LESSON

1 Mathematics in Our World

THE ABILITY and habit of finding and recognizing

patterns and symmetries is embedded deep within
The most general law in nature is equity-
our psychology. In the early times, our ancestors the principle of balance and symmetry
used to observe and learn about the surroundings which guides the growth of forms along the
lines of the greatest structural efficiency.
for survival purposes. They did it by observing the
recurrences of phenomena and the events before and Herbert Read, English art historian and
after such experiences. Also, they observed the unique philosopher

visual characteristics (or the unique patterns) that

distinguish poisoned fruits from edible ones. As we
can see, pattern recognition is a way to survive. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Nevertheless, pattern recognition alone is not At the end of the lesson, students are
enough to ensure survival. For us to be able to use this expected to:
ability to ensure our continued existence, we must • identify patterns in nature and
regulatory in the world;
first have an environment that exists with patterns
• classify the objects according to
and symmetries. Fortunately, we have. Our Universe
symmetry;
is filled with so many patterns and symmetries that
• Articulate the importance of
we tend to see them as ordinary because they are just mathematics in one’s life;
the way they are. • relate the Fibonacci number
Haven’t you ever wondered how magnificent it and the Golden Ratio in the
occurrences in nature; and
is for the left and right side of a butterfly to look like
each other? Haven’t you ever wondered why almost all • express appreciation for
mathematics as a human
trees look the same – with branches stemming from endeavor.
a trunk? Haven’t you ever asked why the shape of a
moving snake looks like the shape of a river? Haven’t
you wondered why do the features you have in the left
side mirrors those at the right side?

PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
A Survey for Symmetries
Materials:
printer, bond paper manila paper
plane mirror glue or scotch tape
pencils or colored camera (smartphone’s
pens camera will do)
ruler

bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 1 08.10.2018 2:18:48 PM

 form and constituent configuration on opposite sides of a dividing line or plane
or an axis”. In mathematics, an object is said to have symmetry when it remains
e the pencils or pen and ruler to mark the line of symmetry.
transformations such as rotations and scaling are applied into it. Symmetry h
ps –and
onethey
for will
those objects where there
be discussed in the next
is symmetry and one
section.
se the glue or scotch tape to paste the pictures in the Manila
Procedure:
ns in Nature (MH c/LOA) 1. Take a tour (at least 20 minutes) outside the room
Fractals. Fractals are never-ending patterns
and look around thethat are self-similar across differ
surroundings.
f theimplies
class.that zooming in the lens2.onAstheyou digital image
walk around, takeof the object
a close-up picture(fractal)
of do no
American Heritage Dictionary defines
but only the same as that of the original symmetry
image.
things that as
naturallyThe an “exact
existsimage just
in the place correspondence
e.g.,reappears
a leaf, over a
uentmatter
configuration
how many times the object is magnified. Examples of these fractalscent
on opposite sides of a
a flower, dividing
an insect suchline or plane
as a butterfly, or
a bird, about
etc. a in n
athematics, an object is said to have symmetry
lightning; trees, and its branches, each
andpicture
3. After
a leaf when it remains unchanged
and its veins, as shown in the pho
the tour, print the pictures. Make sure that aft
is large enough to be studied.
such as rotations and scaling are applied into it. Symmetry has different kind
4. Observe the pictures. Is there any possible way in
discussed in the next section. which you can fold the picture such that the parts of
LOA) the objects in the picture will become identical to each
other? You may use the mirror as a help. Put the mirror
ls are never-ending patterns that are self-similar across different scales. Thes
in the part where you desire to fold the photo.
ming in thedefines
Dictionary lens on the digital image
symmetry as an of“exact
5. Once
the object (fractal)
correspondence
you identified
do not
a way, use the pencils oforgive
pen
new detai
neopposite
as that ofsides
the original image. The
of a dividing line image
or plane
and ruler just
to orreappears
mark about
the over and over again n
a center
line of symmetry.
yistimes thehave
said to object is magnified.
symmetry when Examples
it remains of these
6. Sort the pictures
unchanged
into twofractals in for
after
groups – one nature
those include th
Fractals
and its branches, and a leaf and its veins, in
objects nature
asdon’t
where
shown in the photos.
there is symmetry and one for
nd scaling are applied into it. Symmetry those whichhas different
have. Use the gluekinds
Source: spadystudios.wordpress.com/http://mpe.dimacs.rutgers.edu/commons or scotch tape

ext section. to paste the pictures in the Manila paper.

