40
2. 5b = 40 2. product of five and a number is 40
c
3. = 40 3. the quotient of a number and five is forty
5
4. 2m – 4 = 40 4. twice a number less four is forty
5. x + 4 = 40 5. four more than the product of six and a number is forty
TABLE 2.2. Common Issues in Converting English Phase into Mathematical Statement
Issue Incorrect Process Correct Process
Using the wrong key word for the
problem. One half of twenty. 1. 20
20 or
2 2
1
20 ÷ Key words are “half” and “of”.
2
“Half” indicates divide by 2, not
by ½. Also “of” indicates multiply
by ½, not divide by ½.
Incorrect word order with Five less than two times a 2x – 5
subtraction. number.
8 – 3x
Not validating by translating Twice the sum of three and eight. 2(3 + 8)
from symbols back to words. 2.3+8
Use of punctuation. Three times a number, plus four. 3x + 4
3(x + 4)
Redundancy 6(2) = 12 • Two times six is twelve.
• Twice the product of two and • The product of six and two is
six is twelve. twelve.
• Twice of six is equal to twelve.
Grammatical error 2+5=7 • Two plus five equals seven.
• Two plus five is equals to seven. • The sum of two and five is
• The sum of two and five equal equal to seven.
to seven. • Two increased by five is seven.
20
Sample
Symbol Word Expression Use
Expression
> Indicates value on left is larger than
… is greater than … 3>2
Inequality sign the value on right
< Indicates value on left is smaller than
… is less than … 2<3
Inequality sign the value on right
≠ Indicates that two values are
… is not equal to… x≠y
Inequality sign different
≈
… is approximately equal Indicates two values are close to
Approximate x+y≈z
to … each othe
equal sign
∑
n
Summation sign
The summation of …
Sum of many or infinitely many
values ∑X i=1
i
21
22
A. Identify if the given below is an English noun, Mathematical expression, English sentence
or Mathematical sentence.
1. Airplane
2. 7
3. 5 – 19
4. The word “book” begins with letter d.
5. 7 – 9 = 12
6. 10 – x + 9
7. 18 – 9 + 5 = 14
8. The dog is white.
9. x
10. b = 2
11. y – 0 = 4
12. Cellphone
13. x + 3 = 3 + x
14. The statement is false.
15. Cavite
23
24
6. Eleven multiplied by x
7. X decrease by 2
10. Half of x
25
9. Thrice the sum of five and a number, all over two is eighteen.
27
2. 3x ≠ 12
3. 17a
4. 7+b
5. c – 2 ≥ 13
6. 4x 2
7. 3x
2
8. 3 (x – 2)
9. 15 ÷ y
10. 6(7 – x)
11. 12 – y = 2
3
12. 2(4 + 5) = 3
6
13. 5x – 3 = 1
2x + 4
14. 12 – (c + 4) = 5
15. a = 23
29
5. The interest Max get after investing ₱50,000 with annual interest rate of 3%
9. The total value of 10 coins consisting 5-peso coin and 1-peso coin
10. The area of a rectangle whose width is 4 less than its length
31
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
Brain Blast
Brain Blast is a game that encourages groups to LEARNING OBJECTIVES
cooperate to come up with as many ideas related to a At the end of the lesson, students are
expected to:
specific topic as possible. Although it works well when
teaching about creative ideas for solving problems, it • discuss ways to solve a problem;
is also useful as a prelude to many creative writing • solve problems using inductive
and deductive reasoning; and
projects.
• solve problems using polya’s
Whole class as two teams strategy.
33
DISCUSSION
Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that comes up to a conclusion by examining specific examples
is called inductive reasoning. A conclusion that is made by applying inductive reasoning is
called a conjecture. Conjectures may or may not be correct.
Inductive reasoning may be used in many life situations. For illustration, we show an
example of applying inductive reasoning to predict a number in a list.
EXAMPLE 3.1
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the lists.
1, 3, 6, 8, 11,?
Solution
The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the third and fourth by 2
again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2, the next difference would be 3, followed
again by 2, then by 3. Since the difference between 8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next
to 11 to be a number 2 more than 11, which is 13.
We used inductive reasoning when we predicted the number next to 11. We must take
note that though it can be helpful to use inductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion,
extra care must be observed when performing procedure. Conclusions based on inductive
reasoning may not be correct. The following example illustrates this instance.
EXAMPLE 3.2
Consider a circle and dots on the circle. What we do is connect each dot to all other dots
so that we draw all possible line segments. After this, we count the number of regions formed
inside the circle. The first five results are given in the Figure 3.1.
34
Number of dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 2 4 8 16 ?
Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of dots increase, the number
of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus, we expect that for 6 dots, there will be 16 . 2 = 32
regions. However, if we perform the procedure, we find out the only 31 regions are formed as
shown in Figure 3.2.
35
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form used in proving
observations and arriving at conclusions. It is a process by which one makes conclusions
based on previously accepted general assumptions, procedures, and principles.
To illustrate how deductive reasoning works, we make use of logic puzzles which are
best solved by deductive reasoning using a chart to display the given information.
EXAMPLE 3.4
Solve this puzzle using deductive reasoning.
John, Jenny, Shiela, and Jason were recently elected as new class officers (president, vice
president, secretary, treasurer) in a National High School. From the following clues, determine
which position each holds.
1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members of the
group.
3. Shiela and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
Solution
From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a mark “X” on positions
Jason do not hold.
President VP Secretary Treasurer
John
Jenny
Shiela
Jason X X
From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the youngest in the group, he
cannot be the president. From here, we also conclude that Jason is not the secretary since he is
older than the treasurer. Thus, Jason must be the treasurer and John must be the vice president.
36
From clue 3, Sheila is not the secretary which leads us to conclude that Jenny is the secretary.
Since there are no other options, we conclude that Shiela is the president.
President VP Secretary Treasurer
John X P X X
Jenny X X P X
Shiela P X X X
Jason X X X P
Shiela is the president, John is vice president, Jenny is the secretary, and Jason is the
treasurer.
EXAMPLE 3.5
Premise There are 23 books on the top of the bookshelf and 16 on the lower shelf.
There are no other books on the bookshelf.
Conclusion Therefore, there are 39 books in the bookshelf.
37
EXAMPLE 3.7
Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the decimal representation
Solution
4
Understand the Problem. Express the fraction 27 as a decimal and look for a pattern that will
enable us to determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point.
Devise a Plan. This problem may be solved using a table indicating a pattern. Dividing 4 by 27
produces the decimal 0.148148148…. Since the decimal representation repeats the digits 148 over
and over, we know that the digit located 100 places to the right of the decimal point is either a 1, a
4, or an 8. A table may help us see a pattern and enable us to determine which one of these digits
is in the 100th place. Since the decimal digits repeat every three digits, we use a table with three
columns.
Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit
1st 1 2nd 4 3rd 8
4 th
1 5th
4 6th
8
7 th
1 8th
4 9th
8
10th 1 11th 4 12th 8
13 th
1 14 th
4 15 th
8
Carry Out the Plan. Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit locations evenly divisible
by 3. From this pattern we can tell that the 99 th decimal digit must be 8. Since a 1 always follows
an 8 in the pattern, the 100 th decimal digit must be a 1.
38
4
For instance, to find the digit in the 3200 th decimal place of 27 merely divide 3200 by
3 and examine the remainder, which is 2. Thus, the digit 3200 places to the right of the
decimal point is a 4.
EXAMPLE 3.8
Apply Polya’s strategy on the following problem.
In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of the other teams
exactly 3 times. How many league games will be played?
Solution
Understand the Problem. There are 10 teams in the league, and each team plays exactly
three games against each of the other teams. The problem is to determine the total number of
league games that will be played.
Devise a Plan. This problem is best solved using a diagram of a similar and simpler problem
and a list. Consider a league with only four teams (denoted by A, B, C, and D) in which each team
plays each of the other teams only once. Figure 3.3 shows the games can be represented by line
segments that connect the points A, B, C, and D.
39
EXAMPLE 3.9
Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
Katrina sells eggs by piece. On the first day, she sold a half more than half the number of
eggs for sale. On the second day, she sold a half more than half the remaining number of eggs
on the first day. On the third day, she again sold a half more than half the remaining number of
eggs from the second day. Only a dozen eggs were left for the fourth day. How many eggs did
she have originally?
Solution
Understand the Problem. We need to determine the number of eggs before Katrina started
selling them.
Devise a Plan. We could guess and check, but we might need to make several guesses
before we found the correct solution. An algebraic solution might work, but setting up the
necessary equation could be a challenge. Since we know the end result, let us try the method
of working backwards.
Carry Out the Plan. Since only 12 eggs were left, this is equivalent to a half less than half the
number before she started selling eggs on the third day. It follows that half the number is 12.5
which means that there were 25 eggs left on the second day. There were 25.5 . 2 = 51 eggs just
before she started selling eggs on the second day, and so before she started selling eggs on the
first day, there were originally 51.5 . 2 = 103 eggs.
Review the Solution. To check our solution, we start with 103 eggs and proceed through
each day of sale.
Day 1: 103 – (51.5 + 0.5) = 103 – 52 = 51
Day 2: 51 – (25.5 + 0.5) = 51 – 26 = 25
Day 4: 25 – (12.5 + 0.5) = 25 – 13 = 12
40
EXAMPLE 3.11
Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
A paper fan and a visor together cost ₱ 100.00. The visor costs ₱ 90.00 more than the paper
fan. What are the individual costs of the visor and the fan?
Understand the problem .After reading the problem for the first time, you may think that
the visor costs ₱90.00 pesos and the paper fan costs ₱10.00. The sum of these costs is also
₱100.00, but the cost of the visor is only ₱80.00 more than the cost of the fan. We need to find
two amounts that differ by ₱90.00 and whose sum is ₱100.00.
Devise a Plan. The use of equations is one way to solve this problem. Write an equation
using h for the cost of the paper fan and h+90 for the cost of the visor.
Carry Out the Plan.
h + h + 90 = 100
2h + 90 = 100
h=5
The cost of the paper fan is ₱5.00 and the cost of the visor is ₱ 5.00 + ₱ 90.00= ₱ 95.00.
Review the Solution. The sum of the costs is ₱5.00 + ₱95.00 = ₱100.00, and the cost of the
visor is ₱90.00 more than the cost of the paper fan.
41
A. Work on the following situations using inductive reasoning. What is the next term in the
list? Write the answers on the blank.
1. 5, 14, 27, 65
2. 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207
3. A, D, C, H, E, L, G
4. 11, 121, 12321, 1234321
B. Use the diagram to determine whether the statement is true or false. If false, find a
counter-example.
1. If an animal is a beagle, then it is a dog.
2. If X is a real number, then the square root of its square is equal to itself.
3. No one passed in yesterday’s test. Robert is absent yesterday. Robert will get the
test today and pass.
43
2. If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one another, how many
handshakes will there be?
4. Gardo picks a number. He doubles the number, squares the result, divides the square
by 3, subtracts 30 from the quotient, and gets 18. What are the possible numbers that
Gardo could have picked? What operation does Gardo perform which prevents us from
knowing the exact number he picked?
5. The bacteria in a petri dish grow in a manner such that each day the number of bacteria
doubles. On what day will the number of bacteria be half of the number present on the
12th day?
6. Assume that the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figure continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
45
8. The number of ducks and pigs in a field totals 35. The total number of legs among them
is 98. Assuming each duck has exactly two legs and each pig has exactly four legs,
determine how many ducks and how many pigs are in the field?
9. A room measures 12 feet by 15 feet. How many 3-foot by 3-foot squares of carpet are
needed to cover the floor of this room?
10. Following the pattern shown in the number sequence below, what is the missing number?
1 8 27? 125 216
11. Suppose Gerry has four pairs of shoes and 12 pairs of socks. How many different pairs of
footwear can Gerry make?
12. In a group of 65 people, 15 are neither drinks milk nor a child. Of this group, 35 drink
milk and 23 are children. How many children in the group who don’t drink milk?
46
47
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
Human Bingo
Find someone in the class that satisfies the condition given in each box. Let them sign
B I NGO
the space once.
DISCUSSION
Divisions of Statistics
Descriptive statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the
characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places or things that was based on
easily verifiable facts. It organizes the presentation, description, and interpretation of data
gathered. It includes the study of relationships among variables.
Inferential statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences for the population
on the basis of information obtained from the sample using the techniques of descriptive
statistics.
48
Provides summaries about the sample and the Infers from the sample data what the population
measures might think
Describes the data in hand Infers the nature of a larger (typically infinite) set
of data
Simply describes what’s going on with the data Makes inferences from the data to more general
conditions
49
DATA PRESENTATION
The collected data can be presented in three different ways which include textual,
tabular, and graphical presentations.
1. Textual Presentations
Data presented in paragraph or in sentences are said to be in textual form. This includes
enumeration of important characteristics, emphasizing the most significant features, and
highlighting the most striking attributes of the set of data.
EXAMPLE 4.1
Nominally, the peso improved by 1.4 percent as of April 14, 2003 compared to its level in
2002, followed by the Thai baht which gained 0.86 percent; Indonesian rupiah, 0.68 percent;
and Taiwan dollar, 0.2 percent.
Other currencies, on the other hand, depreciated during the same period. The Singapore
dollar fell 2.33 percent. The South Korean won slid 2.14 percent while the Japanese yen dropped
0.61 percent.
(Philippine Daily Inquirer, April 17, 2003. pg. B2)
2. Tabular Presentation
The tabular method makes use of rows and columns. The data are presented in a
systematic and orderly manner, which catches one’s attention and may facilitate the
comprehension and analysis of the data presented. The frequency distribution table (FDT) is
a statistical table showing the frequency or number of observations contained in each of the
defined classes or categories.
50
EXAMPLE 4.2
PERCEPTION OF
FREQUENCY
LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR
Strongly Favorable 10
Favorable 11
Slightly Favorable 12
Slightly unfavorable 14
Unfavorable 22
Strongly Unfavorable 31
Total 100
51
Problems
3. Pie chart – a circular graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is distributed
among a group of categories. The “pieces of pie” represent the proportions of the total
that fall into each category.
Gender of the Respondents of the Survey
38%
62%
Male Female
4. Column and bar graph – like pie charts, column charts and bar charts are applicable only
to grouped data. They should be used for discrete, grouped data of ordinal or nominal
scale.
Frequency Distribution of Staff Perception of the Leadership
Behavior of the Administration
35
30
25
frequency
20
15
10
0
e
...
bl
e
...
...
...
bl
ly
ra
ly
ly
ly
ra
ng
ht
ht
ht
vo
vo
ro
ig
ig
ig
fa
Fa
Sl
Sl
Sl
St
Un
52
Properties of Mean
• The sum of the deviations of all measurements in a set from the mean is 0.
• It can be calculated for any set of numerical data, so it always exist.
• A set of numerical data has one and only one mean.
• It lends itself to higher statistical treatment.
• It is the most reliable since it takes into account every item in the set of data.
• It is greatly affected by extreme or deviant values.
• It is used only if the data are interval or ratio and when normally distributed.
Median
The middle position of an arranged values from lowest to highest. Median precedes the
half value of an array and half follows it. It is denoted by Md.
(n + 1)
If the number of observed values (N) is odd, the median position is equal to , and
2
the value of the (n + 1) observation in the array is taken as the median.
th
2
If the N is even, the mean of the two middle values in the array is the median.
x n + x(n/2) + 1
Md = /2
2
EXAMPLE 4.4
Find the median of the given data set: 23, 43, 32, 12, and 54.
Step 1: X1 X2 X3 X4 X5
12 23 32 43 54
(n + 1)
Since the number of observed data is odd, use the formula :
2
(n + 1) (5 + 1) 6
Step 2: N = 5 Md = = = = 3rd
2 2 2
The median is in the 3rd position on the array which is 32.
53
Properties of Median
It is the score or class in a distribution below which 50% of the score falls and above
which another 50% lies.
• It is not affected by extreme or deviant values.
• It is appropriate to use when there are extreme or deviant values.
• It is used when the data are ordinal.
• It exists in both quantitative and qualitative data.
Mode
Mode is the most frequently observed value that occurs. Some data sets do not have a
mode because each value occurs only once. On the other hand, some data sets can have more
than one mode. This happens when the data set has two or more values of equal frequency
which is greater than that of any other value.
EXAMPLE 4.6
Identify the mode(s) of the following data sets.
Data set A: 6 8 5 4 9 5 3
Mode is unimodal and it is 5 because it has the most number of occurrence.
Data set B: 6 5 4 9 5 3 5 6 3 8 6
Mode is bimodal where in 5 and 6 which occurs both three times in the data set.
Weighted Mean
Weighted average is a mean calculated by giving values in a data set more influence
according to some attribute of the data. It is an average in which each quantity to be averaged
is assigned a weight, and these weightings determine the relative importance of each
quantity on the average. To find the weighted mean, find the sum of the products formed by
multiplying each number by its assigned weight
Σn w x
or weighted mean = i =n 1 i i
Σ i = 1w i
54
(74 × 25%) + (90 × 15%) + (85 × 10%) + (65 × 20%) + (73 × 30%)
Ely’s Grade =
100%
18.5 + 13.5 + 8.5 + 13 + 21.5
=
100%
= 75.4%
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Measures of dispersion indicate the extent to which individual items in a series are
scattered about an average. It is used to determine the extent of the scatter so that steps
may be taken to control the existing variation. It is also used as a measure of reliability of
the average value.
These are also the measures of the average distance of each observation from the center
of the distribution. It also indicates the homogeneity or heterogeneity of a particular group.
A small measure of variability would indicate that the data are stipend;
1. clustered closely around the mean… or… far away from the mean
2. more homogeneous … or… heterogeneous
3. less variable … or … more variable
4. more consistent … or … less consistent
5. more uniformly distributed … or … less uniformly distributed
55
Variance describes how the data is spread out. It is the average of the squared differences
from the mean. A value of zero means that there is no variability. All the numbers in the data
set are the same.
The population variance is denoted by σ2 and can be calculated using the formula:
ΣN (x – μ)2
σ2 = i = 1 i
N
where x = individual value; μ = mean of population; and N = population size
Standard deviation can be obtained by taking the square root of the variance. Standard
deviation is the most reliable measure of dispersion.