Examples of fractals in nature include geological fault lines, mountain ranges, c
coloration patterns, pineapples, heart rates, and the circulatory system.
7. Discuss the pictures in front of the class.

patterns that are self-similar across different scales. These

DISCUSSION
Spirals. Spirals are curved patterns made by series of circular shapes revolving
e digital image of the object (fractal)
point. Just like fractals, the spiral
do not
pattern
give
is very IN
new details,
common in nature – from the bio
nal image. The image just TYPES
reappears OF PATTERNS
over and NATURE
over again noanimals to typho
that make up organisms to the body plans of certain plants and
1. Symmetry. The American Heritage Dictionary
magnified. Examples
Some examples of these fractals
demonstrating the spiral
defines inpatterns
nature
symmetry include
in nature
as an “exact the
are seen
correspondence of in shells o
d a leaf andof
images itsa typhoon,
veins,
Fractals in as shown
nature
and hornsin the
ofform
a ram photos.
and (see photo).
constituent configuration on opposite
udios.wordpress.com/http://mpe.dimacs.rutgers.edu/commons.wikimedia.org
sides of a dividing line or plane or about a center
or an axis”. In mathematics, an object is said to
ctals in nature include geological fault lines,
have symmetry mountain ranges,
when it remains coastlines,
unchanged after anim
ns, pineapples, heart rates, and the transformations
circulatory such system.
as rotations and scaling are
applied into it. Symmetry has different kinds and
they will be discussed in the next section.
are curved patterns made by series of circular
2. Fractals. Fractalsshapes revolving
are never-ending patternsaround
that a centr
actals, the spiral pattern is very common in nature
are self-similar – from
across thescales.
different biological
These molecule
implies that zooming in the lens on the digital
ganisms to the body plans of certain plants and animals to typhoons and galaxie
image of the object (fractal) do not give new
demonstrating Fractalsthe spiral
in nature. patterns indetails,
nature aretheseen
but only inthat
same as shells
of the of a snail, satelli
original
in nature
Examples of these
hoon, and horns
The Spirals
of a ram
andNature. (Left
andto
(see
Right):
photo).Spirals
fractals in nature include the lightning;
trees,in
image. The image just reappears over and over
and itsGrowthagain in the Shell of a Snail
times (http://oproot.com); Satellite
m/http://mpe.dimacs.rutgers.edu/commons.wikimedia.org
its branches,
(phys.org); The Spiral
veins,Aloe
a leaf
(imgur.com);
as shown
no matter
in the photos.Spiralsmagnified.
in the Horns
how many
of a Ram
Examples
the object is
(researchgate.net)
of fractals in nature include
e geological/http://mpe.dimacs.rutgers.edu/commons.
fault lines, mountain ranges,
Source: spadystudios.wordpress.com coastlines, animal
geological fault lines, mountain ranges, coastlines,
t rates, and the circulatory system.rates, and the circulatory system.
wikimedia.org animal coloration patterns, pineapples, heart

2
made by series of circular shapes revolving around a central
ern is very common in nature – from the biological molecules
plans of certain plants and animals to typhoons and galaxies.
bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 2 08.10.2018 2:18:49 PM
 implies that zooming in the lensExamples
on the digital of
image
Source: of
fractalsthe object (fractal)
in nature do not give
include new details,
geological fault lines, mounta
spadystudios.wordpress.com/http://mpe.dimacs.rutgers.edu/commons.wikimedia
Examples of fractals in nature include geological fault lines, mountain ranges, coastlines,
but only the same as that of thecoloration
original image. The imagepineapples,
patterns, justpineapples,
reappearsheart
over
heart and over again
rates,
and the and
no system.
the circulatory syste
Source: http://oproot.com/phys.org./imgur.com.researchgate.ne
coloration patterns, rates,
matter how many times the object is magnified. Examples of these fractals in nature include the
circulatory

retainand
lightning; trees, and its branches, the caption)
a leaf and its veins, as shown in the photos.
Spirals. Spirals are curved patterns made by series of circular shapes revolving around a
Spirals. Spirals are
point. Just like curved
fractals, thepatterns
spiral patternmade by series
is very common in natureof circular
– from shape
the biological mo
FractalsChaos.
in nature Chaotic
point. Just like
patterns
that make up organisms(or
Somefractals,
to thechaos)
body plans ofare
the spiralthepattern
examples demonstrating
certainsimple
is very
spiral patterns common
in nature
patterns
plants and animals to typhoons
are seen inin nature
shells
creat
and ga
– fs
of a snail,
behavior.
that makeIn upcontrast
organisms
images to popular
Source: spadystudios.wordpress.com/http://mpe.dimacs.rutgers.edu/commons.wikimedia.org
of a typhoon,to
andthe of adefinitions
hornsbody ramplans whichplants
of certain
(see photo). relate anditanima
to c
chaotic
Examples of fractals in nature include pattern
geological
Some is used
fault lines, to describe
mountain theacoastlines,
ranges, kindpatterns
of order
animal inwhich
naturelacks pr
3. Spirals. Spirals are
coloration curved
patterns, patterns
pineapples, made byexamples
heartunderlying
rates, and the
demonstrating spiral are seen
images of acirculatory
patterns,
typhoon, system.
constant
and horns feedback
of a ramloops, repetition, self-sim
(see photo).
series of circular shapes revolving around and reliance a on programming at the initial point exist within the
Spirals. Spirals are curved patterns made by series of circular shapes revolving around a central
central point. Just like fractals, the spiral
point. Just like fractals, the spiral pattern
pattern
complex
Fractals
is very systemsin and
in common
nature nature erratic
– from and turbulent
the biological processes. Chaos
molecules
Source: –spadystudios.wordpress.com/http://mpe.dimacs.rutgers.edu/commons.wikimedia.org
Among the examples of chaotic patterns
is very common
that makeinupnature
organisms from the plans
to the body biological
of certain plants and animals to typhoons andin nature can be seen
galaxies.
Examples of fractals in nature include geological fault lines, mountain ranges, coastlines, animal
molecules Some
that examples updemonstrating
make coloration
organisms the shell
tospiral of arates,
patterns
the heart
patterns, pineapples, body mollusk.
inand
nature
Source:
theThe
(phys.org); areAloeseen
http://oproot.
circulatory
Spiral in shells
system.
(imgur.com); Spirals in theof aofsnail,
Horns satellite
The Spirals in Nature. (Left to Right): Growth Spirals in the Shell of a Snail (http://oproot.com); Satellite Image of a T
a Ram (researchgate.net)
images of a typhoon, and horns of a ram (see photo). com
plans of certain plantsSpirals.and Spirals
animals to typhoons
are curved patterns made by series of circular shapes revolving around a central
and galaxies. Some examples demonstrating
point. Just like theis very common in nature – from the biological molecules
fractals, the spiral pattern
that make up organisms to the body plans of certain plants and animals to typhoons and galaxies.
spiral patterns in nature are seen in shells of a
Some examples demonstrating the spiral patterns in nature are seen in shells of a snail, satellite
snail, satellite
Source: http://oproot.com/phys.org./imgur.com.researchgate.net
images of a typhoon,
images of a typhoon,andand horns
hornsThe ofram
a (see
of aSpirals photo). (Left to Right):
in Nature. (LOA Growth delete
Source: Spirals inthe
phys.org
the Shellboxof aonly Snail (http://oproot.
retain
ram (see photo). the caption) (phys.org); The Spiral Aloe (imgur.com); Spirals in the Horns of a Ram (researchgate.net)
Chaos. Chaotic patterns (or chaos) are simple patterns created from complicated underlying
4. behavior.patterns
Chaos. Chaotic In contrast(or to popular
chaos) definitionsare simple which relate it to complete it complete disorder, a
chaotic
patterns The
created pattern
from is used to
complicateddescribe a kind
underlying of order which lacks predictability. Vortex Street of Chaos cloudsillustrates that
Shell of m
underlying
Spirals inpatterns,
Nature. (Leftconstant feedback
to Right): Growth Spiralsloops,
in the Shell ofimgur.com
repetition, self-similarity,
a Snail (http://oproot.com); fractals,
© en.wikipedia.org
Satellite Image self-organization,
of a Typhoon
© en.wikipe
behavior.and Inreliance
contrast
(phys.org); The Spiral Aloeto popular
(imgur.com); Spirals indefinitions
the Horns of a Ram (researchgate.net)
on programming at the initial point exist within the apparent randomness of chaotic
which relate
complexit tosystems
complete and it complete
erratic disorder,
and turbulent processes. Chaos is often associated with fractals.
Among the
a chaotic pattern is used examples
The Spiralsto
of chaotic
describe
in Nature.
patterns
aretain
The kind
Source:
(Left to Right):
in
currents
Source:
Growth
nature
of in the of
can
Shellthe
beocean,
seen inthe
http://oproot.com/phys.org./imgur.com.researchgate.net
Spirals
Vortex
http://oproot.com/phys.org./imgur.com.researchgate.net
of a Snail (http://oproot.com); flow Street
Satelliteof
researchgate.net blood
Image
(LOAof(LOA
clouds,
through
delete
of a Typhoon
theand
delete the
fractal
boxbox onlyonly
bloo
shell of a mollusk. (phys.org); The Spiral Aloe (imgur.com); retain
the
Spirals the
caption)
in the caption)
Horns of a Ram (researchgate.net)
order which lacks predictability. Chaos illustrates astronomy, epidemiology,
Chaos.
Chaos. Chaotic
Chaotic
patterns
patterns
The
(or chaos)
(or
Spirals
chaos) are
in
are and
simple
Nature.
simple the
patterns effects
patterns
(Top
created created
toitcomplete of
from
Bottom):
fromair turbulence.
complicated
complicated underlying
underlying
behavior.
behavior. In contrast
In contrastto popular
to populardefinitions
definitions whichwhich
relate
relate
it to to completeit complete
it complete disorder,
disorder,a a
that underlying patterns, constant feedback chaotic
chaotic
pattern
pattern
is used
is used
to describe
Growth to describea kind
Spirals a kind
of order
of order
inloops,
the which which
Shell lacks
oflacks
predictability.
predictability.
a Snail; ChaosChaos
illustrates
illustrates
that that