The population standard deviation is denoted by σ and can be calculated using the
formula:
σ2 =
ΣNi=
= 1 (x1(xi
Ni −2 u)2
i – μ) ∑
NN
The population variance σ2, can be estimated by the sample variance, s2 where
∑ 1(xi −2 u) ∑
2
ΣNi=
Ni
= 1 (x i – x)
ΣNi=
= 1 x i 1(xi
Ni 2 2
– (Σ−Niu)
= 1 x i)
2
s 2 = =
n –N1 n(n
N – 1)
and the population standard deviation σ, can be estimated by the sample standard deviation
s, where
s =
nΣ= i = 1 x1(xi
Ni
N 2 N 2
− u)
i – (Σ ∑
i = 1 x i)
2
.
n(n
N – 1)
EXAMPLE 4.9
A sample of five households showed the following number of household members: 3,8,5,4,
and 4. Find the standard deviation.
Solution
xi2 = 32 + 82 + 52 + 42 + 42 = 130
=
∑
n Σ= – (Σ− u)x )
Ni x 1(xi
N
i=1 i
n(n – 1)
2 N
i=1
=
∑2
5(130)
i= 2
5(4)
576 − u)∑
Ni –1(xi 74=
= 20 = 1.924
2
Ni 1(xi − u) 2
N N N
The standard deviation is 1.924. This means that the average distance of data are 1.924
apart.
56
EXAMPLE 4.10
A company analyst studied recent measurements made with two different instruments.
The first measure obtained a mean of 4.96 mm with standard deviation of 0.022 mm. The second
measure obtained a mean of 6.48 mm with a standard deviation of 0.032 mm. Which of the two
instruments was relatively more precise?
Solution
0.022
Instrument #1: CV = × 100% = 0.44%
4.96
0.032
Instrument #2: CV = × 100% = 0.49%
6.48
Standard Score
The standard score measures how many standard deviations an observation is above the
mean. Observed values above the mean have positive z-scores while values below the mean
have negative z-score. The standard score can be computed as:
Population Standard Score Sample Standard Score
x– μ x– x
Z= ; Z=
σ s ;
where where
x = observe value x = observe value
μ = population mean x = sample mean
σ = population standard deviation s = sample standard deviation
The standard score is useful for comparing two values from different series especially
when these two series differ with respect to the mean or standard deviation or both are
expressed in different units.
EXAMPLE 4.11
Joel got a grade of 78 in English and a grade of 93 in History. The mean grade in English is
68 and the standard deviation is 8, where as in History, the mean grade is 80 and the standard
deviation is 15. In which subject did Joel perform better?
Solution
93 – 80 78 – 68
Zhistory = = 0.87; Zenglish = = 1.25
15 8
The z-score of English is higher than the z-score in history which means that Joel performed
better in English.
57
Since the z-score in not beyond 2 standard deviations below the mean, Warren will not
fail the course.
4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13
Solution
Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.
3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18
Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 80; n = 12; and F = 100 (percentile)
th th
i(n + 1) 80(12 + 1)
P80 = = = 10.4 th or the 11th position
F 100
The 80 th percentile is 17, which means that 80% of the scores are below 17.
Deciles (Dk). An array are subdivided into 10 equal parts. For instance, D1 is read as first
decile which means that the value is greater than 10% of the observed values in the array.
D2, read as second decile, is greater than 20% of the observed values in the array, and so on.
EXAMPLE 4.14
The following were the scores of 12 students in 20-item quiz, find the 6th decile.
4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13
58
3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18
Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 6; n = 12 and F = 10 (decile)
th th th
i(n + 1) 6(12 + 1) 78
D6 = = = = 7.8th or the 8th position
F 10 10
The 6th decile is 11, which means that 60% of the scores are below 11.
Quartiles (Qk) Quartile subdivided an array into four equal parts. For instance, Q1 is read
as first quartile which means that the value is greater than 25% of the observed values in
the array, Q2, read as second quartile, value is greater than 50% of the observed values in the
array, and so on.
EXAMPLE 4.15
The following were the scores of 12 students in 20-item quiz, find the 1st quartile.
4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13
Solution
Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.
3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18
Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 6; n = 12 and F = 4 (quartile)
th th th
i(n + 1) 1(12 + 1) 13
Q1 = = = 3.25th or the 4th position
F 4 4
The 1st quartile is 6, which means that 25% of the scores are below 6.
SHAPE OF A DISTRIBUTION
Normal Distribution. It is a distribution with a bell-shaped appearance. In a normal
distribution, the mean = median = mode.
No. of Correct
f
Normal Distribution Answer
6 1 1
5 2 2
4 3 4
3 4 5
2 5 4
1 6 2
0 7 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N 19
59
No. of Correct
Skewed to the Left Distribution f
Answer
8 1 0
2 0
6
3 1
4 4 2
5 5
2
6 7
0 7 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N 19
A distribution is skewed to the left if the bulk of the distribution is on the right. This
is otherwise known as a negatively skewed distribution.
8 1 4
2 7
6
3 5
4 4 2
5 1
2
6 0
0 7 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N 19
A skewed to the right distribution is one whose bulk of the distribution is on the left.
This is otherwise known as a positively skewed distribution.
60
Mesokurtic is a normal distribution Leptokurtic is more peaked Platykurtic is flatter or shorter than the
wherein kurtosis is zero. or taller than the normal normal distribution wherein kurtosis is
distribution wherein kurtosis less than zero.
is greater than zero.
99.74
95.44
28.26
34.13% 34.13%
13.59% 34.59%
2.15% 2.15%
.13% .13%
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
61
EXAMPLE 4.16
Jose’s grade in Math is 80. His grade in English is 78. The section where he belongs got a
mean grade of 86 in Math and 75 in English. The standard deviation for both subjects is 5. In
which subject does he perform better?
Solution
x–x
Using the formula: Z =
s
80 – 86 78 – 75
Zmath = = -1.2 ; Zenglish = = 0.6
5 5
Jose’s grade in Math has a negative z-score of -1.2 which means that he got a grade lower
than the average grade of the class. While his grade in English has a positive z-score which
means that he got a grade higher than the average grade of the class. Therefore, Jose performed
better in Engish.
EXAMPLE 4.17
Consider the mean and the standard deviation in previous example. If Janette, Jose’s
classmates, has a z-score of 1.75 in English, what is her grade in English?
Solution
x – 86
= 1.75
5
x – 86 = 1.75 (5)
x =94.75
Janette’s grade in English is 94.75.
Some considerations and reminders when solving statistical problems using the areas
under the normal curve table. The total area under the normal curve is 1 or 100%. Since the
normal curve is symmetrical about the mean, the half of the normal curve has an area of 0.5
or 50%. The table you will use gives only the area to the right of the mean. The given area in
the table is the area from z = 0 to ± z area is always positive but z can be positive or negative.
Note: Finding the areas under the normal curve is the same as finding the probability.
62
63
EXAMPLE 4.19
Find the area P(-1.30≤ z ≤ 2.0)
Solution
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.
z = -1.3 has area 0.4032
and z = 2 has area 4772
area = 0.4032 + 0.4772 = 0.8804
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
EXAMPLE 4.20
The average grade in the college entrance exam is 88 with standard deviation of 9. There
are 2,500 examinees for the year 2018. Determine the number of students
(a) whose average is equal to or between 81 and 86.
(b) whose average is 90 and above.
Solution
(a) First, change the grades into z-scores
81 – 88 86 – 88
Z= = -0.78 ; Z = = - 0.22
9 9
64
65
One way to determine the value of correlation coefficient is by using Pearson Product
Moment Coeffient or Pearson r, which the formula is:
r=
n ( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
n ( ∑ x ) − ( ∑ x ) n ( ∑ y ) − ( ∑ y )
2
2
2
66
EXAMPLE 4.21
A coach conducted an investigation about the efficiency of physical training on the weight
of his athletes. Pre-training and post – training weights are listed below, determine if (a) there is
a relationship between the two variables; (b) physical training is effective.
Trainee X Y XY X2 Y2
A 67 64 4288 4489 4096
B 84 80 6720 7056 6400
C 65 65 4225 4225 4225
D 69 67 4623 4761 4489
E 72 70 5040 5184 4900
F 74 73 5402 5476 5329
G 66 66 4356 4356 4356
H 69 67 4623 4761 4489
I 73 70 5110 5329 4900
J 80 77 6160 6400 5929
Total 719 699 50547 52037 49113
Substitute the values to the formula of r.
r=
(∑ xy ) − (∑ x )(∑ y )
n
n ( ∑ x ) − ( ∑ x ) n ( ∑ y ) − ( ∑ y )
2 2
2
10 ( 50,547 ) − ( 719 )( 699 )
r=
10 ( 52,037 ) − ( 719 )2 10 ( 49,113 ) − ( 699 )2
r = 0.98392
The correlation coefficient 0.98392 tells that there is a very strong positive correlation
between the pre-training and post-training of the athletes.
(b) Test the Significance of the correlation. Use α = 0.05; n =10; and = 0.98392
1. Ho: ρ = 0
Ha: ρ 0
67
5. Since tc is greater than tα/2, then reject Ho. 15.53332 >2.306 Ho. There is a significant
difference in the pre-training and post-training weights of the athletes. Moreover, it
has a very strong positive correlation. Therefore, the physical training is effective.
Given data points (x i , y i) a and b shall now be chosen in the way that the corresponding
linear line will have the best fit for the given data. The criteria for best fit used in regression
analysis is the sum of the squared differences between the data points and the line itself,
that is the y deviations; thus, the closer the points to the line, the better the fit and the
prediction will be.
The coefficient of determination (r2) is the number that expresses the proportion of the
total variation in the values of the dependent variables. Coefficient of determination can be
obtained by squaring the correlation coefficient r.
Coefficient of Determination (r2) = r2 × 100%
68
y-intercept
Σy – b Σ x = 699 – (0.8475) 719 = 8.965
a=
n n 10 10
Regression equation:
Y = a +bx = 8.965 + 0.8475x
Solve for the efficiency of the physical training if the standard athlete’s weight is 65.
Y = 8.965 + 0.8475(65) = 64.0525
Calculating the coefficient of determination.
r2 = (0.98392)2 × 100% = 96.81%
From the physical training given, the athletes can obtain a weight of 64, and 96.81% of the
variation in the physical training is accounted for the variations in the weight of the athletes. The
remaining 3.19% is cause by other variables, which is called the coefficient of alienation.
69
Probability p
t
Tail probability p
df .25 .20 .15 .10 .05 .025 .02 .01 .005 .0025 .001 .0005
1 1.000 1.376 1.963 3.078 6.314 12.71 15.89 31.82 63.66 127.3 318.3 636.6
2 .816 1.061 1.386 1.886 2.920 4.303 4.849 6.965 9.925 14.09 22.33 31.60
3 .765 .978 1.250 1.638 2.353 3.182 3.482 4.541 5.841 7.453 10.21 12.92
4 .741 .941 1.190 1.533 2.132 2.776 2.999 3.747 4.604 5.598 7.173 8.610
5 .727 .920 1.156 1.476 2.015 2.571 2.757 3.365 4.032 4.773 5.893 6.869
6 .718 .906 1.134 1.440 1.943 2.447 2.612 3.143 3.707 4.317 5.208 5.959
7 .711 .896 1.119 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.517 2.998 3.499 4.029 4.785 5.408
8 .706 .889 1.108 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.449 2.896 3.355 3.833 4.501 5.041
9 .703 .883 1.100 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.398 2.821 3.250 3.690 4.297 4.781
10 .700 .879 1.093 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.359 2.764 3.169 3.581 4.144 4.587
11 .697 .876 1.088 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.328 2.718 3.106 3.497 4.025 4.437
12 .695 .873 1.083 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.303 2.681 3.055 3.428 3.930 4.318
13 .694 .870 1.079 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.282 2.650 3.012 3.372 3.852 4.221
14 .692 .868 1.076 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.264 2.624 2.977 3.326 3.787 4.140
15 .691 .866 1.074 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.249 2.602 2.947 3.286 3.733 4.073
16 .690 .865 1.071 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.235 2.583 2.921 3.252 3.686 4.015
17 .689 .863 1.069 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.224 2.567 2.898 3.222 3.646 3.965
18 .688 .862 1.067 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.214 2.552 2.878 3.197 3.611 3.922
19 .688 .861 1.066 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.205 2.539 2.861 3.174 3.579 3.883
20 .687 .860 1.064 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.197 2.528 2.845 3.153 3.552 3.850
21 .686 .859 1.063 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.189 2.518 2.831 3.135 3.527 3.819
22 .686 .858 1.061 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.183 2.508 2.819 3.119 3.505 3.792
23 .685 .858 1.060 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.177 2.500 2.807 3.104 3.485 3.768
24 .685 .857 1.059 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.172 2.492 2.797 3.091 3.467 3.745
25 .684 .856 1.058 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.167 2.485 2.787 3.078 3.450 3.725
26 .684 .856 1.058 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.162 2.479 2.779 3.067 3.435 3.707
27 .684 .855 1.057 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.158 2.473 2.771 3.057 3.421 3.690
28 .683 .855 1.056 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.154 2.467 2.763 3.047 3.408 3.674
29 .683 .854 1.055 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.150 2.462 2.756 3.038 3.396 3.659
40 .681 .851 1.050 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.123 2.423 2.704 2.971 3.307 3.551
$ 50 .679 .849 1.047 1.299 1.676 2.009 2.109 2.403 2.678 2.937 3.2616 3.496
60 .679 .848 1.045 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.099 2.390 2.660 2.915 3.232 3.460
80 .678 .846 1.043 1.292 1.664 1.990 2.088 2.374 2.639 2.887 3.195 3.416
100 .677 .845 1.042 1.290 1.660 1.984 2.081 2.364 2.626 2.871 3.174 3.390
1000 .675 .842 1.037 1.282 1.646 1.962 2.056 2.330 2.581 2.813 3.098 3.300
00 .674 .841 1.036 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.054 2.326 2.576 2.807 3.091 3.291
50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 95% 96% 98% 99% 99.5% 99.8% 99.9%
Confidence level C
70
A. Read the research article, then classify whether each statement is Descriptive or
Inferential. Write DS if it is descriptive statistics and IS if inferential statistics in the
space provided for each number. The number refers to the previous statement.
71
A. Identify the best data collection method to use in each described objectives. Write your
answer in the space provided after each item.
B. Identify in each situation the possible errors or difficulties that may be encountered
during data collection.
1. You are asked to conduct a study on the increase on the number of enrolees for
education courses in Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology from 2008-
2017. What will you do in order to systematically obtain the data of enrolment?
73
B. Interpreting Data. Use the graph as a reference to answer the questions below.
Favorite Superhero
75
4. What percent of people said either Superman or Spiderman was their favorite?
C. A survey was conducted to determine the leisure activities on persons aged 16-35 years
old. The following data was collected.
76
Q1 graph Interpretation
Q2 graph Interpretation
Q3 graph Interpretation
77
B. For 4-7: Consider the table below, show or explain how you got your answer.
Allie, Bran, Cathy, and Darlene went bowling. Their scores for four are shown in the
table below.
Scores
Name Game 1 Game 2 Game 3 Game 4
Allie 140 160 140 170
Bran 160 140 140 160
Cathy 170 115 165 130
Darlene 125 130 160 120
4. Who had the greatest median score for the four games?
6. Who had the greatest median score for the four games?
7. After Darlene bowled two more games, her mean score for six games was 140. What
could her scores for each of those two games have been?
8. A MMDA Constable is trying to work out the mean number of parking tickets he has
issued per day. He produced the table below, but has accidentally rubbed out some
of the numbers.
79
9. The mean height of a class of 28 students is 162 cm. A new student of height 149 cm
joins the class. What is the mean height of the class now?
10. Five numbers have a mean of 12. When one number is removed, the mean is 11.
What is the value of the number removed?
11. The circle graph shows the ages of 200 students in a college psychology class. Find
the mean, median, and mode of the students’ ages.
College Students Ages
12. Use the following clues to find the age of each member of a family of five. The median
is 12. The mean is 21. The mode is 41. The age of one of the family members is the
median divided by 3.
13. Assume you are in a class where quizzes are 30% of your grade, homework is 10%,
exam I is 15%, exam 2 is 15%, and the final is 30%. Suppose it’s week 5 and you just
found out that you scored a 32/63 in the first exam. You also know that you received
a 6/9, 7/10, and 9/9 on the first three quizzes as well as a 6/11, 3/10, and 4.5/7 on the first
three homework assignments. What is your current grade in the course?
80
b. Suppose Mary received 15 points for taste, 9 points for presentation, and 14 points
for addressing the challenge. Further suppose John received 18 points for taste, 7
points for presentation, and 13 points for addressing the challenge. Who won?
81
9 10 15 16 18 20 25 30 32 35
4. Three students take equivalent stress tests. Which is the highest relative score
(meaning which has the largest z score value)?
a. A score of 144 on a test with a mean of 128 and a standard deviation of 34.
5. The mean speed of vehicles along a stretch of highway is 100 kph with a standard
deviation of 4 kph. You measure the speed of three cars traveling along this stretch
of highways as 82 mph, 67 mph, and 76 mph. Find the z-score that corresponds to
each speed. Determine which car had a relatively faster speed.
6. A university had an entrance policy that an applicant who placed at least 2 z-scores
above the mean on the entrance exam that has a mean of 80 and a standard deviation
of 6. What is the minimum score that an applicant must obtain to be admitted to the
university?
83
8. The mean life of a tire is 30 000 km. The standard deviation is 2000 km.
a. About 68% of all tires will have a life between km and km.
b. What percent of the tires will have a life that exceeds 26 000 km?
c. If a company purchased 2000 tires, how many tires would you expect to last
more than 28 000 km?
84
A. For each of the following pairs of variables, determine the appropriate description of
strength of the correlation.
1. The age of a secondhand car and its price.
2. The weight of a new car and its overall
miles-per-gallon rating.
3. The height and the weight of a person.
4. The height of a person and the height
of the person’s father.
5. The height and the IQ of a person.
b. Find and graph a linear regression equation that models the data.
85
Patrons Revenue
32 480
33 495
40 600
81 1215
Woman 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Weight Before 72.2 75.3 80.8 83.5 77.3 79.0 80.1 65.4
Weight After 71.2 70.2 76.6 79.1 78.1 75.7 81.2 64.7
Determine if (a) there is a relationship between the two variables; (b) the
dietary supplement is effective.
86
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
At the end of the lesson, students are
expected to:
The Shape of Soap Bubbles
• apply geometric concepts in
Materials describing and creating designs;
soap and
water • contribute to the enrichment of
the filipino culture and the arts
stirring rod using the concept in geometry.
bubble wand of different shapes
Procedures
1. Dissolve the soap in the water and make a bubble
solution.