loops, repetition, self-similarity, fractals, Symmetries

underlying
underlying
and and self-
reliance
patterns,
reliance
patterns,
of Our
constant
on programming
constant
on Satellite
programming Surroundings
feedback
feedback
at Image
the
loops,
at initial of
the initial
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repetition,
repetition,
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Typhoon;
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self-similarity,
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self-similarity, fractals,
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self-organization,
randomness
self-organization,
randomness of chaotic
of chaotic
complex
complex systems
systemsand anderratic
erratic
and andturbulent
turbulent processes.
processes. Chaos Chaos is often
is often
associated
associatedwithwith fractals.
fractals.
organization, and reliance on programming Among
Among the the
examples Aloe;
examples of Spirals
chaotic
of chaotic
patterns in
patterns the
in Horns
nature
in nature
can of
can
be a
seen
be Ram
seen
in Vortex
in Vortex
Street
Street
of clouds,
of clouds,
and and
Inshell
ourof aeveryday
shell of
mollusk.
a mollusk. language, we refer to symmetry as a sense of h
at the initial point exists within the and apparentproportion. Like what is said earlier, an object is said to h
randomness of chaotic complex systems unchanged and after transformations such as rotations and scali
erratic and turbulent processes. VortexChaos
Street of is often
filled with patternsShell
clouds especially
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© en.wikipedia.org
associated with fratctals. Examples of chaotic © en.wikipedia.org

patterns in nature can be seen in VortexReflection street of Symmetry. Vortex Vortex

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Theshell
clouds, and currentsof aofmollusk.
the ocean, the flow of made bloodwith through a clouds
line going
fractal blood through vessels, an object
Source: whichofdivides
en.wikipedia.
the branches trees, it into two
astronomy, epidemiology, and the effects ofTheeach
The of
currents other.
air
currents
of the Often,
Source:
turbulence.
of ocean,
the ocean, theit
flow ofis
theen.wikipedia.
flow oftermed
blood blood
through
throughorg
asfractal
fractal bilateral
blood blood
vessels, symmetry
vessels,
the branches
the branches as
of trees, it divid
of trees,
The currents of the ocean, the flowtwo) ofastronomy,
blood
astronomy, epidemiology,
mirror images.
epidemiology,
org and and the effects
the effects of airofturbulence.
Examples are the following:
air turbulence.

through Symmetries
fractal blood of Our Surroundings
vessels, the branches (MH c/oLOA)
Symmetries
Symmetries ofof Ourof Our
Surroundings
Surroundings (MH(MH c/oLOA)
c/oLOA)

trees, astronomy, epidemiology, and the effects In our

In everyday of language,
our everyday language, we refer
we refer
to symmetry
to symmetry as aas sense
a sense of harmonious
of harmonious and and
beautiful
beautiful balance
balance
In our everyday language, we refer toand symmetry
and
proportion.
proportion. asLike
Like a sense
what what
is said of earlier,
is said harmonious
earlier, an object
an object isand
is said said
to have beautiful
to have
symmetry balance
symmetrywhen whenit remains
it remains
air turbulence. unchanged
unchanged afterafter
transformations
and proportion. Like what is said earlier, an object is said to have symmetry when it remains
transformations suchsuch as rotations
as rotations andand scalingscaling are are
applied
applied
intointo
it. Nature
it. Natureis is
filledfilled
withwith
patterns
patterns
especially
especially
different
different
kinds
kinds
of symmetries.
of symmetries.
unchanged after transformations such as rotations and scaling are applied into it. Nature is
Reflection
Reflection
Symmetry.
Symmetry. AlsoAlso
called
called
mirror
mirror
symmetry or line
symmetry or line
symmetry,
symmetry,
reflection
reflection
symmetry is is
symmetry
filled with patterns especially different kinds of symmetries.
Symmetries of Our Surroundings made
made
withwith
a line
a line
goinggoing
through
through
an object
of each
an object
of each
two)two)
which
other.
mirror
which
other.
mirror
divides
Often,
images.
divides
Often,
images.
it into
it into
it is termed
Examples
two two
it is termed
Examples
pieces
pieces
which
as bilateral
which
as bilateral
are the
are mirror
symmetry
are following:
are mirror
symmetry
the following:
images
as itas
images
divides
it divides
the object
the object
into into
two two
(“bi”(“bi”
meansmeans

Reflection Symmetry. Also called mirror symmetry or line symmetry, reflection symmetry is
In our everyday language, we refer to symmetry
made with a line going through an object which divides it into two pieces which are mirror images
as a sense ofofharmonious and itbeautiful
each other. Often, balance
is termed as bilateraland
symmetry as pinterest.com
Source: it divides the object into two (“bi” means
proportion. Like what is said earlier, an objectfollowing:
two) mirror images. Examples are the is said Bilateral Symmetry in Insects. Left: Butterfly with the line of Symmet
to have symmetry when it remains unchanged after Dragonfly with the line of Symmetry (researchgate.net).
transformations such as rotations and scaling are Bilateral
Bilateral
Symmetry
Symmetryin Insects.
in Insects.
Left: Butterfly
Left: Butterfly
with the
withline
theofline
Symmetry
of Symmetry
(pinterest.com);
(pinterest.com);
Right:Right:

Rotational
applied into it. Nature is filled with patterns especially Symmetry.
Dragonfly
Dragonfly
with the
withline
theofline
Symmetry
Also
of Symmetry
called radial symmetry in Biology, t
(researchgate.net).
(researchgate.net).

different kinds of symmetries. by objects

Rotational
Rotational when
Symmetry.
Symmetry. Alsotheir
Also
called similar
called
radialradial
symmetry parts
symmetry in Biology, arethisregularly
in Biology, this
kindkindof symmetry arranged
of symmetry is exhibited aroun
is exhibited
looks
looks
looksthe
by objects
by objects
when
the the
same same
when
same
theirtheir
afterafter after
similar
similar
a certain
parts
a certain a
parts
amount certain
are are
amount
regularly
regularly
of rotation.
of rotation. amount
arranged
arranged
ObjectsObjects
around
and and of
around
organismsrotation.
a central
a central
organisms
axisaxis
which
and and
which Objects
the the
possess radialand
pattern
possess
pattern
radial
1. Reflection Symmetry. Also called mirror symmetry
or line symmetry, reflection symmetry is made with
a line going through an object which divides it Source: researchgate.net
Bilateral Symmetry in Insects. Left: Butterfly with the line of Symmetry (pinterest.com); Right:
into two pieces which are with
Dragonfly mirror images
the line of Symmetryof each
(researchgate.net).
other. Often, it is termed as bilateral symmetry Bilateral Symmetry in Insects. Top:
Butterfly with the line of Symmetry
as it divides the object
Rotational into two
Symmetry. Also(“bi”
calledmeans
radial two)
symmetry in Biology,
Bottom: Dragonfly this kind withof the symmetry
line of is exhibited
by objects when their similar parts are regularly arranged
mirror images. Symmetry. around a central axis and the pattern
looks the same after a certain amount of rotation. Objects and organisms which possess radial

bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 3 08.10.2018 2:18:50 PM

 symmetry bear a resemblance to a pie containing identical pieces after being cut by several lines or
symmetry bear a resemblance to a pie containing identical pieces after being cut by several lines or
planes. These
planes. These objects objects or organisms
or organisms have nohaveleft
no left
or or rightsides.
right sides.
symmetry bear a resemblance to a pie containing identical pieces after being cut by several lines or 2. Rotational Symmetry. Also called radial symmetry
planes. These objects or organisms have no left or right sides.
in Biology, this kind of symmetry is exhibited by
symmetry bear a resemblance to a pie containing identical pieces after being cut by several lines or
planes. These objects or organisms have no left or right sides.
objects when their similar parts are regularly
arranged around a central axis and the pattern
Source: pinterest. looks the same after a certain amount of rotation.
com
Objects and organisms which possess radial
Source: likar.info symmetry bear a resemblance to a pie containing
Some
Radialsources,
Symmetry however,
in Plants. claimLeft: Flowerthat rotational,
with the Axisand radial symmetries
of Symmetry (pinterest.com); areRight:
different
A fruit from
with each other
the Axis of Symmetry
Radial Symmetry Radial
(likar.info).
in Plants. Symmetry
since radial symmetrical objects need not move (rotate) to show their symmetry.
Some sources, however, claim
Left: that
Flower rotational,
with the in
Axis Plants.
and
of radial
Symmetry Top:
symmetries Flower
(pinterest.com); are different
Right: A fruit from
with identical
each other pieces after being cut by several lines or
the Axis
since of Symmetry
radial symmetrical (likar.info).
objects need not move (rotate) to show are their symmetry.
Some sources,
with
however,
the
claim that
Axis of
rotational,
Symmetry;
and radial symmetries
Bottom:
different
Radial Symmetry in Plants. Left: Flower with the Axis of Symmetry (pinterest.com); Right: A fruit with
A
from each other
This kind of symmetry is exhibited by objects which do notplanes. change its These objects or organisms have no left or
the Axis of Symmetry (likar.info).
Translationalsince radial symmetrical objects need not move (rotate) to show their symmetry.
Symmetry.
Translational Symmetry. This
size andsizeshape even
shape ifevenitSymmetry.
moved fruit kindwith
to kind
another the
of symmetry
location. Axis Note of
is exhibited Symmetry.
by objects which do not change its
that the
whichmovement does not involve
notright
with reflection
andTranslational
or
with reflectionrotation.
or rotation.
This
if it moved to of symmetry
another is exhibited
location. Noteby objects
that the
size and shape even if it moved to another location. Note that the movement does not involve
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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 5 08.10.2018 2:18:51 PM