2. Make bubbles using bubble wands with different
shapes.
Questions
1. What is the shape of the bubble produced by the
first wand?
2. What is the shape of the bubble produced by the
second wand?
3. What is the shape of the bubble produced by the
third wand?
4. Why is it that even if different shapes of wands
are used to produce the bubble, the bubble always
remains the same in shape?
87
Shapes in Mathematics
In mathematics, a shape (or geometrical shape)
refers to the figure or the outline of an object as
defined by its external boundary or limitations and/
or by its external surface/appearance as opposed to
its size, colour, and texture.
Geometrical shapes can be classified into broad
categories. Examples of these are polygons, circles
and spheres, polyhedrons, cones, and helixes.
Polygons
Polygons are closed two-dimensional figures
made up of line segments intersecting at their
The following are NOT polygons. common endpoints. These line segments (or the sides)
should not be collinear (meaning they must not be on
the same line).
Polygons with equal sides and equal angles are
called regular polygons.
Study the following illustrations:
Polygons are also classified as convex and non-
convex. A polygon is convex if a segment joining any
two interior points lies completely within the polygon.
Polygons are named according to the number of
their sides. The following table shows the name of
some polygons as well as the number of their sides.
Figures I and IV are regular polygons. Table 5.1. Polygons and the Number of their Sides
88
Solids
Solids are three-dimensional shapes. There are
two main types of solids, which are polyhedra and
non-polyhedra. A polyhedron (polyhedra, in plural)
is a solid which is made up of definite number of flat
surfaces or polygonal faces. Non-polyhedra are solids
with curve surfaces.
Polyhedra
A polyhedron can be classified as platonic solid if
all its faces are congruent convex regular polygons
and same number of faces meet on its vertices. Euler’s
formula, F (no. of faces) + V (no.of vertices) = 2 + E (no.
of edges), is used to determine if a polyhedron is a
platonic solid.
EXAMPLE 5.1
89
Non-polyhedra
Cone
A cone is a non-polyhedron that has a flat base,
which can be circular or oval, and a top that becomes
narrow until it forms a point called the vertex or apex.
Essentially, the cone resembles a pyramid but with
circular or oval bases.
A sphere is a three-dimensional perfectly round
Sphere figure that has no edges or vertices. All points on
the surface are the same distance from the center.
It occupies the biggest space, but has the smallest
surface area.
A cylinder is a solid with two congruent circles in
parallel planes connected by a curved surface. The
circles and their interiors are the bases. The altitude
of the cylinder is a perpendicular segment from the
Cylinder plane of one base to the plane of the other and the
height of the cylinder is the length of the altitude.
A torus is a solid formed by revolving a small circle
along a line made by another circle. It has no edges or
vertices.
Transformation
Torus Geometric transformation is a process which
changes the size, shape, orientation, or position of a
figure. The original figure is called the object and the
new picture is called the image. There are four types
of transformations: translation, reflection, rotation,
and dilation.
Translation is moving every point of the object at
the same distance in the same direction to form the
image (glided image).
Translation
Moved: 6 units right, 4 units up
90
Symmetry in Design
Symmetry means that one shape becomes exactly
like another when you move it in some way: turn, flip,
or slide. For two objects to be symmetrical, they must
be the same size and shape, with one object having a
different orientation from the first. There can also be
symmetry in one object, such as a face. If you draw a
Rotation
line of symmetry down the center of your face, you can
see that the left side is a mirror image of the right side.
Symmetry includes patterns and explaining repetition
in design. Symmetrical designs are commonly used in
architecture, painting, crafts, dances, music, biology,
and mathematics.
Reflection symmetry is formed when a
figure is divided by a line so that the part on
one side of that line is the mirror image of
the part of the figure on the other side. The
line is called the axis of symmetry (reflection
line). The simplest case of reflection Glide Reflection
symmetry is known as bilateral symmetry.
For example, each of the following figures
exhibits bilateral symmetry:
The heart and smiley have only vertical
axis of symmetry. The axis of symmetry
bisect the figures that for every point on
one side of the line there is a corresponding
point on the other side of the line. If you
draw the reflection line horizontally (as shown in the
figure below), the reflected image is not the same.
Dilation
Scale Factor: 2, Center at origin
91
n
angle of rotation.
As the three examples above, the figures have
order 2-rotation symmetry, 3-rotation symmetry, and
5-rotation symmetry respectively.
PATTERNS
Pattern in the plane are usually divided into three
groups: Rosette pattern (cyclic or dihedral),
Rosette Patterns
A rosette pattern describes the symmetries
of a figure rotating by 360o about its center. It has
two classes: the ones with mirror lines (dihedral
symmetry), like a sunflower, and the ones without
mirror lines, like a pinwheel (cyclic symmetry).
Triquetra with cyclic (C3) symmetry Cyclic symmetry group. Rotation symmetry only
around a center point. If the rotation has order n, the
group is called Cn.
Dihedral symmetry group. Rotation symmetry
around a center point with mirror lines through the
center point. If the rotation has order n, there will
be n mirror lines and the group is called Dn.
92
Cyclic
Frieze Patterns
A pattern that repeats in a vertical or horizontal line is called frieze pattern or border
pattern.
A frieze group is the set of symmetry of a frieze pattern; that is, geometric transformations
built from rigid motions and reflections that preserve the pattern. To name a frieze pattern,
International Union of Crystallography (IUC) notation is used. It uses a four-character
notation. All the names will begin with “p”. Second character will be noted by “m” if there is
a vertical reflection. Third character will be noted by “m” if there is a horizontal reflection
or “g” if there is a glide reflection. If the pattern shows 180o rotation, write “2” on the last
character. If each term doesn’t satisfy the condition, use “1”.
Table 5.2
Description Example IUC Notation
93
Translations and
p1m1
horizontal-reflections
Jump
Translations, vertical-
reflection, horizontal-
pmm2
reflections and 180o
rotations
Spinning Jump
Source: Conway, J. nicknames for frieze group using footsteps © www.maa.org
Semi-regular tessellation is formed when two or three types of polygons share a common
vertex.
Non-regular tessellation is a group of shapes that has the sum of all interior angles
equalling 360 degrees. There are no overlaps or gaps, and non-regular tessellations are
formed many times using polygons that are not regular.
94
1. 7. 12.
2.
8.
3.
9.
4.
10.
5.
6.
11.
97
Solid Number of faces Number of vertices Number of edges Platonic solid (Y/N)
99
Identify the symmetry groups e.g., of the rosettes in the car wheel hubcaps pictured
below.
a b c d e
f g h i j
k l m n o
Example here
a b c d e
f g h i j
k l m n o
p q
101
Use this motif to draw seven frieze patterns, one with each symmetry group:
p111
p1g1
pm11
p112
pmg2
p1m1
pmm2
103
Draw a tessellating pattern for one of the shapes below. Your tessellating shapes should
also have a color pattern. Use at least three colors.
105
Exploring my locale. Go around to your local community. Identify the trademark that
makes your community unique and you can be proud of. Post the picture here and write a
brief description about the picture.
107
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©deal.vistalist.co/story-emoji/
©deal.vistalist.co/story-emoji/
Source: deal.vistalist.co/story-emoji/
109
EXAMPLE 6.1
Same with decimal number system, binary number system is also using a positional
notation numbering system, but in this case, the base is two. Each digit position in a binary
number represents a power of two. So, each binary digit (bit) is multiplied by an appropriate
power of 2 based on the position in the number:
EXAMPLE 6.2
1101 = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
=1×8+1×4+0×2+1×1
=8+4+1
EXAMPLE 6.3
10112 = 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20
=1×8+0×4+1×2+1×1
=8+0+2+1
= 1110
110
EXAMPLE 6.4
Convert the decimal 35 to binary number.
111
INTEGERS IN COMPUTER
Computer language only understands the binary numbers, 0 and 1. So a negative number
is neither 0 nor 1. The most intuitive solution is the sign and magnitude representation.
The leftmost bit represents the sign, 0 for positive and 1 for negative. The remaining bits
represent the magnitude.
EXAMPLE 6.5
Suppose the integers are in four bits with the sign and magnitude scheme, then 3 would be:
0011
and -1 would be:
1001
In binary, addition is not applicable if the signs of the binary numbers differ (from the
example above: 0011+1011).To make the sign-magnitude work, determine which of the
two binary numbers has the larger magnitude (ignore the sign bit). Then subtract the small
magnitude from the larger magnitude. Attach to the result the sign of the quantity that had the
higher magnitude.
Sign Magnitude
0 011 larger magnitude
1 - 001
010
Thus, the solution is 0010.
112
2’s Complement also represents the subtraction of binary numbers. (Note: Disregard the
leftmost bit in the result)
EXAMPLE 6.7
Find 12-3 in binary number.
Solution:
12 – 3 can also be written as 12 + (-3). Converting each integer into binary:
12 = 1100; use the 2’s complement for -3: 3 = 0011 → -3 = 1100+1= 1101
Perform the addition: 1100
+ 1101
11001
The answer is 1001.
TEXT DATA
Computers work in binary code and information is coded using 0 and 1. American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) developed a standard 8-bit code for
different characters such as letters and symbols for the computer comprehend. That is, it
uses eight bits to represent a letter or a punctuation mark. Eight bits are called a byte. A
binary code with eight digits, such as 1101 10112, can be stored in one byte of computer
memory. The word “CAT” in a word processor becomes 0100 00112, 0100 00012, and 0101
01002. The word “cat” is 0110 00112, 0110 00012, and 0111 01002.
Table 6.1
Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary
Character Character Character Character Character
Code Code Code Code Code
A 01000001 Q 01010001 g 01100111 w 01110111 – 00101101
B 01000010 R 01010010 h 01101000 x 01111000 . 00101110
C 01000011 S 01010011 i 01101001 y 01111001 / 00101111
D 01000100 T 01010100 j 01101010 z 01111010 0 00110000
E 01000101 U 01010101 k 01101011 I 00100001 1 00110001
F 01000110 V 01010110 I 01101100 “ 00100010 2 00110010
4 01000111 W 01010111 m 01101101 # 00100011 3 00110011
H 01001000 X 01011000 n 01101110 $ 00100100 4 00110100
I 01001001 Y 01011001 o 01101111 % 00100101 5 00110101
3 01001010 Z 01011010 p 01110000 & 00100110 6 00110110
K 01001011 a 01100001 q 01110001 ‘ 00100111 7 00110111
113
Source: https://www.sciencefriday.com/educational-resources/write-your-name-in-binary-code/
There is also a code for blank space which 0010 0000.
EXAMPLE 6.8
Figure 6.1
In the data sequence, if an entry has changed, 1 become 0 or 0 become 1, it is called
“Bit Error”. There are three types of errors that can occur in data transmission from the
transmitter to the receiver: (a) single bit error, (b) multiple bit errors, and (c) burst errors.
Single Bit Error. The change in one bit in the whole data sequence is called single bit error.
This type of error occurs only in a parallel communication system. As data are transferred
bitwise in a single line, there is a chance for the single line to be noisy.
1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
114
1 1 0 0 1 0
Burst Error. The change of set of bits in data sequence is called burst error. The burst
error is calculated from the first bit change to the last bit change.
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
The errors between the error bits are also considered errors.
EXAMPLE 6.9
115
It should be observed that the counting of bits also include the parity bit. The circuit that
adds a parity bit to the data at the transmitter is called parity generator. The parity bits are
transmitted and checked at the receiver. If the parity bits at the transmitter and receiver are
not equal, an error is detected.
Table 6.2
Message with Even Message with Odd
3 bit data
Parity Parity
A B C Message Parity Message Parity
0 0 0 000 0 000 1
0 0 1 001 1 001 0
0 1 0 010 1 010 0
0 1 1 011 0 011 1
HAMMING CODES
Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be used to detect and correct
the errors that can occur when the data is moved or stored from the transmitter to the
receiver. This technique is developed by Richard W. Hamming. This codes uses a number of
parity bits located at certain position in the code word. The number of parity bits depends on
the number of information bits. The hamming codes uses the relation between redundancy
bits, and the data bits.
For example, 1001 is a 4-bit data containing two 1-bits; since that is an even number, a
zero would be added to maintain even parity, or, one if odd parity was being maintained.
Single bit errors are detected when the parity count indicates that the number of 1’s is
incorrect, indicating that a data bit has been flipped by noise in the line. Hamming codes
detect two bit errors by using more than one parity bit, each of which is computed on
different combinations of bits in the data.
Redundant bits are extra binary bits that are generated and added to the information-
carrying bits of data transfer to ensure that no bits were lost during the data transfer. The
number of redundant bits can be calculated using the following formula:
2p ≥ n + P + 1
Where, n is the number of bits in the data string;
P is the number of parity bits.
116
a. Suppose the number of data bits is 7, then the number of redundant bits can be calculated
using:
24 ≥ 7 + 4 + 1
Thus, the number of redundant bits is 4.
b. The number of data bit is 5, determine the redundant bit. By using the formula:
24 ≥ 5 + 2 + 1
The number of redundant bits is 2.
EXAMPLE 6.11
117
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
Bit Destination D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
Binary Location Number 111 110 101 100 011 010 001
Data Bits 1 1 0 1
Redundancy bits R4 R2 R1
To find the redundant bit R1, check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in all the
bit positions corresponding to R1 is an even number the value of R1 (parity bit’s value) = 0.
2. R2 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant bit.
R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11
Bit Destination D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
Binary Location Number 111 110 101 100 011 010 001
Data Bits 1 1 0 1
Redundancy bits R4 R2 0
To find the redundant bit R2, check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in all the
bit positions corresponding to R2 is an odd number the value of R2(parity bit’s value) = 1.
3. R4 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit.
R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7
Bit Destination D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
Binary Location Number 111 110 101 100 011 010 001
Data Bits 1 1 0 1
Redundancy bits R4 1 0
0
To find the redundant bit R4, check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in
all the bit positions corresponding to r4 is an even number the value of R1 (parity bit’s
value) = 0.
∴ By encoding the parity bits at their respective position, the code word form is 11001100.
118
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
By doing the parity check:
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0
The bits give the binary number as 110 whose decimal representation is 6. Thus, the bit
6 contains an error. To correct the error the 6th bit is changed from 1 to 0. (Note: If the code
word has all zero’s (000000), there is no error in the data transmitted and received.
119
121
A. Convert these values to signed magnitude decimal Each is 8 bits long, in two’s complement
form (complement negative values before conversion).
1. 11001001= 9. 01101110=
2. 01000111= 10. 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 =
3. 10000110= 11. 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 =
4. 00010001= 12. 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 =
5. 10001000= 13. 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 =
6. 00111110= 14. 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 =
7. 01010101= 15. 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 =
8. 10101010= 16. 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 =
B. Convert the decimal into binary/2’s complement and perform the operation. Answers
must be in binary form.
1. 123 – 43
2. 327 – 112
3. 54 – 18
123
125
127
Encode the following data in even parity by using the Hamming Code.
1. 1101
2. 1001
3. 1100
4. 1110
5. 1011
129
DISCUSSION
Linear Inequalities
When an equal sign is used, it states that both sides
of the equation are equal to each other. Inequality
states that both sides of the equation are not equal to
each other. It indicates a relation that one of the two
expressions is smaller, or larger, than the other one.
In a linear inequality, the highest variable
exponent is one.
131
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Notice that the mark on 5 is a circle, indicating that the value 5 is NOT included to the
possible solutions of the inequality.
By solving the inequality example (b), the answer is x ≤ 5.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
The difference of this number line from example a is that the mark on 5 is a dot, stating that
the value 5 is included to all possible solutions of the inequality.
Examples (a) and (b) are linear inequalities with one-variable that can be graph in a
numbered line, thus, examples (c) and (d) are linear inequalities with two-variables that will
be graph in a coordinate plane.
Graphing example (c): x + y > 5
Notice that dash-line is used, it shows that the points on that line are not included in
the solution of the inequality, and the shaded portion indicates the possible solutions in
the inequality. Since the inequality sign is “greater than” and the operation is addition, all
possible solutions are of the given inequality is on the right side/upper part of the line.
Graphing example (d): 2x – 7y ≥ 3
132
EXAMPLE 7.2
2x – 4y = - 6 2x – 4y = - 6 x=2
x=2 y = -2 y = -2
2(2) – 4y = - 6 2x – 4(-2) = - 6 (2,-2)
-4y = -10 2x = -14
y = 2.5 x = -7
(2, 2.5) (-7, -2)
133
2x – 4y≥ -6 x≤2 y ≥ -2
2(-3) – 4(-1) ≥ -6 -3 ≤ 2 - ≥ -2
-2 ≥ -6
EXAMPLE 7.3
To maximize the objective function, the value of x and y should be 1 and 10 respectively
to obtain a maximum value of 280.
134
Minimize: Z = 12x + 15 y
Subject to: 6x +6y ≥ 30
2x + y ≥ 8
x + 3y ≥ 12
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Express all inequalities into standard - form of equation.
6x + 6y = 30
2x + y = 8
x + 3y = 12
Step 2: Graph and find the intersections of the equations
Inequality Sign Operation Shading
6x + 6y ≥ 30 greater than addition right side/upper part
2x + y ≥ 8 greater than addition right side/upper part
x + 3y ≥ 12 greater than addition right side/upper part
6x +6y ≥ 30
5 (3,2)
2x + y ≥ 8
6x +6y ≥ 30
(1.5, 3.5)
x + 3y ≥ 12
Z =512x + 15 y
(3, 2) 12(3) + 15(2) = 81
0 (1.5, 3.5) 12(1.5) + 15(3.5) = 70.5
To minimize the objective function, the value of x and y should be 4 and 0 respectively to
obtain a minimum value of 48.
EXAMPLE 7.5
Meredith sells flowers. She bought the roses and daisies for ₱34 and ₱22 each, respectively.
A piece of rose yields a profit of ₱6 while a piece of daisy yields a profit of ₱3. Meredith estimates
that no more than 200 flowers will be sold in a week. She can only invest not more than ₱ 5,000
for the flowers. How many roses and daisies should be stocked in order to maximize his profit?
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the unknown quantities in the problem and represent it using variables.
Let x = total number of roses
y = total number of daisy (NOTE: values of x and y cannot have a negative value)
Step 2: Formulate the objective function.
The objective function of the problem is about profit. From the problem, “A piece of
rose yields a profit of ₱6 while a piece of daisy yields a profit of ₱3” contains the objective
function.