 In Europe, the sequence was introduced in Leonardo’s 1202 A.D. book entitled Liber
Abaci (Book of the Abacus/Book of Calculations). It was in the third section of the book that
Leonardo put forward the problem of an idealized rabbit population growing biologically
unrealistic.
Leonardo suggested that at the end of every month, the total number of pairs of rabbits
can be computed by adding the number of new pairs added to the population and the number
of pairs alive in the past month and that at the end of a year, there will be 233 pairs of rabbits.
This is summarized in the following table.
Table 1.1. A Tabular Representation of Leonardo’s Rabbits
Number of Pair of Rabbits
Month
Distribution Number of Pairs
0 A (original pair, kittens) 1
1 A (original pair, sexually matured) 1
A (original pair, sexually matured)
2 2
B (pair of offsprings of A, kittens)
A (original pair)
3 B (pair of offsprings of A, sexually matured) 3
C (pair of offsprings of A, kittens)
A (original pair)
B (pair of offsprings of A, sexually matured)
4 C (pair of offsprings of A, sexually matured) 5
D (pair of offsprings of A, kittens)
E (pair of offsprings of B, kittens)
A (original pair)
B (pair of offsprings of A, sexually matured)
C (pair of offsprings of A, sexually matured)
D (pair of offsprings of A, sexually matured)
5 8
E (pair of offsprings of B, sexually matured)
F (pair of offsprings of A, kittens)
G (pair of offsprings of B, kittens)
H (pair of offsprings of C, kittens)
12 A – 233rd pair 233

From this solution, the first 14 Fibonacci numbers can be derived:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8 th 9 th 10 th 11th 12th 13th 14th
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233
So if Fibonacci Numbers are derived from an unrealistic population growth, what is
interesting with it? The next sections will show that the Fibonacci sequence is indeed, one of
Nature’s favorite mathematical rules.

The Golden Ratio,

Now let’s go back to the Fibonacci Numbers and try something magical. Pick up one
Fibonacci number from the series and get its ratio to the number that comes before it in the
series and we’ll get the following:

bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 6 08.10.2018 2:18:51 PM

 Table 1.2. Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Ratio
Fibonacci Numbers Operation Ratio
1 1/0 Undefined (ordinary arithmetic)
1 1/1 1
2 2/1 2
3 3/2 1.5
5 5/3 1.667
8 8/5 1.6
13 13/8 1.625
21 21/13 1.615
34 34/21 1.619
55 55/34 1.617
89 89/55 1.618
144 144/89 1.618
233 233/144 1.618

The strange thing about the ratio of the Fibonacci numbers is that the ratios began
approaching the number 1.618 and then repeat this ratio over and over again. As a matter of
fact, even if we try to get the ratio of the numbers after 233, we will still arrive to an answer
with several decimal places but can be rounded to the fixed limiting value of roughly equal
to 1.618034. For instance, if we get the ratio of the 100th term in the sequence to the 99 th
term, we get,
354,224,848,179,261,915,075
= 1.618
218,922,995,834,555,169,026

This irrational number, 1.618034, is called the Golden Ratio, represented by the Greek
letter or (“phi”).
We have to take note that despite we can derive the Golden Ratio from the Fibonacci
Sequence, it doesn’t necessarily means that the Golden Ratio was discovered from the
series. In fact, the Golden Ratio has been known to man since the time of the ancient Greeks,
hundreds of years before Leonardo Fibonacci published his books.
The Golden Ratio is the ratio of two quantities when the ratio of their sums to the larger
quantity is equal to the ratio of the larger quantity to the smaller quantity. In symbols,
A+B A
= B = = 1.618034
A
where A is the larger quantity and B is the smaller quantity.
To illustrate this,

bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 7 08.10.2018 2:18:51 PM

 ng, if we remove the largest square
mathematicians and artists because of its frequent
8), we get another
appearancegolden rectangle
in geometry, especially in pentagrams,
ensions equal to 8 x 5 (length
golden = 3 + 5, while
rectangles andwidthgolden
= 5). And triangles.
yet, when we remove
For
st square (sides = 5) in the rectangle, we get another golden rectangle with
instance,a golden rectangle is a rectangle whose
al to 5 x 3 (length = 3 + 2, while width = 3). And we can repeat the procedure
ating also tolength
notice is
thataround 1.62of (φ)
dimensions times the
the squares width, resulting
are Fibonacci numbers!toThe Golden Ratio has been known throughout
dimensions demonstrating the Golden Ratio. Inhistory the in various names such as Aristotle and
figure,
ge the squares into athe largest
figure showngolden
below, werectangle has ashape.
can get another dimensions
Euclid’s Golden Mean, Pacioli and Da Vinci’s Divina
equal to 13 x 8 (length = 8 + 5, while width = 8) .Here Proportione (Divine Proportion) and Ohm’s Goldener
is the strange thing, if we remove the largest square Schnitt (Golden Section). Euclid, in his books Elements,
(sides equal to 8), we get another golden rectangle gives us the first know definition of this ratio as,