135
x + y = 200
(50, 150)
34x + 22y = 5000
x + y = 200
(0, 200)
x=0
34x + 22y = 5000
(0, 227.3)
x=0
x + y = 200
(200,0)
y=0
34x + 22y = 5000
(147.1, 0)
x=0
x=0
(0, 0)
y=0
Step 5: Substitute the optimal values in the objective function to determine the maximum
amount of profit. (Note: Look in the graph and use only the points that are in the feasible region.
Maximizing the objective function P = 6x + 3y
Meredith needs to stock 147 roses and none of daisies to maximize her profit by ₱882.6.
EXAMPLE 7.6
A company makes at least one desk for each two models- office model and student model.
Each workers spend time in assembling, finishing, and crating each desk as shown in the table
below. Labor for each office desk costs ₱1,500 and each student desk costs ₱1,200. How many
model, should be produced to make at least one desk of each model to minimize the labor cost?
Labor Cost (in hours)
Type of Desk Assembling Finishing Crating
Office 2 2 2
Student 3 1 .5
Available Hours 30 12 10
136
2x + 3y ≤ 30
(3,8)
2x + 0.5y ≤ 10
2x + 3y ≤ 30
(15,0)
y≥0
2x + 0.5y ≤ 10
(0,20)
x=0
STEP 5: Substitute to P = 1,500x + 1,200y
To minimize the labor cost, the company may produce three office desks and eight student desks.
SIMPLEX METHOD
The graphical method is the easiest way to solve a linear programming problem. However,
this method is difficult to use when three or more variables are involved. A very useful
method in solving linear programming problems of any size is the so called Simplex method.
137
EXAMPLE 7.7
x y s t Z
4 3 1 0 0 24 (2)
-1 1 0 1 0 4 (3)
-200 -350 0 0 1 0 (1)
Step 4: Identify pivot variables (column, row, and element)
Pivot column contains the smallest negative value in the bottom row. In the table, -350 in
column y is the smallest negative value in the bottom row. Thus, column y is the pivot column.
x y s t Z
4 3 1 0 0 24
-1 1 0 1 0 4
-200 -350 0 0 1 0
138
x y s t Z
7 0 1 -3 0 12
-1 1 0 1 0 4
-550 0 0 350 1 1400
139
x y s t Z
1 0 1/7 -3/7 0 12/7 new entry
-1 1 0 1 0 4 in row 1
x y s t Z
1 0 1/7 -3/7 0 12/7
-1 1 0 1 0 4
-550 0 0 350 1 1400
For Row 2: Add Row 1 to the corresponding entries in Row 2.
R1 +R2
x y s t Z
1 0 1/7 -3/7 0 12/7
1 +(-1) = 0 0+1=1 1/7 + 0 = 1/7 -3/7 + 1 = 4/7 0+0=0 12/7 + 4 = 40/7
-550 0 0 350 1 1400
For Row 3: Multiply 550 to Row 1 then add to the corresponding entries in Row 3.
x y s t Z
1 0 1/7 -3/7 0 12/7 Value for x
0 1 1/7 4/7 0 40/7 Value for y
550(1) +(-550) = 0 550 (0) +0 = 0 550 (1/7) +0 = 50/7 550 (-3/7) +350 = 800/7 550 (0) +1 = 1 550 (12/7) +0 = 16400/7 Value for Z
EXAMPLE 7.8
Maximize: P = 13x + 5y
Subject to: x – 3y ≤ 12
2x – y ≥ 16
2x + y ≤ 30
140
x y s t u P
1 -3 1 0 0 0 12 (2)
2 -1 0 1 0 0 16 (3)
2 1 0 0 1 0 30 (4)
-13 -5 0 0 0 1 0 (1)
step 4: Identify pivot variable
x y s t u P
1 -3 1 0 0 0 12 12/1 = 12
2 -1 0 1 0 0 16 16/2 = 8
2 1 0 0 1 0 30 30/2 = 15
-13 -5 0 0 0 1 0
Step 5: Create new tableau
(a) Make the pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation
x y s t u P
1 -3 1 0 0 0 12 R1 – R2
1 -1/2 0 1/2 0 0 8
2 1 0 0 1 0 30 2R2 – R3
-13 -5 0 0 0 1 0 13R2 + R4
(b) After, identify the new pivot variables
x y s t u P
0 -2 1/2 1 - 1/2 0 0 4
1 - 1/2 0 1/2 0 0 8
0 -2 0 1 -1 0 -14
0 -11 1/2 0 6 1/2 0 1 104
(c) Make the new pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation
x y s t u P
0 -2 1/2 1 -1/2 0 0 4 5/2 R3 + R1
1 - 1/2 0 1/2 0 0 8 1/2 R3 + R2
0 1 0 -1/2 1/2 0 7
0 -11 1/2 0 6 1/2 0 1 104 11.5 R3 + R4
141
x y s t u P
0 0 1 -1 3/4 1 1/4 0 21 1/2
1 0 0 1/4 1/4 0 11 1/2 x
0 1 0 -1/2 1/2 0 7 y
0 0 0 3/4 5 3/4 1 184 1/2 P
To maximize the objective function, the values of x and y should be 11.5 and 7, respectively,
to obtain the maximum value of 184.5.
EXAMPLE 7.9
Gigi’s meat shop supplies meat for two consumers, MS Market and Mega market. She earns
₱4,500 per deliverAy in MS Market and ₱3,000 per deliver in Mega Market. MS Market orders
22 kilos of beef and 36 kilos of pork per delivery, while Mega Market orders 14 kilos of beef and
16 kilos of pork per delivery. Gigi’s meat shop has 120 kilos of beef and 150 kilos of pork in her
stock freezer. How many deliveries must the meat shop make to MS Market and Mega Market
to maximize profit? How much is the maximum earnings?
Let x = MS Market
y = Mega Market
Maximize: P = 4,500x +3000y
Subject to: x,y ≥ 0
22x + 14y ≤120 kilos of beef for delivery
36x + 16y ≤ 150 kilos of pork for delivery
Solution:
Step 1:Transform into standard form
-4,500x – 3,000y + P = 0
22x +14y = 120
36x + 16y = 150
Step 2: Determine slack variables
22x + 14y + s = 120
36x + 16y + t = 150
Step 3: Create a tableau
x y s t P
22 14 1 0 0 120
36 16 0 1 0 150
-4,500 -3000 0 350 1 0
Step 4: Identify pivot variables
x y s t P
22 14 1 0 0 120 120/22 =5.45
36 16 0 1 0 150 150/36 = 4.16
(pivot row)
(pivot element)
-4,500 -3000 0 350 1 0
pivot column
142
x y s t P
22 14 1 0 0 120
1 16/36 0 1/36 0 150/36
-4,500 -3000 0 350 1 0
Step 5: Create new tableau
x y s t P
-22R2 + R1 22 14 1 0 0 120
1 4/9 0 1/36 0 25/6
4500(R2) +R3 -4,500 -3000 0 350 1 0
New Tableau
x y s t P
0 38/9 1 -11/18 0 85/3
1 4/9 0 1/36 0 25/6
0 -1000 0 475 1 18,750
Repeat steps 4 and 5.
Identify pivot variables.
x y s t P
0 38/9 1 -11/18 0 85/3 85/3÷38/9 = 255/38 (pivot row)
pivot element
1 4/9 0 1/36 0 25/6 25/6÷4/9 = 75/8
0 -1000 0 475 1 18,750
pivot column
Make the pivot element into entry 1.
x y s t P
0 1 1 -11/76 0 255/38 new pivot row
1 4/9 0 1/36 0 25/6
0 -1000 0 475 1 18,750
Create new tableau.
x y s t P
0 1 1 -11/76 0 255/38 ≈ 6.7 x
-4/9R1 + R2 1 0 0 -32/57 0 45/38 ≈1.1 y
1000R1 +R3 0 0 1000 6275/19 1 25,460.5 P
Solution for the linear programming problem:
x ≈ 6.7 y ≈ 1.1 P ≈ 25,460.5
Gigi could earn as much as ₱25,460 if she supplies MS market by six times and one time
for delivery to Mega Market.
143
EXAMPLE 7.10
Minimize: Z = 12x + 15 y
Subject to: 6x +6y ≥ 30
2x + y ≥ 8
x + 3y ≥ 12
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Transform into augmented matrix
6 6 30
2 1 8
1 3 12
12 15 0
s t u x y
6 2 1 1 0 12
6 1 3 0 1 15
-30 -8 -12 0 0 0
144
s t u x y
1 1/3 1/6 1/6 0 2 2÷1/6 = 12
0 1 -2 1 -1 -3 3/2 = 1.5
0 2 -7 5 0 60
(c) Make the new pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
1 1/3 1/6 1/6 0 2 R1-1/6R2
- - 1
0 1 1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2
0 2 -7 5 0 60 7R2+R3
(d)
s t u x y
- 1
1 5/12 0 1/4 1/12 3/4
- - 1
0 1/2 1 1/2 1/2 1/2
-1 1 3 70
0 1/2 0 1/2 1/2 1/2
To minimize the objective function the values of x and y should be 1.5 and 3.5 respectively
to obtain the minimum value of 70.5, same answer with the example 4.
The fact that a dual maximization problem has the same solution as its original
minimization problem is stated formally in a result called the von neumann duality principle,
after the American mathematician John von Neumann (1903-1957).
The von Neumann duality principle states that objective value w of a minimization
problem in standard form has a minimum value if and only if the objective value z of the dual
maximization problem has a maximum value. Moreover, the minimum value of w is equal to
the maximum value of z.
145
Minimize: Z = 12x + 15 y
Subject to: 6x +6y ≥ 30
6x + 3y ≥ 4
x + 3y ≥ 9
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Transform into augmented matrix
6 6 30
6 3 4
1 3 9
12 15 0
Step 2: Transpose the matrix
6 2 1 12
6 3 3 15
30 4 9 0
Step 3: Form the dual maximization problem.
Maximize: w = 30s + 4t + 9u dual objective function
Subject to: 6s +6t +u ≤12
6s +3t +3u ≤ 15
Step 4: Transform into standard form and determine the slack variables.
6s +6t +u + x = 12 (1)
6s +3t +3u + y = 15 (2)
-30s – 4t – 9u = 0 (3)
s t u x y
6 6 1 1 0 12
6 3 3 0 1 15
-30 -4 -9 0 0 0
Step 5: Identify pivot variables.
s t u x y
6 6 1 1 0 6 12/6 = 2
6 3 3 0 1 6 15/6 = 2.5
-30 -4 -9 0 0 -30
Step 6: Create new tableau
(a) Make the pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
1 1 1/6 1/6 0 2
6 3 3 0 1 6 R2-6R1
-30 -4 -9 0 0 -30 30R1 +R3
146
s t u x y
1 1 1/6 1/6 0 2 2÷1/6 = 12
0 -3 2 -1 1 3 3/2 = 1.5
0 26 -4 5 0 60
(c) Make the new pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
1 1 1/6 1/6 0 2 R1-1/6R2
0 -1 1/2 1 - 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
0 26 -4 5 0 60 4R2+R3
(d)
s t u x y
1 1 1/4 0 1/4 - 1/12 1 3/4
0 -1 1/2 1 - 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
0 20 0 3 2 66
To minimize the objective function the values of x and y should be 3 and 2 respectively to
obtain the minimum value of 66.
EXAMPLE 7.12
From the example problem 6, use the simplex method to minimize the cost of labor.
Minimize: P = 1,500x + 1,200y
Subject to: 2x + 3y ≤ 30
2x + y ≤ 12
2x + 0.5y ≤ 10
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Transform into augmented matrix, then transpose the matrix.
2 3 30 2 2 2 1500
2 1 12 3 1 0.5 1200
2 0.5 10 30 12 10 0
1500 1200 0
Step 2: Form the dual maximization problem.
Maximize: w = 30s + 12t + 10u dual objective function
Subject to: 2s +2t +2u ≤1500
3s +t +0.5u ≤ 1200
Step 3: Transform into standard form and determine the slack variables.
2s + 2t +2u + x = 12 (1)
3s + t + 0.5u + y = 15 (2)
-30s – 12t – 10u = 0 (3)
147
s t u x y
2 2 2 1 0 1500 1500/2 =750
3 1 1/2 0 1 1200 1200/3 = 400
-30 -12 -10 0 0 0
Step 5: Create new tableau.
(a) Make the pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
2 2 2 1 0 1500 2R2-R1
1 1/3 1/6 0 1/3 400
-30 -12 -10 0 0 0 30R2+R3
(b) Identify the new pivot variables.
s t u x y
0 -1 1/3 -1 2/3 -1 2/3 -700 420
1 1/3 1/6 0 1/3 400 2400
0 -2 -5 0 10 12000
(c) Make the new pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
0 4/5 1 3/5 - 2/5 420
1 1/3 1/6 0 1/3 400 R2-1/6R1
0 -2 -5 0 10 12000 5R1+R3
(d)
s t u x y
0 4/5 1 3/5 - 2/5 420
1 1/5 0 - 1/10 2/5 330
0 2 0 3 8 14100
To minimize the labor cost, the company may produce three office desks and eight student
desks to had a minimum labor cost of ₱14, 100.
148
2. 6.
3. 7.
4. 8.
149
151
2. Objective Function
Z = 4x +4y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
x + 3y ≤ 18
3x + 2y ≤ 24
3. Objective Function
Z = 4x + 5y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
4x + 2y ≥ 15
5x + y ≤ 16
x+y≤9
4. Objective Function
Z = 200x + 320y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
6x + 2y ≥ 12
4x + 2 ≥ 10
x + 2y ≥ 4
153
1
6. Z = x + 5y 11. Z = 8x + 12y
2
154
Generate a linear programming model for each problem and determine the optimal
solution and the minimum/maximum value of the objective function.
1. RAD Company Inc. produces screws and bolts. The company earns ₱7 for each screw
produced and ₱6.5 for a piece of bolt. Each of these products has to go through machines
A and B. A piece of screw requires 4 hours in machine A and 2 hours in machine B. A
piece of bolt requires 3 hours in machine A and 2 hours in machine B. Machine A can only
operate for 18 hours nonstop while Machine B can operate nonstop for 20 hours. How
many screws and bolts can be produced per production cycle to maximize the company’s
profit? How much is the maximum profit?
2. A housewife wishes to mix together two kinds of food, I and II, in such a way that the
mixture contain at least 10 units of vitamin A, 12 units of vitamin B, and 8 units of
vitamin C. The vitamin contents of one kg of food is given below;
A 1 kg of Food I costs ₱160 and 1 kg of Food II costs ₱110. Formulate the above
problem as a linear programming problem and find the least cost of the mixture which
will produce the diet.
3. GRR Company needs to buy some filing cabinets. Cabinet X costs ₱1200 per unit that
requires 8ft 2 of floor space, and holds 8ft 3 of files. Cabinet Y costs ₱2400 per unit that
requires 8ft 3 of floor space, and holds 12ft 3 of files. RGR Company has a budget of ₱36,000
for purchasing cabinets. The office has room for no more than 120 ft 2 of cabinets. How
many of which model should you buy, in order to maximize storage volume and not to
spend much?
155
5. Mr. Go eats a mix of Cereal A and Cereal B for breakfast. The amount of calories, sodium,
and protein per ounce for each is shown in the table below. Mr. Go’s breakfast should
provide at least 600 calories but less than 700 milligrams of sodium. Mr. Go would like
to maximize the amount of protein in his breakfast mix.
Cereal A Cereal B
Calories (per ounce) 100 140
Sodium (mg per ounce) 150 190
Protein (g per ounce) 9 10
156
Determine the optimal solution of the following linear programming problems using
simplex method.
1. Objective Function
Z = 6x + 8y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
16x + 7y ≤ 60
2x + 2y ≤ 14
2. Objective Function
Z = 3x +12y
Constraints
x, y ≥0
x + 6y ≤ 30
7x – 6y ≤ 24
3. Objective Function
Z = 12x + 15y
Constraints x, y ≥ 0
4x + 2y ≥ 15
7x – 6y ≤ 24
x + y ≤ 16
4. Objective Function
Z = 20x + 32y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
3x + 2y ≥ 6
x–y≤2
y≤7
157
6. Tahani has ₱300,000 to invest in three funds in F1, F2, and F3. Fund F1 offers a
return of 2% and has low risk. Fund F2 offers a return of 4% and has a medium
risk. Fund F3 offers a return of 5% but has a high risk. To be on the safe side, Tahani
invests no more than ₱30,000 in F3 and at least twice as much as in F1 than in F2.
Assuming that the rates hold till the end of the year, what amounts should he invest
in each fund in order to maximize the yearend returns?
7. Each month a store owner can spend at most ₱1,000,000 on PC’s and laptops. A PC
costs the store owner ₱10,000 and a laptop costs him ₱15,000. Each PC is sold for a
profit of ₱4000 while laptop is sold for a profit of ₱7000. The store owner estimates
that at least 15 PC’s but no more than 80 are sold each month. He also estimates that
the number of laptops sold is at most half the PC’s. How many PC’s and how many
laptops should be sold in order to maximize the profit?
158
Spending:
1. How much your group will spend?
Giving:
1. How much your group will give?
159
INTEREST
Interest is the charged fee for the advantage of borrowing money. You can receive an
interest when you let others use your money such as depositing money in a bank or lending
to a friend. You pay an interest when use other people’s money such as borrowing money
from a bank or a friend.
The amount of money you loan or credit either to or from someone is called principal.
Interest rate is the percent charged to the principal. This charged interest between the loan
date and the repayment date that is identified by the period of time is called the interest
period or the term of the loan. There are two types of interest, simple, and compound.
Simple Interest
The quoted percent for a simple interest is usually annual (yearly) rate. A rate of 10%
means that the interest payment for a year will be 10% of the principal. To compute the
simple interest on a 1-year loan, simply multiply the principal by the rate.
Interest (I) = Principal (P) × Rate (r) × Time (t)
EXAMPLE 8.1
Rosario borrowed ₱10,000 for a one year at a rate of 8% simple interest. Compute the
interest.
Solution: To compute for the interest, multiply the amount of principal, interest period
(time) and interest rate. Since, the principal is ₱10,000 and the interest for one year is 8%, by
using the formula:
₱10,000 × 0.08 x 1 = ₱800.
The interest that Rosario needs to pay is ₱800.
However, some loans don’t have exact period in years. To compute the simple interest
on loans of any period, multiply the principal by the rate and then multiply by the time, with
Time stated in terms of years or in fractions of years. For easier computation, if the time
period is not exact period in years, use the measured in months instead of years. Change the
time into years by dividing the number of months by 12 (the number of months in one year).
EXAMPLE 8.2
Find the simple interest on loans of ₱10,200 when the rate is 4% and the loan periods are
six months; and three years.
Solution:
6
For 6 months: I = ₱10,200 × 0.04 × = ₱204
12
For 3 years: I = ₱10,200 × 0.04 × 3 = ₱1,224
160
EXAMPLE 8.3
Exact Simple Interest. Banks, savings, and loan institutions, credit unions, and the
federal government use a 365-day year (366 days for leap years) to compute interest. The
computations are the same as for ordinary simple interest, except that 365 days is used
instead of 360 days.
EXAMPLE 8.4
Maturity or Future Value with Simple Interest. The sum of principal and interest is called
maturity (A) or future value.
A = Principal (P) + Interest (I)
In other form, A = P × Prt or A = P (1 + rt)
EXAMPLE 8.5
Joanne lends ₱8,000 to his friend Dyan, so that Dyan can fly to Palawan to visit her family
there. If Joanne is charging Dyan only 3% simple interest within 6 months, how much does Dyan
need to pay?
Solution: Given that the principal is ₱8,000 with 3% simple interest in 6 months, to compute
the total amount Dyan needs to play, use the formula: (Note: period of time should be in terms
of years or fraction of a year)
A = P(1 + rt)
= ₱8,000 [1 + 0.03(6⁄12)]
= ₱8,000 (1 + 0.015)
= ₱8,000 (1.015)
= ₱8,120
Dyan needs to pay Joanne a total amount of ₱8,120
161
Missy needs now to pay a medical bill worth ₱20,000. She plans to take a loan form a
lending company that charges 6% simple interest payable in two years deducted in advance.
How much loan does she need to apply now?
Solution: Since the interest is deducted in advance, Missy needs to apply for a loan that
is more than ₱20,000. Hence, the ₱20,000 is the present value, and the principal amount is
unknown. By using the formula: S = P(1-rt), we get:
₱20,000 = P[1 – 0.06(2)]
₱20,000 = P(1 – 0.12)
₱20,000 = P(0.88)
₱20,000 = P(0.88)
(0.88) = (0.88)
₱22,727.27 ≈ P
EXAMPLE 8.7
Don invests ₱20,000 for two years in an account that pays 6% compounded annually.
Compute the total compound interest and future value.
Solution:
During the first year, the interest is: In the second year, the interest is:
₱20,000.00 Original principal ₱21,200.00 Second-year principal
x 0.06 Interest rate x_ 0.06 Interest rate
₱1,200.00 First-year interest ₱ 1,272.00 Second-year interest
After a year, the total amount is: After the second year, the total amount is:
₱20,000.00 First-year principal ₱21,200.00 Second-year principal
+ ₱1,200.00 First-year interest + ₱ 1,272.00 Second-year interest
₱21,200.00 Second-year principal ₱22,472.00 Final compound amount
162
EXAMPLE 8.8
If ₱20,000 is invested for two years at 6% compounded annually, compute the future value
of the investment.
Solution: Given that P = ₱20,000; r = 6% compounded annually; n= once a year; t = 2 years,
substitute the values into the formula.
1( 2 )
0.06
A = ₱20,000 1 +
1
A = ₱20,000 (01.06) 2
EXAMPLE 8.9
Find the future value of ₱38,000 invested for 5 years at 8% compounded quarterly.
Solution: Given that P = ₱38,000; r = 5% compounded quarterly; n= 4; t = 4 years, substitute
the values into the formula.
nt
r
AA = P 1 +
=
n
4( 4 )
0.05
A = ₱38,000 1 +
4
A = ₱38,000 (1.0125)16
A = ₱38,000 (1.21988955) Use at 8 decimal places.
A = ₱46,355.80
163
EXAMPLE 8.10
Mrs. Celestine has a 12-year-old son and she is planning to invest for her son’s education
that will be worth ₱120,000 when he turns 18. If Mrs. Celestine can earn 5% compounded semi-
annually, how much money should she put into each investment today?
Solution: Mrs. Celestine knows that the future value of the investments is ₱120,000. Now,
she wants to know the present value, the amount that she needs to invest today for her son.
Since her son is 12 years old, the duration for her investment to reach ₱120,000 is six years.
Given that A = ₱120,000; r = 5% compounded semi-annually; =2; t = 6 years, substitute the
values into the formula.
2( 6 )
0.05
₱120,000 = P 1 +
2
₱120,000 = P (1.025)12
₱120,000 = P (1.34488882)
P ≈ ₱89,226.70
Mrs. Celestine needs to invest ₱89,226.70 now so that her son’s education is ensured with
₱120,000 after six years.
INFLATION
Inflation is the rate at which the prices for goods and services is rising and, hence, the
purchasing power of currency is falling. The effect of inflation is the same as computing the
compound amount of the given principal amount.
EXAMPLE 8.11
Assuming an annual inflation rate of 3%, what is the equivalent value of ₱50,000 10 years
from now?
Solution: To compute the equivalent amount of ₱50,000 ten year from now, use the formula:
nt
r
=AA =P 1 +
n
Given that P = ₱50,000; r = 3% compounded annually; n = 1; t = 10
110
0.03
A = ₱50,000 1 +
1
A = ₱50,000 (1.03)10
A = ₱50,000 (1.34391638)
A = ₱67,195.82
164
165
EXAMPLE 8.12
Lenie borrows ₱1,000 today. She will repay the loan by making four equal payments over
the next year. The payments will be made at the end of every third month. The interest is 3.2%
APR compounded quarterly. Determine the amount she needs to pay every quarter.
0.032
Solution: P= ₱1,000; t = 1; m = 4; n = 4(1) = 4; r = 0.032; i = = 0.008
4
1 − (1 + 0.008 )−4
Then substitute the formula: 1000 = R
0.008
= R ( 3.921262 )
1000
Solving for R gives R =
3.921262
R = 255.02
Therefore, Lenie needs to pay ₱255.02 every quarter.
166
1 − (1 + i ) − n
LP = R
i
EXAMPLE 8.13
Luis wants to pay his car loan that he owned for three years. His monthly payment is
₱14,500 on a five year loan at an interest of 5% APR. Find the load payoff amount.
0.05
Solution: R = ₱14,500; i = = 0.00416667; n = 24
12
1 − (1 + i)−n
Substitute the values in the formula: LP = R ;
i
1 − (1 + 0.00416667 )−24
We have: LP = 14,500
0.00416667
LP = 330,511.51
Credit Cards
An individual who uses a credit card in purchases is actually contracting a loan with the
issuing bank. It has zero interest for your purchases if you pay in full on or before the due
date; otherwise there will be additional charges. Late payment fee is also charge if you fail
to pay the minimum amount required on the payment due date. The charged will be added
to the annual fee for the use of the credit card.
A monthly bill is issued to the credit card holders, including the payment due date in
which it is usually 20 days from the statement date, the total amount due and the minimum
amount due.
The statement date of 20 th day of the month states that any purchase made on the 21st
day of the current month up to the 20 th day of the succeeding month will be included in the
next billing month. If your statement date is September 21, and you made a purchased on
September 22, the purchase bill will be included to the October 21 billing statement. If you
purchased on October 20, then the purchase bill will be included to the October 21 billing
statement. Usually the payment due is 20 days from the statement date. So a statement date
of October 21 has a payment due date of December 10.
167
Your statement date is every 25th day of the month, and you made purchase on November
16. (a)When the statement date of the purchase? (b) What is the payment due date?
Answer: (a) November 25
(b) December 15
Assume that your bill has a payment due date of December 15. You made a partial
payment to your total amount due on December 15, so a finance charge on the outstanding
balance will start to accumulate on December 15. Any purchase made after December 15
will immediately start to accumulate finance charges. To calculate the financial charges,
daily balance method is used. It is identified by dividing the sum of the total amounts owed
each day of the month through the number of days in the billing period.
Average Balance (ADB) = sujm of total amount owed each day of the month
number of days in the billing period
EXAMPLE 8.15
Darwin had a credit card bill worth ₱8,500, and paid ₱4,000 only on its due date on January
3. His purchase worth ₱3,000 was made on January 8, and a payment of ₱3,700 was done on
January 12. If the interest for the average daily balance is 2% per month, find the finance charge
on January 14.
Solution:
168
A stock pays an annual dividend of ₱75 per share. If the stock is trading at ₱1,000, what is
the dividend yield?
Solution: By using the formula: I = Prt; I = 75; P = 1,000 and t = 1.
75 = (1,000)r(1)
75 = 1000r
0.075 = r
The dividend yield is 7.5%
169
High Low Stock Div Yld % P-E Ratio Volume High Low Close Net Change
100s
52 Week
Dell-
1671/2 225/8 48 95803 1667/8 1623/16 164 +4
Cptr
Columns 1, 2 and 3 During the last 52 weeks, the highest price paid for a share of Sears common stock
High, Low, Stock was ₱385/8 and the lowest was ₱22.
Column 4 Sears stock pays ₱2.00 yearly in dividends per share.
Column 5 At today’s price, the investor receives a return of 5.1% or ₱5.10 for every ₱100
Yield invested. The yield is obtained by dividing the annual dividend by the closing price.
Column 6 At today’s price, the ratio of price to earnings is 15. It is one way to compare stocks
P-E Ratio of firms in the same industry. In general, low P-E stocks tend to have higher dividend
yields and less risk. The P-E ratio is obtained by dividing the stock’s price by the
company’s latest 12 months earnings per share.
Column 7 On this day, 1,796,900 shares of Sears’s stock changed hands.
Volume in 100s
Column 8, 9, 10, During the trading day, the price was as high as ₱39.87 1/2 per share and as low as
and 11 High, Low, ₱37.121/2. The final price was for ₱39.50 which was ₱2.12 1/2 more than the final
Close, Net Change price on the previous day.
The Philippine Bureau of Treasury (BTr) issues Retail Treasury Bond (RTB) for the
government to raise the needed funds. The RTBs are medium to long-term government
securities that pay interest regularly. Bonds can be purchased as new offerings or on the
secondary market, just like stocks. A bond’s value can rise and fall based on a number of
factors. Bonds can be bought in increments like ₱1,000, ₱5,000 or even ₱10,000. For instance,
if you buy a ₱10,000 bond, you will receive that ₱10,000 back when the bond matures and in
the interim, you will receive interest payments (generally) twice per year.
170
A RTB issued by BTr which has 10-year maturity date and a coupon rate of 6 1/2. This stated
interest rate represents the 6.5 percent paid on the bond’s ₱1,000 face value. How much
interest will the bondholder receive?
Solution: The interest is computed by using the formula: , where
I = 1000(0.065)(10)
I = 650
The bondholder will receive an interest of ₱650.
Column 1 A bond issued by Chiquita which matures in 2004 has a coupon rate of 10 1/2. This
Bond, Coupon Rate, stated interest rate represents the 10.5 percent paid on the bond’s ₱1,000 face value.
Date of Maturity The holder of this bond will receive ₱105 annually.
The “s” in the K Mart quotation separates the 6.2 percent rate from the 1997
maturity date. Note this bond is listed in fractions of 10s instead of 8s.
The Disney bonds are zero coupon bonds as indicated by the “zr.” They do not pay
annual interest.
Column 2 At this day’s price, the holder of a Chiquita bond annually will receive 10.7 percent or
Current Yield ₱10.70 for every ₱100 invested. The current yield is calculated by dividing the annual
interest by the closing price.
“cv” indicates the K Mart bond is convertible and can be exchanged for K Mart stock.
Column 3 On this day, 500,000 Chiquita bonds were sold. The number 50 has been multiplied
Volume by 10,000.
Column 4, 5 The final price for Chiquita bonds was ₱982.50 which was ₱3.75 more than the final
Close, Net Change price on the day before.
Mutual Fund. Mutual Funds are a way for a group of investors to pool their money so they
can invest in a wider variety of stocks and bonds. The group of investors forms a “mutual”
investment group and hires a professional fund manager. This manager makes decisions
about how to invest the money based on the goals of the group. In a mutual fund, the value of
your shares goes up and down as the value of the stocks and bonds in the fund rise and fall.
171
EXAMPLE 8.18
A mutual fund has ₱349,000,000 worth of stocks, ₱230,000,000 worth of bonds and
₱401,000,000 worth of other assets. The total fund liabilities is worth ₱51,000,000 and there
are 20,000,000 shares outstanding. If you invested ₱200,000 in this find, find the net asset value
of the mutual fund and the number of shares you purchased.
Solution: Given A ₱349,000,000 + ₱230,000,000 + ₱401,000,000 = 908,000,000;
L = ₱51,000,000; and N= 20,000,000
908,000,000 – 51,000,000
NAV =
20,000,000
The net asset value of the fund is ₱42.85.
To find the number of shares you purchased, divide the amount you invest by the net asset
value.
200,000
Number of Shares =
42.85
Number of Shares = 4,667.44
Therefore, with the amount of ₱200,000 you purchased of shares.
Column 1 Magellan and Overseas are names of mutual funds within the Fidelity Investment family.
Fund Family Select Value and STAR are mutual funds within the Vanguard Group of funds.
Column 2 The NAV stands for the net asset value per share of the fund at the close of the previous
NAV business day. A fund’s NAV is calculated by adding up the value of all stocks or other
securities owned by the fund, subtracting the liabilities, and then dividing by the number
of fund shares available. However, sales commissions are not subtracted from the NAV.
Column 3 The net change column shows the change in the NAV from the preceding day’s quote. In
Net Chg this example, there was a 21 percent loss in net asset value of the Fidelity Magellan Mutual
Fund as compared to the previous day. Both of the listed Vanguard funds lost three cents
a share.
Column 4 YTD % return refers to the year-to-date percentage change in the value of the fund.
YTD % Ret That includes re-investment of all distributions, subtracting annual expenses charged to
investors.
172
173
In problems 1-4, compute the amount of (a) ordinary simple interest and (b) the amount
of exact simple interest. Then compute (c) the difference between the two interest amounts
Ordinary Exact
Principal Rate Time Difference
Interest Interest
1) ₱4,590 6% 180 days
2) ₱2,450 8% 60 days
5. Ronnie borrowed money for 240 days at a rate of 7.2% ordinary simple interest. How
much did Ronnie borrow if he paid ₱190 in interest?
6. Gianne loaned ₱10,500 to one of her employees for 70 days. If the employee’s interest
amount was ₱120.50, what was the ordinary simple interest rate?
7. Terry James loaned ₱150,000 to a machine shop owner who was buying a piece of used
equipment. The interest rate was 6.5% exact simple interest, and the interest amount
was ₱3,650. Compute the number of days of the loan.
8. Kaycee loaned ₱20,000 to Farah, she charged only 3% ordinary simple interest. A month
later, when Fay received a monetary incentive, she repaid the entire loan and all the
interest. What was the total amount that Farah paid?
175
a. ₱ 14,000 6% 3 yrs
compounded
monthly
b. ₱120,000 8% 7 yrs
compounded
quarterly
a. ₱30,000 5% 2 yrs
compounded
monthly
b. ₱ 6,000 4% 12 yrs
compounded
quarterly
d. ₱40,000 6% 8 yrs
compounded
semi-annually
177
5. Lourdes was planning to buy a new car in three years. She has some money today that
she can invest for three years in an account that will pay 6% compounded quarterly.
How much of it would she need to deposit today so that she will have ₱800,000 in her
account in three years?
6. Benjie will need to buy a ₱125,000 machine in three years. He can deposit excess profits
from this year in an investment that should pay 9% compounded monthly. If Benjie earns
the ₱125,000 in three years, how much will he earn in interest?
7. If you deposit ₱2500 into an account paying 11% annual interest compounded quarterly,
how long until there is ₱4500 in the account?
8. How much money would you need to deposit today at 5% annual interest compounded
monthly to have ₱20,000 in the account after 9 years?
9. If you deposit ₱6000 into an account paying 6.5% annual interest compounded quarterly,
how long until there is ₱12,600 in the account?
10. If you deposit ₱5000 into an account paying 8.25% annual interest compounded semi-
annually, how long until there is ₱9350 in the account?
11. Assuming an annual inflation rate of 2.5%, what is the equivalent value of ₱25,000 ten
year from now?
12. In the year 2016, Teddy was buying 10 apples and 10 oranges, each ₱100 for 1kg. In 2017,
Teddy still buys 10 oranges and 10 apples, but oranges are now ₱130/kg and apples
₱120/kg. How much has the price of oranges risen? how much has the price of apples
risen? What is the percent of inflation?
178
1. Neil’s refrigerator has stopped working and he needs to get a new one. He purchase a
new refrigerator for ₱36,700. He paid a 10% deposit and obtain a loan for the balance.
The interest charged on the loan was 7.5% APR compounded annually. He repaid the
loan and interest in equal monthly installment for over a period of two years. Calculate
each of the following:.
a. deposit
b. loan he made
2. Lola always wanted to be the first to have the latest gadget on the market. So after the
release of a new phone Find X, she bought it in an instant by using her credit card. Find X
costs ₱62,000 that she will be paying monthly over a year with an interest of 2.5% APR
compounded monthly.
b. If she got pay her monthly bill dated March 25, when will be her due date?
c. Lola missed to pay her bill for this month. Given that a charge will be made, how
much does she need to pay for the next billing?
3. Lallie repays ₱21,250 per month over five years on her car loan of ₱1,000,000. What
nominal rate of interest was Lallie being charged?
179
5. Pedro’s ₱ 60,000 loan at 8% per annum nominal/flat interest is repaid over a period of
six years. Calculate the effective rate of interest charged on the loan.
7. Shane is planning to repaint her house. She estimates the total cost to be ₱34,900. They
decide to pay 40% up front and finance the balance at 10% interest for 24 months.
a. Calculate the down payment.
180
38 4 152
187
Total
181
Statement
Date Details Amount (₱)
1 Apr Opening balance 2,350
3 Apr Purchase 490
10 Apr Purchase 1,230
12 Apr Payment -500
15 Apr Cash Advance 2,000
22 Apr Purchase 860
23 Apr Cash Advance 1,000
29 Apr Payment -1,200
1 May Purchase 360
12 May Payment -1,345
Total
182
1. A stock pays an annual dividend of ₱1,342 per share. Calculate the dividends paid to a
shareholder who has 375 shares of the company’s stock.