which has a dimensions equal to 8 x 5 (length = 3 + 5,“Awhile widthline

straight = 5).is And
saidyet, whenbeen
to have we remove
cut in extreme
and mean ratio
again the largest square (sides = 5) in the rectangle, we get another golden rectangletowith
when, as the whole line is the greater
segment, so is the greater to the lesser.”
dimensions equal to 5 x 3 (length = 3 + 2, while width = 3). And we can repeat the procedure
again. It is fascinating also to notice that dimensionsThis of the squares
Golden are Fibonacci
Ratio has numbers!
been popular to
mathematicians and artists because of its frequent
appearance in geometry, especially in pentagrams,
Now if we arrange the squares into a figure shown below, we can get another shape.
golden rectangles and golden triangles. For instance,a
A Fibonacci spiral
© pencilfocus.com golden rectangle is a rectangle whose length is around
1.62 (φ) times the width, resulting to dimensions
io, Fibonacci Numbers, and Nature (MHc/o LOA) A Fibonacci spiral
demonstrating the Golden Ratio. In the figure, the
Source: pencilfocus.com largest golden rectangle has a dimensions equal
ng thing about Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Ratio is that they seem to 13
to be× 8 (length = 8 + 5, while width = 8). Here is the
strange thing, if we remove the largest square (sides equal
in nature! It’s as if they are a rule, a blueprint, to which nature adheres! Here are
to 8), we get another golden rectangle which has a
dimensions equal to 8 × 5 (length = 3 + 5, while width
= 5). When we remove again the largest square (sides
= 5) in the rectangle, we get another golden rectangle
with dimensions equal to 5 × 3 (length = 3 + 2, while
A Fibonacci spiral
width = 3). We can repeat the procedure again. It is
© pencilfocus.com
fascinating also to notice that dimensions of the
squares are Fibonacci numbers!
The Golden Ratio, Fibonacci Numbers, and Nature (MHc/o LOA)
Now if we arrange the squares into a figure shown
below, we can get another shape.
Another fascinating thing about Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Ratio is that they seem to be
a common thing in nature! It’s as if they are a rule, a blueprint, to which nature adheres! Here are
some examples. Source: pinterest.co.uk The Golden Ratio, Fibonacci Numbers,
Nautilus shell. Fibonacci spiral seems to appear in the shell of
tilus spiral is not perfectly a golden
and Nature
this mollusk . spiral it displays, most of the time, proportions
that are Photo
© Right close(pinterest.co.uk);
to a GoldenLeft ratio.
PhotoThis appears in successive rotations of the shell
(goldennumber.net) Another fascinating thing about Fibonacci
grows and is due to a property of growth called self-similarity (also known Numbersas and the Golden Ratio is that they seem to
milarity refers to the tendency of an organism to grow in size but to maintain the be a common thing in nature! It’s as if they are a rule,
a blueprint, to which nature adheres! Here are some
examples.
Although the nautilus spiral is not perfectly a
golden spiral it displays, most of the time, proportions
of its dimensions that are close to a Golden Ratio.
This appears in successive rotations of the shell as
Source: goldennumber.net the nautilus grows and is due to a property of growth
The Nautilus shell. Fibonacci spiral called self-similarity (also known as scaling). Self-
The Nautilus
seems shell. in
to appear Fibonacci
the shellspiral
of thisseems to appearrefers
similarity in the shell
to theof tendency of an organism to
Although the nautilus spiral is not perfectly a golden
this mollusk.
mollusk. spiral it displays, most of the time, proportions
of its dimensions that are Photo
© Right close(pinterest.co.uk);
to a GoldenLeft ratio.
PhotoThis appears in successive rotations of the shell
(goldennumber.net)
8
as the nautilus grows and is due to a property of growth called self-similarity (also known as
scaling). Self-similarity refers to the tendency of an organism to grow in size but to maintain the
bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 8 08.10.2018 2:18:51 PM
 grow in size but to maintain the same shape. As such,
as the nautilus grows, it builds new chambers for itself
which are similar (replicates) to its original shape but
larger in dimensions.
Fibonacci numbers and thus, the Golden Ratio,
are also visible in plants such as in seeds and leaves
arrangements and in leaf distribution among the
branches of trees and even in the arrangements of
leaf veins. Though now proven to be erroneous by a Source: http://thescienceexplorer.com
laboratory experiment by a botanist, a mathematician
named Wiesner suggested a mathematical explanation
that states that the helical arrangement of leaves on
a branch in Fibonacci proportions is the best way
to gather a maximum amount of sunlight with a few
leaves. Mathematicians and scientists are still looking
for reliable explanations why plants seem to adhere to Source: momath.org
the Fibonacci numbers and spirals and to the Golden The spirals of a sunflower
Ratio.