2. A stock pays an annual dividend of ₱248 per share. Calculate the dividends paid to a
shareholder who has 1500 shares of the company’s stock.
3. Calculate the dividends paid to a shareholder who has 850 shares of a stock that is paying
an annual dividend of ₱63 per share.
4. Find the dividend yield for a stock that pays an annual dividend of ₱132 per share and
has a current price of ₱4,970.
5. A corporation is paying an annual dividend of ₱67 per share. If the price of a share of the
stock is ₱8,125, what is the dividend yield on the stock?
183
Stock Quotations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
High Low Stock Div Yld % P-E Ratio Volume High Low Close Net
52 Week 100s Change
4. What was the increase today in the dollar value of Dell stock?
7. If you bought 100 shares of Dell at its low for the year and sold it at this day’s closing
price, what would be your capital gain?
185
Bond Quotations
1 2 3 4 5
3. What is the stated coupon interest paid to the bondholder for each of these bonds?
a. FlyHigh
b. YESPO
c. CBN
4. If you bought the following bonds at these prices, what would your real annual return
from interest be?
a. FlyHigh
b. YESPO
5. What was the closing price for these bonds on the previous day?
a. FlyHigh
b. CBN
187
1. You buy a ₱286,000 home with a down payment of 25%. Find the amount of the down
payment and the mortgage amount.
2. Mr. Reyes purchases a home for ₱143,000 with a down payment of 10%. Find the amount
of the down payment and the mortgage amount.
b. What is the total of the payments over the life of the loan?
c. Find the amount of interest paid on the mortgage loan over the 20 years.
b. What is the total of the payments over the term of the loan?
c. Find the amount of interest paid on the mortgage loan over the 25 years.
189
6. After making monthly payments of ₱19,513.00 for 10 years on your 30-year loan at 5.2%,
you decide to sell your home. What is the loan payoff?
7. Makisig Cruz has a 25-year mortgage loan at an annual interest rate of 5.8%. After
making payments of ₱10,587 for four years, Makisig decides to sell his home. What is
the loan payoff?
8. Suppose you have a 20-year mortgage loan for ₱1,468,500 at an annual interest rate of
8.25%. Her annual property tax bill is ₱23,500 and her annual fire insurance premium
is ₱12,530. Find the total monthly payment for the mortgage, property tax, and fire
insurance.
190
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
191
APPORTIONMENT
The mathematical investigation into apportionment was originated in the U.S Congress.
Since 1790, the U.S House of Representatives first attempted to apportion itself, various
methods have been used to decide how many voters would be represented by each member
of the House. These methods are Hamilton plan, Jefferson plan, Adam’s Method, Webster’s
method, and Huntington-Hill apportionment method.
Hamilton Plan. It was proposed by Alexander Hamilton in the U.S Congress in 1790.
President George Washington vetoed the plan, so it was used only after the US Government
census from 1850 to 1900. Under the Hamilton plan, the total population is divided by the
number of representatives. The number of citizens represented by each representatives is
called standard divisor.
Total Population
Standard Divisor (d) =
Number of People to Apportion
Dividing the population of each subgroup by the standard divisor, the quotient is called
standard quota. The standard quota is the allocated number of representatives from each
subgroup. Round down the standard quota, the result should be the whole number. If the
sum of the standard quotas is not equal to the required number of representatives, assign
additional representatives to the subgroup with the largest decimal quotient.
PROBLEM 9.1
Suppose the University Student Council needs 25 representatives to be chosen from the
different college in the University. The population is shown in the table below. Use the Hamilton
plan to determine the number of representatives in each college.
Colleges Population
College of Education 1,459
College of Architecture 450
College of Arts and Science 1,230
College Of Hotel and Management 2,457
College of Business Administration 2,796
TOTAL 8,392
Solution:
Step 1: Find the Standard Divisor
8,392
Standard Divisor (d) =
25
= 335.68
Step 2: Calculate the standard quota and determine the number of representatives.
Standard No. of
Colleges Population Quotient
Quota Representative
1,459
College of Education (COEd) 1,459 ≈ 4.35 4 5
335.68
450
College of Architecture (COA) 470 ≈ 1.34 1 1
335.68
1,230
College of Arts and Science (CAS) 1,230 ≈ 3.66 3 4
335.68
2,457
College Of Hotel Management (CHM) 2,457 ≈ 7.32 7 7
335.68
2,796
College of Business Administration (CBA) 2,796 ≈ 8.33 8 8
335.68
TOTAL 8,392 23 25
192
Jefferson Plan. It was proposed by Thomas Jefferson after Hamilton plan was vetoed by
President Washington. It was actually the first method used in the US Congress from 1790 to
1830. Jefferson plan divides all populations by a modified divisor and then rounds the results
down to the lower quota. The modified divisor (dm) is acquired by picking a number, that is
slightly less than the standard divisor. Divide each subgroup by the modified divisor to get
its modified quota. If the sum is too large, pick a new modified divisor that is larger than dm.
If the sum is too small, pick a new modified divisor that is smaller than dm. Repeat the trial
and error until the correct number of representatives are apportioned.
PROBLEM 9.2
From the previous example problem 1, determine the number of representatives by using
Jefferson plan.
Solution:
By trial and error, identify modified standard divisor (dm) and calculate the quota. (Note:
Round down into lower quota).
dm 330 300 308
Colleges
Population Quotient Quota Quotient Quota Quotient Quota
COEd 1,459 4.42 4 4.86 4 4.72 4
COA 470 1.42 1 1.57 1 1.52 1
CAS 1,230 3.72 3 4.1 4 4 4
CHM 2,457 7.44 7 8.19 8 7.96 7
CBA 2,796 8.47 8 9.32 9 9.06 9
TOTAL 8,392 23 26 25
Therefore, the modified divisor (dm) is 308 that gives the appropriate quota, and the
composition of the USC using the Jefferson plan is COEd 4, COA 1, CAS 4, CHM 7, and CBA 9.
Adam’s Method. John Quincy Adams first proposed this method as an alternative to
Jefferson plan in 1832. Adam’s method is the mirror image of Jefferson plan: Instead of
rounding all quota down to their lower quotas, it rounds them up to their upper quotas.
Adam’s Method chooses a modified divisor dm that is slightly near to the standard divisor.
Divide each subgroup by the modified divisor to get its modified quota. Round up each quota.
Repeat the trial and error until the correct number of representatives are apportioned.
Using the stated problem above:
193
Webster’s Method. Senator Daniel Webster introduced this method in 1832. This method
is the combination of Hamilton plan and Jefferson plan. Finding the standard divisor is by
dividing the total population by the number of people to be apportioned. Use this standard
divisor as the first modified divisor. Divide each state’s population by the modified divisor to
get the modified quota. Round each modified quota to the nearest integer using conventional
rounding rules (lower/upper quota). If the sum is too large, pick a new modified divisor that
is larger than dm. If the sum is too small, pick a new modified divisor that is smaller than dm.
Repeat the trial and error until the correct number of representatives are apportioned.
From the previous example, determine the number of representatives applying the
Webster’s Method.
Solution: The standard divisor is determined by dividing the total population by the
required number of representatives.
8,392
Standard Divisor (d) =
25
= 335.68
Colleges Population Quotient Rounded Quota
COEd 1,459 4.35 4
COA 470 1.34 1
CAS 1,230 3.66 4
CHM 2,457 7.32 7
CBA 2,796 8.33 8
TOTAL 8,392 24
Since the quota doesn’t satisfy the number of representatives, try another modified
divisor until the number of representative is attained. In continuous trial and error, we
could attain the modified divisor, 308.
Comparing the results of the three methods, Webster’s method is the same with Jefferson
plan.
194
The LGU is planning to donate 300 new units of computer to four local school districts for
the students to use. The allocation of the number of computers will be apportioned based on
their population as shown in the table below. Use (a) Hamilton plan, (b) Jefferson plan (c) Adam’s
Method and (d) Webster’s method to determine how the distribution of computer units among
the schools.
School Aliaga Quezon Sto Domingo Licab TOTAL
Population 1,237 1,358 923 1,754 5,272
The modified divisor used is 17.42 to obtain the appropriate apportion of the computer
units.
(c) Adam’s Method:
dm 15 17 17.7
Colleges
Population Quotient Quota Quotient Quota Quotient Quota
Aliaga 1,237 82.47 83 72.76 73 69.89 70
Quezon 1,358 90.53 91 79.88 80 76.72 77
Sto. Domingo 923 61.53 62 54.29 55 52.15 53
Licab 1,754 116.93 117 103.18 104 99.10 100
TOTAL 5,272 353 312 300
The modified divisor used is 17.7 to obtain the appropriate apportion of the computer
units.
195
Colleges Population Hamilton Plan Jefferson Plan Adam’s Method Webster’s Method
Aliaga 1,237 70 71 70 70
Quezon 1,358 77 77 77 77
Sto Domingo 923 53 52 53 53
Licab 1,754 100 100 100 100
TOTAL 5,272 300 300 300 300
196
COA CHM
(470)2 (2457)2
HCOA = HCHM =
1(1 + 1) 7(7 + 1)
HCOA ≈ 110,450 HCHM ≈ 107,801
Flaw of Apportionment
In 1982, Michael Balinski and H. Peyton Young proved that all apportionment methods
have some flaws. This leads to Balinski-Young impossibility theorem in which states that
“any apportionment method may either violate the quota rule or may produce paradoxes.”
Quota Rule Violation. The quota rule says that each group should be given the number of
representatives either its upper quota or its lower quota. The violation happens when the
group receives a number of seats which is smaller than its lower quota or larger than its
upper quota.
PROBLEM 5
The University is granting free tuition fee for 100 College of Education students. The College
of Education has three departments. BSIE department has 98 students, BSE department has 689
students and BEED department has 212 students. Using Jefferson Plan with dm = 9.83.
197
PROBLEM 6
The teacher decides that he will give 11 chocolate bars among three students based on
the number of plastic bottle they recycled. Agatha recycled 54 plastic bottles, August recycled
243 plastic bottles and Agapito recycled 703 plastic bottles. Near the end of the deadline, the
teacher reminds the students about the deal and the three students recycled an additional 2,
12, and 86 plastics bottles, respectively. Use the Hamilton plan to apportion the chocolate bars
both before and after the reminder.
Chocolate Bars Apportionment Before the Reminder
New-States Paradox. It occurs when a new group is added along with additional members/
representatives and existing group lose representatives.
PROBLEM 7
Employees of Sloan Hospital and Grey Hospital are forming an association that aimed
to disseminate information in the prevention of dengue. There are 65 employees from Sloan
Hospital and 52 employees from Grey Hospital. The association agreed to send 10-member
advance party to survey and assess the situation in the community. Suppose Avery Hospital
with 28 employees want to join the association use the Hamilton plan to determine the number
of representative of employees before and after Avery Hospital joined.
Before Avery Hospital joined. d = 11.7
198
Avery Hospital has a population of 28 so it should get two representatives. When Avery
Hospital is added with its two slot for the representatives, Sloan Hospital loses a representative
and Avery Hospital gains an additional representative. This is an example of the New-States
Paradox.
PROBLEM 8
A teacher has an incentive program to get her five students to read more. She has 30 pieces
of candy to divide among her students at the end of the week based on the number of minutes
each of them spends reading. At the last minute, the teacher finds another piece of candy and
does the apportionment again. Use the Hamilton plan before the additional candy was found.
Apportionment of 30 Candies d = 25
Student Population Quotient Standard Quota Allocation
Adie 138 5.52 5 5
Bon 218 8.72 8 9
Cassie 142 5.68 5 6
Dean 188 7.52 7 7
Earl 64 2.56 2 3
Total 750 27 30
Apportionment of 31 Candies d = 24.19
Student Population Quotient Standard Quota Allocation
Adie 138 5.71 5 6
Bon 218 9.01 9 9
Cassie 142 5.87 5 6
Dean 188 7.77 7 8
Earl 64 2.65 2 2
Total 750 28 31
Notice that adding another piece of candy caused Adie to lose a piece while Dean and Earl
gain a piece. This is an example of the Alabama paradox.
199
VOTING
Voting the leaders we believe in is one of the privileges a democratic government. In
addition, many decision- making situations using group consensus or the essence of voting.
Voting is a process of choosing someone or something in an election. The basic idea of voting
is deciding upon a winner, there is always one main goal: to reflect the preferences of the
people in the fairest way possible. These are the methods for counting a vote: preference
schedule, plurality method of voting, plurality with elimination, borda count method, and
pairwise comparison voting method.
Preference Schedule. This method uses a preference ballot, in which the voter ranks the
choices in order of their preference.
EXAMPLE 9.1
Ben, Borj, Bing, Carl, Cara, Colyn, and Dony are planning to buy an ice cream. There are
only three available flavors; cheese, chocolate, ube, and macapuno. They decided to buy an ice
cream by ranking their preference flavors. Their votes are shown below:
These preference ballots are tallied in preference schedule, as shown in the table below,
the number of voters are written in the top row on each option they voted.:
4 2 1
1 choice
st
cheese chocolate ube
2 choice
nd
ube ube chocolate
3 choice
rd
chocolate cheese cheese
Notice that by totaling the vote counts across the top of the preference schedule.
200
From the election above, determine which ice cream flavor they will buy using plurality
method.
4 2 1
1 choice
st
cheese chocolate ube
2 choice
nd
ube ube chocolate
3 choice
rd
chocolate cheese cheese
Solution: In plurality method, we only look for the 1 choice option.
st
A company is planning its annual RnR and has asked its employees to rank five different
choices of recreational activities in order of preference. The results are given in the table below.
Ranking
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
Going to a videoke bar 2 5 2 1 5
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Solution:
From the preference table, count the number of first-choice votes for each recreational
activity.
Using the plurality with elimination method, the first to eliminate is the recreational activity
with the fewest number of first-choice votes. If two or more of these alternatives have the same
number of first-choice votes, all are eliminated unless that would eliminate all alternatives.
In that case, a different method of voting must be used. From the table above, “out-of-town”
201
202
From the previous example, use the Borda count to determine the company’s recreational
activity for their annual RnR. The preference schedule of the employees’ choice is shown in the
table.
Rank
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
Going to a videoke Bar 2 5 2 1 5
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Solution:
Using the Borda Count method, each first choice vote receives 5 points, each second choice
vote receives 4 points, each third choice vote receives 3 points, each fourth choice vote receives
2 points, and each fifth choice vote receives 1 point.
Swimming at a Beach: Dinner at a Restaurant:
1st choice = 15 × 5 pts = 45 pts 1st choice = 19 × 5 pts = 95 pts
2 choice= 24 × 4 pts = 96 pts
nd
2nd choice = 0 × 4 pts = 0 pt
3 choice = 35 × 3 pts = 105 pts
rd
3rd choice = 3 × 3 pts = 3 pts
4 choice = 19 × 2 pts = 38 pts
th
4th choice = 24 × 2 pts = 48 pts
5 choice = 0 × 1 pt = 0 pt
th
5th choice = 47 × 1 pt = 47 pts
TOTAL 284 pts TOTAL 193 pts
Visiting a Museum: Out-of-town Tour:
1 choice = 24 × 5 pts = 120 pts
st
1st choice = 0 × 5 pts = 0 pt
2nd choice = 3 × 4 pts = 12 pts 2nd choice = 35 × 4 pts = 140 pts
3rd choice = 31 × 3 pts = 93 pts 3rd choice = 24 × 3 pts = 74 pts
4th choice = 35 × 2 pts = 70 pts 4th choice = 15 × 2 pts = 30 pts
5th choice = 0 × 1 pt = 0 pt 5th choice = 19 × 1 pt = 19 pts
TOTAL 295 pts TOTAL 263 pts
Going to a Videoke Bar:
1st choice = 35 × 5 pts = 175 pts
2nd choice = 31 × 4 pts = 124 pts
3rd choice = 0 × 3 pts = 0 pt
4th choice = 0 × 2 pts = 0 pt
5th choice = 27 × 1 pt = 27 pts
TOTAL 326 pts
By the Borda Count method, “going to a videoke bar” obtains the largest number of points.
Therefore, the company’s annual RnR would be going to a videoke bar.
203
EXAMPLE 9.6
Using the pairwise method, determine the company’s recreational activity for their annual
RnR. The preference schedule of the employees’ choice is shown in the table.
Rank
Swimming at a beach (S) 4 1 1 3 2
Visiting a museum (V) 3 2 3 4 1
Going to a videoke bar (G) 2 5 2 1 5
Dinner at a restaurant (D) 1 3 5 5 4
Out-of-town tour (O) 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Solution:
Match each pair of recreational activity and determine who get the higher rank as winner
for the round wins. Add all the number of votes for each win.
Ranking
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Swimming at a beach vs Visiting a museum: Swimming at a beach: 3 + 12 + 35 = 50
Visiting a museum: 19 + 24 = 43
Ranking
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Going to a videoke bar 2 5 2 1 5
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Swimming on a beach vs Going to a videoke bar:
Swimming on a beach: 3 + 12 + 24 = 39
Going to a videoke bar: 19 +35 = 54
Rank
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
204
Ranking
visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Visiting a museum vs Dinner at a restaurant:
Visiting a museum: 3 +12 + 35 +24 = 74
Dinner at a restaurant: 19
Ranking
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Visiting a museum vs Out-of-town tour:
Visiting a museum: 19 +3 +12 +24 = 58
Out-of-town tour: 35
Ranking
Going to a videoke bar 2 5 2 1 5
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
205
Ranking
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Dinner at a restaurant vs Out-of-town tour:
Dinner at a restaurant: 19 +3 = 22
Out-of-town tour: 12 + 35 + 24 = 71
To summarize:
Going to a Videoke Dinner at a
VS Visiting a Museum Out-of-Town Tour
Bar Restaurant
Going to a videoke Swimming on a Swimming on a
Swimming at a beach Swimming at a beach
bar beach beach
Going to a videoke
Visiting a museum Visiting a museum Visiting a museum
bar
Going to a videoke Going to a videoke
Going to videoke bar
bar bar
Dinner at a restaurant Out-of-town tour
In total, “swimming at a beach” has 3 points, “visiting a museum” has 2 points, “going to a
videoke bar” has 4 points, “dinner at a restaurant” has no point, and “out-of-town tour” has 1
point. Thus, based on the Borda Count method, the company will go to a videoke bar for their
annual RnR.
206
Monotonicity Criterion
If a candidate A wins an election, it assumes that candidate A also wins in re-elections.
The only changes in the voters’ preferences is that voters of a different candidate change
their votes to support a candidate. An election violates the Monotonicity Criterion if the
winner turned into a loser by moving the winner up the preference list on some of the ballots.
EXAMPLE 9.7
Plurality with elimination can violate the Monotonicity Criterion. Consider the following
preference schedule.
More voters prefer C than A so A loses. Suppose A moved up in the first column so the
preference order is 1, 3, 2.
207
EXAMPLE 9.8
Use Pairwise comparison method and Borda count method. Consider the following
preference schedule.
Rank
A 1 3
B 2 1
C 3 2
No. of votes: 14 13
Solution:
Pairwise Comparison method:
A vs B: A vs C: B vs C:
A : 14 ; B : 13 A : 14 ; C : 13 B : 27 ; C : 0
Using the Borda Count method:
A: B: C:
1st choice: 14 × 3 pts = 42 pts 1st choice: 13 × 3 pts = 39 pts 1st choice: 0 × 3 pts = 0 pts
2nd choice: 0 × 2 pts = 0 pt 2nd choice: 14 × 2 pts = 28 pt 2nd choice: 13 × 2 pts = 26 pts
3rd choice: 13 × 1 pt = 13 pts 3rd choice: 0 × 1 pt = 0 pt 3rd choice: 14 × 1 pt = 14 pts
Total 55 pts Total 67 pts Total 40 pts
In Pairwise Comparison method, A was declared winner because it has a majority of first
place votes but in Borda Count, B wins with 76 pts compared to A with 55 pts and C with 40 pts.
Monotonicity Criterion 3 3 3
Cordocet Criterion 3
Irrelevant Alternatives
Criterion
208
EXAMPLE 9.9
In a small company, there are four shareholders. Mr. De Guzman has a 20% ownership stake
in the company, Ms. Gonzalvo has a 35% stake, Ms. Quilayan has a 25% stake, and Mr. Villanueva
has a 20% stake. They are trying to decide whether to construct a new office. The company
by-laws state that more than 50% of the ownership has to approve any decision like this. This
situation could be represented as:
[51: 35, 25, 20, 20]
This denotes the percentage ownership as votes, so Ms. Gonzalvo gets the equivalent
of 35 votes, having a 35% ownership stake. Since according to the company by-laws, more
than 50% is required to approve the decision, so the quota is 51, the smallest whole number
greater than 50.
What is the quota for the voting system [q: 3, 2, 1]? There are a total of 6 votes. If the
set quota is 3, and then player 1 votes for yes, and player 2 and player 3 votes for a No, both
would reach the quota. In that case, the election doesn’t lead to a decision.
Considering the voting system [20: 21, 10, 8]. Observe the player 1 can reach quota
without the vote of any other player. When this happens, we say that player 1 is a dictator.
Dictator is a player with a weight of vote is equal or greater than the quota. In this case, a
dictator can pass or block any motion.
Examine the voting system [10: 7, 4, 3]. Notice that no player is a dictator. However, the
quota can only be reached if player 1 is in support with player 1 or player 2. Combine votes
of player 2 and 3 cannot reach quota without player 1’s support. In this case, player 1 is said
to have veto power.
In the voting system [9: 7, 5, 1], when player 3 supports the vote of either player 2 or
player 3, its vote has no influence to reach the quota, player 3 is said to be a dummy. The only
way the quota can be met is with the support of both players 1 and 2.
209
In the voting system [13: 7, 6, 3, 2, 1] (a) Is there any dictators? (b) Does any one have veto
power? (c) Are there any dummies?
Solution:
(a) None of the player can reach the quota alone, so there are no dictators.
(b) Without player 1, the rest of the players’ weights reach only 12 which doesn’t reach quota,
so player 1 has veto power.
(c) Player 1 and 2 can reach quota without the support of other player, but player 2 has no veto
power. Players 3, 4 and 5 have no influence to the result, therefore they are dummies.
Coalition
A group of players voting the same way is called coalition. From example 2, {P1, P2} would
represent the coalition of players 1 and 2. This coalition has a combined weight of 7+6 = 13,
which meets the quota, so this would be a winning coalition. A winning coalition is a set of
voters in which the number of the combined votes is equal or greater than the quota. {P1, P3,
P4} is considered a losing coalition, with a combined weight less than the quota; 7+3+2 = 12.
A player is said to be critical voter, if that player leaves a winning coalition and turned into a
losing coalition. In the coalition {P1, P3, P4, P5}, every player is critical. The maximum number
of coalitions that can be formed in a system with n voters is 2n – 1.
EXAMPLE 9.11
Determine the winning coalitions and identify the critical voters in each winning coalition.
Consider the voting system of a corporation with 5 shareholders; A, B, C, D, and E with shares
42, 35, 27, 21 and 12, respectively:
[70: 42, 35, 27, 21, 12]
Solution:
Winning Coalitions Number of Votes Critical Voters
{A, B} 77 A,B
{A, B, C} 104 A,B
{A, B, D} 98 A,B
{A, B, E} 89 A,B
{A, B, C, D} 125 NONE
{A, B, C, E} 116 NONE
{A, B, C, D, E} 137 NONE
There are seven winning coalitions that can be formed, and most of the winning coalitions
are shareholders A and B are considered critical voters.
Consider the voting system [70: 42, 35, 27, 21, 12]. Calculate the Banzhaf power index for
each voter. The winning coalitions and the critical players are shown in the table.
Winning Coalitions Number of Votes Critical Voters
{A, B} 77 A,B
{A, B, C} 104 A,B
{A, B, D} 98 A,B
{A, B, E} 89 A,B
{A, B, C, D} 125 NONE
{A, B, C, E} 116 NONE
{A, B, C, D, E} 137 NONE
Solution:
Voter A appears four times as a critical voter, and the number of times any voter is a critical
voter is 8.
211
Show an apportionment method/s that proves that one of the paradox is occurred. State
which paradox is occurring in each of the following situations.
1. DepEd Cabanatuan wants to assign 30 new teaching assistants among five elementary
schools based on the current number of students in the schools.
2. After the DOtr launched P2P Bus service project, an additional of six bus routes (A, B,
C, D, E, and F) and 13 buses. The buses are apportioned among the routes based on the
average number of daily passengers per route, given in the following table.
A B C D E F
No. of passengers 3,430 5,473 6,795 4,584 5,865 3,768
3. Tessa apportions16 pieces of candy to her three children: Ara,Bill, and Candie. The
apportions based on the number of hours each child spends doing chores around the
house. Using a certain apportionment method, Tessa decides to give Ara 8 pieces of
candy, Bill 5 pieces, and Cindy 3 pieces. However, just before she hands out the candy,
she finds out that the neighbor’s daughter Dindin has been helping the children with
the chores and has worked the same number of hours as Candie, so she adds 3 pieces,
bringing the total candy to 19 pieces. Now, Ara ends up with 9 pieces, Bill with 4 pieces,
Cindy with 3 pieces, and Darla with 3 pieces.
213
5. Under a certain apportionment method, State X receives 41 seats and State Y receives 29
seats. Ten years, later the population of State X has increased by 5% while the population
of State Y remains unchanged. The seats are reapportioned and now State X receives 40
seats and State Y receives 30 seats.
214
1. A restaurant conducted a survey among its customers to rank their entrée meal from
chicken (C), pork (P), beef (B), and vegetable (V). The number of votes for each was
shown in the table below.
Rank
Chicken (C) 1 3 4 4 4
Pork (P) 2 4 1 3 3
Beef (B) 3 2 3 2 1
Vegetable (V) 4 1 2 1 2
no. of votes 45 25 30 15 31
215
Number of Votes 19 14 12 7
1 choice
st
Jam Wendy Kenneth Lea
2 choice
nd
Kenneth Lea Lea Kenneth
3 choice
rd
Wendy Jam Jam Jam
4 choice
th
Lea Kenneth Wendy Wendy
216
1. How many players are there in the weighted voting system [20:7, 5, 4, 4, 2, 2, 2, 1,1]?
3. What is the total number of votes in the weighted voting system [20:7, 5, 4, 4, 2, 2,
2, 1, 1]?
4. In the weighted voting system [10:11, 4, 2, 1, 1], specify the dictator(s) and the dummy
(or dummies).
5. In the weighted voting system [11:6, 4, 3, 2, 1], is there anyone who has a veto power? If
so, who is it and why is it?
217
e. Banzhaf Power.
218
Simple Statements
In language, there are four types of sentences; declarative, interrogative imperative, and
exclamative. In Logic, it only use statements that are in declarative form of sentence which is
called proposition. A statement is considered a proposition if it is answerable by true or false
but never will be both.
EXAMPLE 10.1
1. Ross is a Filipino
2. Close the door.
3. Is it raining?
4. n+3=5
In Example (10.1), the statement is in declarative sentence and it could be answered by true
or false, therefore it is a proposition. (2) “Close the door.” is in imperative form, so it is not a
proposition. Example (3) is a question, interrogative sentence is not a proposition. Mathematical
sentence having variable like in example (4) is not a proposition because it is a conditional true
or false, the answer depends on the value that will be given to the variable.
EXAMPLE 10.2
p: Today is Tuesday
q: It is raining
r: I am wearing my sandals
Compound Statements
A compound statement is constructed from one or more smaller statements by the
application of a statement connective.
Statement Type of
Symbol Example Statement
Connective Statement
not Today is NOT Tuesday p negation
and Λ Today is Tuesday AND it is raining pΛq conjunction
or V It is raining OR I am wearing my sandals qVr disjunction
if.., then.. If it is raining, then I am wearing my sandals q r conditional
.. if and only if.. I am wearing my sandals if and only if it is raining r q biconditional
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Conjunction
Conjunction uses statement connective “AND”/“Λ” for compound statements. The
common terms used for conjunction are: but, still, while, yet, whereas, albeit, despite, although,
however, nonetheless, nevertheless, moreover, in spite of, and furthermore.
The Truth Table of Conjunction:
p q pΛq
Today is Tuesday It is raining Today is Tuesday AND it is raining
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
For the truth value of the statement under conjunction to be true, all propositions must
be true. If at least one of the proposition is false, under conjunction, the statement is false.
Noted that p Λ q is true only if both p and q are true.
Disjunction
Disjunction uses statement connective “OR”/“V” for compound statements. The common
terms used for disjunction are: or else, either …. or….
The Truth Table of Disjunction:
p q pVq
Today is Tuesday It is raining Today is Tuesday OR it is raining
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
For the truth-value of the statement under disjunction to be TRUE, at least one of the
proposition is TRUE.
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q r q r
It is raining I am wearing my sandals If it is raining, then I am wearing my sandals
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
As the Table shows, the only way to have a FALSE value under conditional statement is
when the conclusion is false having true premise.
Related Conditionals
If any conditional is given, another three related conditionals can be formed.
Conditional q→r If it is raining, then I am wearing my sandals.
Converse r→q If I am wearing my sandals, then it is raining.
Inverse q→ r If it is not raining, then I am not wearing my sandals.
Contrapositive r→ q If I am not wearing my sandals, then it is not raining.
q r q→r r→q q r q→ r r→ q
T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T
Observe that the truth value of conditional is equivalent to contrapositive likewise with
converse and inverse.
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r q q
I am wearing my sandals It is raining I am wearing my sandals if and only if it is raining
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
For the truth value of the statement under biconditional to be true, truth value of the
propositions must be the same.
p p pΛp
T F F
F T F
3. Contingency – neither tautology nor contradiction.
p p p p
T F F
F T T
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p / q
Modus Tollens {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land \neg q)\ Association (p Λ q) Λ r ≡ p Λ ( q Λ r)
vdash \neg p}{\displaystyle ((p\to q)\
land p)\vdash q}pp q (p V q) V r ≡ p V ( q V r)
q / p
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Hypothetical p q Distribution p Λ (q V r) ≡ (p Λ q) V ( p Λ r)
Syllogism
q r / p r {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land p V (q Λ r) ≡ (p V q) Λ ( p V r)
(q\to r))\vdash (p\to r)}
Disjunctive {\displaystyle ((p\lor q)\land \neg p)\ Double Negation p≡p
Syllogism vdash q}p V q
p/ q
Constructive {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land (r\to s)\ Transposition p q ≡ p
Dilemma land (p\lor r))\vdash (q\lor s)} p q
r s
p V r / q V s
Destructive {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land (r\to s)\ Material p q ≡ p V q
Dilemma land (p\lor r))\vdash (q\lor s)} p q Implication
r s
Statement Reason
1. p Premise
2. p q Premise
3. q→r Premise
4. q Disjunctive Syllogism (2, 1)
5. ∴r Modus Ponens (3, 4)
Therefore, the argument is valid.
225
5. s→¬q Premise
6. s Simplification (2)
9. ∴r t Addition (8)
226
227
Using the variables provided, symbolize the following statements into symbols.
Determine the truth value, given that M,B,L are True and S,W are false.
229
A. Construct a truth tables to decide whether the argument form is valid or invalid.
1. ¬ (p q) 4. p q
p . p→r
∴¬q q ¬r
∴q
2. p q
p → q. 5. ¬p Λ q
∴p q r→p
¬r → s
3. p→r s→t
q→¬r ∴t
∴ ¬p r
B. Prove the validity of the following arguments using the rules of inference/law of logic.
Supply the missing reasons.
Statements Reason
1. ¬p q
2. ¬ p
3. r → p
4. ¬ r
5. ¬r → s
6. s
7. s → t
8. ∴ t
C. Solving a Murder Case. The following is a murder case solved by Sherlock Holmes, in “A
Study in Scarlet” (a detective mystery novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle).
Quote from: “A Study in Scarlet”
“And now we come to the great question as to the reason why. Robbery has not been
the object of the murder, for nothing was taken. Was it politics, then, or was it a woman?
That is the question which confronted me. I was inclined from the first to the latter
supposition. Political assassins are only too glad to do their work and fly. This murder
had, on the contrary, been done most deliberately, and the perpetrator has left his tracks
all over the room, showing he had been there all the time.”
From these, Sherlock Holmes concluded: “It was a woman”.
Show that Sherlock Holmes is correct.
231
DISCUSSION
Graphs and Euler Circuits
A graph is a set of points called vertices and line
segments or curves called edges that connect vertices.
Graphs can be used to represent many different
situations. The two graphs in Figure 11.1 uses the
same graphs that are used in different contexts.
Figure 11.1
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EXAMPLE 11.1
The following table lists five students at a college. An “X” indicates that the two students
belong to the same student organization in the current semester.
a. Draw five vertices to represent the five students and connect the vertices with the edges
according to the table.
Figure 11.2
b. The vertex corresponding to Jason is connected to more edges than the others. This
means that he has the most number of memberships to organizations in common with
other students. Jade has only one membership in common with others. Judith has two
organizations in common with others.
234
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.3(e) shows a graph where vertices are split into two sets such that no two
vertices within the same set are adjacent. It is called a bipartite graph or a bigraph. Figure
11.3(f) is a connected graph in which any two vertices are connected by exactly one path.
This graph is called a tree. Because of its property, it contains no cycle and any edge you take
out, the graph becomes disconnected.
In a graph, edges may be straight or curved, and the lengths and positions are not
important. Even the exact placement of the vertices is not important. The graph simply
illustrates connections between vertices.
The three graphs shown in Figure 4 are considered equivalent graphs because the edges
form the same connections of vertices in each graph.
Figure 11.4
235
A B C D E
A X
B X X X
C X
D X
E X
Euler Circuits
The Königsberg bridges problem is a popular recreational puzzle during the 18 th century.
The geographical map is presented in Figure 5.
Figure 11.5
In Figure 11.5, seven bridges crossed the river and connected four different land areas.
The problem is to find a way on how people can take a stroll that would lead them across
each bridge and return to the starting point without traversing the same bridge twice.
To solve the Königsberg bridges problem, we can represent the land areas and bridges
with a graph. Let each land area be a vertex and let bridge be an edge. We place an edge
between two vertices if there is a bridge connecting the corresponding land areas. The
geographical situation then becomes the graph shown in Figure 11.6.
Figure 11.6
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Figure 11.7
If a circuit uses every edge, but never uses the same edge twice, then it is called an Euler
circuit. The path C-B-A-D-F-G-H-E-G-D-B-E-C in Figure 11.7 is an Euler circuit. It begins and
ends at the same vertex and uses each edge exactly once. The path A-D-G-E-B-A is not an
Euler circuit. The path begins and ends at the same vertex but it does not use edges DF, FG,
GH, HE, EC, and CB. If a path begins and ends at the same vertex but uses at least an edge
twice, then it is not an Euler circuit.
All of these relate to the Konigsberg bridges problem in the following way: Finding a
path that crosses each bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point is equivalent to
finding an Euler circuit for the graph in Figure11.6.
Euler proved that the graph in Figure11.6 could not have an Euler circuit. He examined
the number of edges that met at each vertex. The number of edges that meet at a vertex
is called the degree of a vertex. He made the observation that every time you approached
a vertex you would need to leave that vertex in order to complete the desired path. If
you traveled through that vertex again, you would again need an approaching edge and a
departing edge. This means that for an Euler circuit to exist, the degree of every vertex must
be an even number. Also, he was able to show that any graph whose every vertex has an even
degree must have an Euler circuit. Such graphs are called Eulerian.
By Eulerian Graph Theorem, it is now clear that the graph of the Königsberg problem is
not Eulerian. It is because not every vertex is of even degree. Therefore, it is not possible to
begin and end at the same location near the river and cross each bridge exactly once.
237
Figure 11.8
Solution
Each vertex has a degree 4, so by Eulerian Graph Theorem, the graph is Eulerian. There
are many possible Euler circuits. By trial and error, one Euler circuit is A-B-D-E-C-A-D-C-B-E-A.
Euler Paths
Perhaps the Kӧnigsberg bridges problem would have a solution if we did not have to
return to the starting point. In this case, what we are looking for is a path that uses every
edge once and only once. We call such path an Euler path.
EXAMPLE 11.3
An application of Euler Paths
The floor plan of a gallery is given in Figure11.9.Draw a graph that represents the floor plan,
where vertices correspond to rooms and edges correspond to doorways. Is it possible to take a
stroll that passes through every doorway without going through the same doorway twice? If so,
does it matter whether we return to the starting point?
Figure 11.9
238
Figure 11.10
The graph in Figure 11.10 is equivalent to our floor plan. If we would like to tour the gallery
and pass through every doorway once, we must find a path in our graph that uses every edge
once. Thus we are looking for a Euler path. In the graph, two vertices are of odd degree and the
rest of the vertices are of even degree. So we know that an Euler path exists, but not an Euler
circuit. Therefore, we cannot pass through each doorway once and only once if we want to
return to the starting point, but we can do it if we end up somewhere else. Furthermore, we
know we must start at a vertex of odd degree- either room C or room E. By trial and error, one
such path is E-D-A-B-C-G-F-E-A-E-B-F-C.
239
2. 6.
3. 7.
4. 8.
241
Questions
08.10.2018 2:19:12 PM
C. Mrs. De Guzman, the new principal at Mabuhay High School, wants to make a good
impression by offering a lot of new exciting classes for her students. The principal plans
to use her knowledge of graph theory to determine when each class will be offered. Since
she is trying to make her students happy, Mrs. De Guzman does not want to offer two
different classes at the same time if there are students wanting to take both. She decides
to construct a graph in the following way: Each class is represented by a vertex and if
there is a student interested in two classes, those two vertices are connected by an edge.
Suppose there are five classes (A, B, C, D, and E) and only five students wishing to
take the following classes:
1. Jackson wants to take Classes A and E.
2. Lerry want to take Classes B, C, and E.
3. Jaime wants to take Classes A and D.
4. Jeff wants to take Classes B and C.
5. Nikki wants to take Classes D and E.
Construct the graph for the principal, and find the chromatic number of the graph,
and color the graph using the least number of colors.
D. Assign three channels to each of five mobile telephone stations, using the smallest
number of different channels possible, if Station 1 interferes with Stations 2, 4, and 5;
Station 2 interferes with Stations 1, 3, and 5; Station 3 interferes with Stations 2 and 4;
Station 4 interferes with Stations 1, 3, and 5; and Station 5 interferes with Stations 1, 2,
and 4.
Construct the graph and find the chromatic number of the graph, and color the graph
using the least number of colors.
243
F. For each of the graphs below, write the degree of each vertex next to each vertex. Tell
whether each graph has an Euler circuit, Euler path or neither.
A B C
244
245
DISCUSSION
Modular Arithmetic
Repeating cycles are represented mathematically by using modular arithmetic, also
known as arithmetic modulo n.
Definition: Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, where n is a natural
number, if is an integer. We write this as a ≡ b mod n. The number n is called the modulus.
The statement a ≡ b mod n is called a congruence.
EXAMPLE 12.1
Determine whether the congruence is true.
a. 29 ≡ 5 mod 4
b. 34 ≡ 2 mod 3
c. 45 ≡ 6 mod 13
Solution:
29 – 5 24
a. = = 6. Because 6 is an integer, 29 ≡ 5 mod 4 is a true congruence.
4 4
34 – 2 32 32
b. = . Because is not an integer, 34 ≡ 2 mod 3 is not a true congruence.
3 3 3
45 – 6 39
c. = = 3. Because 3 is an integer, 45 ≡ 6 mod 13 is a true congruence.
13 13
246
In modular arithmetic, adding the modulus to a number does not change the equivalent
value of the number.
11 ≡ 5 mod 6
17 ≡ 5 mod 6 (Add 6 to 11)
23 ≡ 5 mod 6 (Add 6 to 17)
29 ≡ 5 mod 6 (Add 6 to 23)
35 ≡ 5 mod 6 (Add 6 to 29)
Subtraction modulo n
Suppose we want to find x so that -13 ≡ x mod 5. Using the definition of modulo n, we
need to find x so that -13 – x is an integer. To do this, we rewrite the expression and try values
5
of x starting from 0 to the modulus until we arrive at a value which is an integer.
-13 – x 13 + x
=-
5 5
13 + 0 -13
When x = 0, - = , not an integer
5 5
13 + 1 -14
When x = 1, - = , not an integer
5 5
13 + 2 -15
When x = 2, - = = -3, an integer
5 5
So -13 ≡ 3 mod 5
247
EXAMPLE 12.4
a. Disregarding A.M. or P.M., if it is 3 o’clock now, what time is it 43 hours ago?
b. If today is Thursday, what day of the week will it be 87 days ago?
c. If the month now is September, what month will it be 19 months ago?
Solution:
a. The time can be determined by calculating (3 – 43) mod 12. Because 3 – 43 yields a negative
number, -40, we will find a whole number x less than the modulus 12 so that -40 ≡ x mod
-40 – x -48
12. Evaluating further we’ll have 12 , then - 40 + x . At x = 8, - 40 + x = 12 = -4, an integer.
12 12
Since x = 8, then it is 8 o’clock 43 hours ago.
b. We can determine the day by calculating (4 – 87) mod 7. Since 4 – 87 = -83, a negative
-83 – x
number, we must find x in -83 ≡ x mod 7. By evaluating 7 , we will have - 83 + x . At x =
83 + 1 7
1, - = -12, an integer. Since x = 1, then it is Monday 87 days ago.
7
-10 – x
c. Similar to example 4a, we will calculate (9 - 19) mod 12. 9 – 19 = -10. 12 evaluated will
-12
be - 10 + x . At x = 2, - 10 + 2 = 12 = -1, an integer. Since x = 1, then 19 months ago, it was
12 12
January.
248
EXAMPLE 12.5
Evaluate the following.
a. (12 ∙ 25) mod 7
b. (23 ∙ 14) mod 11
c. (15 ∙ 23) mod 13
Solution:
a. Find the product of 12 and 25 and divide the product by the modulus. The answer is
the remainder.
300
12 ∙ 25 = 300. 7
= 42 remainder 6. The answer is 6.
(12 ∙ 25) mod 7 = 6.
b. Find the product of 23 and 14 and divide the product by the modulus. The answer is
the remainder.
322
23 ∙ 14 = 322 . 11
= 29 remainder 3. The answer is 3.
(23 ∙ 14) mod 11 = 3.
c. Find the product of 15 and 23 and divide the product by the modulus. The answer is
the remainder.
345
15 ∙ 23 = 345 . 13
= 26 remainder 7. The answer is 7.
(15 ∙ 23) mod 13 = 7
249
EXAMPLE 12.6
Solve the following congruence equations.
a. 4x + 2 ≡ 3 mod 9
b. 3x + 1 ≡ 5 mod 11
c. 5x + 3 ≡ 7 mod 10
Solution:
a. 4(0) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(1) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(2) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(3) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(4) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(5) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(6) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(7) + 2 ≡ 3 mod 9 7 is a solution
4(8) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
Knowing that 7 is a solution, we can list the succeeding solutions by adding the
modulus so that the solutions are: 7, 16, 25, 34, and so on.
b. 3(0) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(1) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(2) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(3) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(4) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(5) + 1 ≡ 5 mod 11 5 is a solution
3(6) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(7) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(8) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(9) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(10) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
Knowing that 5 is a solution, we can list the succeeding solutions by adding the
modulus so that the solutions are: 5, 16, 27, 38, and so on.
250
Additive Inverse
If the sum of two numbers is zero, then by definition the two numbers are called additive
inverses of each other. If we have 5 and add -5 to this number, we will obtain 0. So 5 is an
additive inverse of -5 and vice versa.
This can also be applied to modular arithmetic. For example, (4 + 6) = 0 mod 10. Thus,
in mod 10 arithmetic, 4 is the additive inverse of 6 and 6 is the additive inverse of 4. We only
consider whole numbers smaller than the modulus; in this case, 10. Note that 4 + 6 = 10; that
is, the number added to its additive inverse equals the modulus.
EXAMPLE 12.7
Find the additive inverse of the following.
a. 8 in mod 14 arithmetic
b. 11 in mod 21 arithmetic
c. 4 in mod 13 arithmetic
Solution:
a. Since 8 needs 6 more to get 14, 6 is the additive inverse of 8 in mod 14 arithmetic.
b. 11 + 10 = 21, so 10 is the additive inverse of 11 in mod 21 arithmetic.
c. 4 needs 9 get 13, so 9 is the additive inverse of 4 in mod 13 arithmetic.
Multiplicative Inverse
We can recall that when the product of two numbers is 1, then they are called
multiplicative inverses of each other. For example, if we multiply 1/3 by 3, we get 3/3 or 1, so
that 1/3 is a multiplicative inverse of 3 and vice versa. If we apply this to modular arithmetic,
we only use natural numbers. For example, in mod 9 arithmetic, 7 is a multiplicative inverse
of 4 (and 4 is a multiplicative inverse of 7) because (7 · 4) ≡ 1 mod 9. We note that we only
use numbers which are less than the modulus. To find the multiplicative inverse of a mod m,
solve the modular equation ax ≡ 1 mod m.
251
252
GROUP THEORY
An algebraic system is defined as a set of elements with one or more operations for
combining the elements. Consider the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and addition modulo 6. The set of
elements is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and the operation is addition modulo 6. This is an example of an
algebraic system called a group.
A group is a set of elements, with one operation, that satisfies the following four
properties:
1. The set is closed with respect to the operation.
2. The operation satisfies the associative property.
3. There is an identity element.
4. Each element has an inverse.
The first characteristic mentioned above is closure. Closure means that if any two elements
are combined using the operation, the result must be an element of the set. In the example
above, the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with addition modulo 6 as the operation is closed. If we add two
numbers on this set, modulo 6, the result is always a number of the set. For instance, (2 + 3)
mod 6 = 5 and (3 + 4) mod 6 = 1.
Consider the whole numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...} with multiplication as the operation. If we
multiply any two whole numbers, the result is a whole number. For example, 7 · 8 = 56. Thus
the set of whole numbers is closed under multiplication. However, the set of whole numbers
is not closed with respect to division. For example,88 divided by 8 = 11 (a whole number),
but 3 divided by 4 is 0.75, which is not a whole number. This means that the set of whole
numbers is not closed with respect to division.
The second requirement of a group is that the operation must satisfy the associative
property. Associative property of addition can be stated by a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. Addition
modulo 6 is an associative operation. If we use * to represent addition modulo 6, then
1 * (4 * 3) = 1 * 7 mod 6
=1*1
=2
and
(1 * 4) * 3 = 5 * 3 mod 6
= 8 mod 6
=2
Thus, 1 * (4 * 3) = (1 * 4) * 3
253
254
Commutative property for an operation states that the order in which two elements
are combined does not affect the result. For example, 6 + 3 = 3 + 6. Groups that satisfy the
commutative property are called Commutative groups or Abelian groups. The Nonabelian
group is a group that does not satisfy the commutative property. The next type of groups are
classified under nonabelian group.
Symmetry Groups
Symmetry groups are groups based on regular polygons. A regular polygon is a polygon all
of whose sides have the same length and all whose angles have the same measure. Examples
of which are equilateral triangles and squares.
Consider an equilateral triangle, with vertices numbered 1 – 3 starting from the bottom
left clockwise to bottom right. There are several different ways in which we can arrange the
numbered vertices in the triangle. For example, if we pick up this triangle and replace it the
way we found it, we call this position I. It represents no change in position.
If we rotate this triangle 120º clockwise, vertex 1 will be placed at the top, vertex 2 to
the bottom right, and vertex 3 to the bottom left. We call the 120º rotation of the triangle
R120.
255
Aside from rotating the triangle clockwise 120º and 240º, we can also rotate the triangle
by the line of symmetry along the vertices. Because there are three vertices, there are three
possible results:
2 3 2 1
1 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
I RI Rt Rr
The six possible positions of the vertices in the previous examples are the only
possibilities: I(without any rotation), R120, R 240, R l, Rt , and R r. These positions are shown
below:
2 1 3
1 3 3 2 2 1
I R120 R240
3 2 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
RI Rt Rr
256
EXAMPLE 12.11
a. Find Rl∆Rr
b. Find R240∆Rl
c. Find Rl20∆Rt
Solution:
a. Rotate the original triangle, I, about the line of symmetry through the bottom left vertex,
then without returning to the original position, rotate about the line of symmetry through
the bottom right vertex.
2 3 1
followed by
Rr
1 3 1 2 3 2
I RI R120
Rl∆Rr= R120
b. Rotate the original triangle clockwise twice, followed by rotation about the line of
symmetry through the bottom left vertex.
2 3 1
followed by
RI
1 3 2 1 2 3
I R240 Rr
R240∆Rl = Rr
257
2 1 1
followed by
Rt
1 3 3 2 2 3
I R120 Rr
Rl20∆Rt = Rr
Symbolic Notation
We can observe that the set is closed under the operation ∆. To show that the set is
associative, we will prove that x ∆ (y ∆ z) is equivalent to (x ∆ y) ∆ z, where x, y, and z are
elements of the group. For example,
Rt ∆ (R l ∆ R r) = Rt ∆ R120 = R l and (Rt ∆ R l) ∆ R r = R120 ∆ R r = R l
Since every element has an inverse, i.e., can be rotated that results to I, then the four
conditions of a group was satisfied.
In determining the outcome of the “followed by” operation on two elements of the group,
we drew triangles and rotated them depending on the type of rotation. This can also be
represented as symbolic notation to describe the operation on the geometric object.
For example, if we want to determine the outcome of R120, we know that the vertex 1 goes
to the position of 2, 2 goes to the position of 3 and 3 goes to the position of 1. Using symbolic
notation,
1 2 3
R120 =
2 3 1
Similarly, for R r, vertex 1 goes to position 2, and vertex 2 to position 1, while 3 does not
move, being the axis of rotation. Using symbolic notation,
1 2 3
R120 =
2 1 3
The remaining four elements can be written as
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
I= R 240 = R1 = and Rt =
1 2 3 3 1 2 1 3 2 3 2 1
258
Permutation Groups
The triangular symmetry group discussed previously is a special kind of permutation
group. A permutation is a rearrangement of objects. For example, if we have an arrangement of
objects [♣ ♦ ♠], then one permutation of these objects is the rearrangement [♦ ♠ ♣]. If
we consider each permutation as an element of a set, then the set of all possible permutations
forms a group. The elements of the set are not the numbers or objects themselves but the
permutations of the objects that are possible.
259
The operation for the group is “followed by” denoted by the symbol ∆. We can verify that
the six permutations along with this operation form a group.
1 2 3
A∆D= 2 1 3
so A ∆ D = E
1 2 3 1 2 3
b. D∆E= 3 2 1 ∆ 2 1 3
1 2 3
D∆E= 3 1 2
D∆E=B
260
1 2 3
B∆C= 2 1 3
so that B ∆ C = E
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E. For items 41 -50, find all whole number solutions of the congruence equation.
41. x ≡ 10 mod 5 46. (2x + 2) ≡ 6 mod 4
42. x ≡ 10 mod 3 47. (5x + 4) ≡ 2 mod 8
43. 2x ≡ 12 mod 5 48. (4x + 3) ≡ 3 mod 4
44. 3x ≡ 8 mod 11 49. (4x + 6) ≡ 5 mod 8
45. (3x + 12) ≡ 7 mod 10 50. (3x + 1) ≡ 4 mod 9
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G. For items 5-10, find the additive and multiplicative inverse, if it exists, of the given
number.
5. 3 in modulo 8 arithmetic
6. 4 in modulo 5 arithmetic
7. 4 in modulo 9 arithmetic
8. 6 in modulo 15 arithmetic
9. 7 in modulo 10 arithmetic
10. 11 in modulo 16 arithmetic
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A.
1. Is the set of all even integers closed with respect to
a. addition? b. multiplication?
2. Is the set of all odd integers closed with respect to
a. addition? b. multiplication?
3. Is the set of all negative real numbers closed with respect to
a. addition? c. subtraction?
b. multiplication? d. division?
4. Is the set {-1, 0, 1} closed with respect to
a. addition? b. multiplication?
5. Is the set {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} closed with respect to
a. addition modulo 4? b. multiplication modulo 6?
B. For numbers 6-20 determine whether the set forms a group with respect to the given
operation. Assume that the operation is associative. If the set does not form a group,
determine which properties fail.
6. The even integers; addition
7. The even integers; multiplication
8. The real numbers; addition
9. The real numbers; division
10. The real numbers; multiplication
11. The positive real numbers; division
12. The real numbers except 0; multiplication
13. The rational numbers; addition
14. The rational numbers; subtraction
15. Positive rational numbers; multiplication
16. {1, 2, 3, 4}; multiplication modulo 5
17. {1, 2, 3; multiplication modulo 4
18. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}; addition modulo 6
19. {-1, 1}; division
20. {-1, 1}; multiplication
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G. For numbers 41-45, find the inverse of the following based on the permutation group
1 2 3.
41. A 44. D
42. B 45. E
43. C
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1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
47. Find ∆
3 1 2 4 3 4 1 2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
48. Find ∆
2 4 3 1 4 1 3 2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
49. Find ∆
4 1 2 3 1 3 2 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
50. Find ∆
3 1 4 2 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4
51. Find the inverse of
3 2 1 4
1 2 3 4
52. Find the inverse of
4 2 1 3
1 2 3 4
53. Find the inverse of
2 3 1 4
1 2 3 4
54. Find the inverse of
1 3 4 2
1 2 3 4
55. Find the inverse of
2 4 3 1
I. For numbers 56-60, given the set of numbers {2k} where k is any integer, form a group
with multiplication as the operation.
56. Which element of the group is the identity element?
57. Verify that the group is closed under multiplication.
58. Which element is the inverse of 28?
1
59. Which element is the inverse of 32 ?
60. In general, what is the inverse of 2k?
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A.
1. Show that positive real numbers with addition as the operation form a group.
2. Show that negative integers with addition as the operation form a group.
3. Show that complex numbers with multiplication as the operation form a group.
4. Show that fractions with division as the operation form a group.
5. Show that odd integers with multiplication as the operation form a group.
6. Does the set {1, 2, 3, 4} with addition operation modulo 5 form a group?
7. Does the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with operation multiplication modulo 6 form a group?
8. Does the set {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} with addition operation modulo 11 form a group?
9. Does the set {1, 3, 6, 10, ...} with multiplication operation modulo 12 form a group?
10. Does the set {-8, -6, -4, -2, 0} with addition operation modulo 7 form a group?
B.
1. Find the result of a counter-clockwise R120.
2. If we rotate R r 120º clockwise, what do we call this new position?
3. If we rotate Rt 240º counter-clockwise, what do we call this new position?
4. If we rotate R l 120º counter-clockwise, what do we call this new position?
5. Is there a difference between a clockwise and counter clockwise R 360?
E. Compute the following, where each letter is an element of the permutation group above.
1. E∆D 3. B∆D 5. D∆B
2. A∆C 4. A∆E
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271
272
273
274
275
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