Surprisingly, the human face has various examples

demonstrating the Golden Ratio. For instance, a golden VIDEO FOR ENRICHMENT
rectangle can be drawn from the human face with the
Fibonacci Sequence Documentary
point in the eyes dividing the length of the rectangle – Golden Section Explained - Secret
into the golden sections (1.68 and 1). This can also be Teachings
seen with the length between the eyes and the bottom URL: https://www.youtube.com/
of the chin with either the nose or the mouth at the watch?v=4ToUaU4vPks
midpoint dividing the length into golden sections
(depending on where you start the measurement). Similarly, the skeleton of the human body
also shows evidences of the Golden Ratio. For example, the ratio of the length from head to
navel to the total height of the body is a Golden Ratio.
What’s more fascinating is that even the DNA, the code to which biological structures are
based, also follows the rule of the Golden Ratio. It was found out to measure 34 angstroms
(1 angstrom = 1-8 cm) in length and 21 angstroms wide for each full cycle of its double helix
spiral.

Example of Leaf Arrangement among Plants

Source: harunyahya.com

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 The Human Face and the Golden Ratio
Source: Left (mydramalist.com); Right (sriyantraresearch.com)

Illustration of the Golden Ratio in the Human Body

Source: http://goldenratio.wikidot.com

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Solving Symmetries. Choose at least three pictures/objects which exhibit symmetries

from your collections in the pre-discussion activity and surf the Internet to study the
reasons and benefits of the occurrences of those symmetries in those objects/organisms.
Use the template below for each of the object.
Name: Butterfly
Symmetry:
Reason/Benefit of Having the Symmetry:

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 Focus on Pythagoras. Do you agree with the Pythagorean worldview that the laws of
nature and thus, the universe, are written in mathematics? Why or why not? Cite specific
examples and researches to support your argument.

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 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Decoding Nature’s Rule. Look around your surroundings and choose at least five
naturally-occurring objects. Take pictures and post them on the space below. Describe their
shapes, then try to figure out the possible reason or explanation as to why they are shap the
way they are. If you find it difficult, try looking for resources in the Internet. Use the table
below as a template for this activity. After the activity, answer the question for reflections.

Picture Description

Possible reason/s of the shape

Your idea Idea from a reference/source

Picture Description

Possible reason/s of the shape

Your idea Idea from a reference/source

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 Picture Description

Possible reason/s of the shape

Your idea Idea from a reference/source

Picture Description

Possible reason/s of the shape

Your idea Idea from a reference/source

Picture Description

Possible reason/s of the shape

Your idea Idea from a reference/source

What is the significance of knowing the rules and laws that govern the shape of objects
in nature? Why?

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 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Fibonacci Rabbits in Five Years. Suppose the rabbits in the Fibonacci problem is left
undisturbed for five years and that none of the rabbits died, how many rabbits will be
there after five years?

B. Finding the Golden Ratio. Create a table to show the occurrence of the Golden Ratio
between the first 30 Fibonacci numbers.

C. In the Search for Beauty. Surf the Internet. Look and study at least five sacred architectural
works that show the Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Ratio. Is there anything to which
these architectural structures have in common? Why do you think? (Attach the picture
here.)

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 D. An Artist in the Making. Draw either a human face or a human body and use the Fibonacci
numbers and the Golden Ratio as guides for the dimensions and lengths.

E. A Question for the Philosopher. Do you think that the Golden Ratio is the blueprint to
which nature and thus, the universe is based? Why or why not?

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 LESSON
2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

MATHEMATICS is the only language that is

understood by any nation. “Nothing” can be translated
Curiously enough, the twelve-tone system
in different words but it is also translated into has no zero in it. Given a series: 3, 5, 2,
mathematical symbol as “0” that can be recognize by 7, 10, 8, 11, 9, 1, 6, 4, 12 and the plan of
obtaining its inversion by numbers which
everybody.
when added to the corresponding ones of
According to Jamison (2000), “Once students the original series will give 12, one obtains
9, 7, 10, 5, 2, 4, 1, 3, 11, 6, 8 and 12. For in
understand HOW things are said, they can better this system 12 plus 12 equals 12. There is
understand WHAT is being said, and only then do they not enough of zero in it.
have a chance to know WHY it is said.” This implies – John Cage & Eric Satie
that, to define a figure, they must have a knowledge Silence: Lectures and Writings, Calder and
Boyars, 1968
on how it has been constructed and its function as an
object.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
At the end of the lesson, students are
Visual Metaphor expected to:
• discuss the language, symbols,
Students should come up with a word or two that
and conventions of mathematics;
describes their own personal characteristics. Then,
• explain the nature of
compare those characteristics to something else with mathematics as a language;
similar characteristics. • categorize statements into
Name: mathematical expression and
mathematical sentence;
Personal Characteristics Visual Metaphor • differentiate mathematical
Personality Trait: Animal Metaphor: expression to mathematical
equation;
• identify operational terms in
Behavior: Animal Metaphor: english statement;
• convert english expressions to
mathematical sentence, vice
versa; and
Life at Home: Household Item Metaphor:
• give other mathematical symbols
and discuss its use.

Life at School: Transportation Metaphor:

Code Name Visual Metaphor:

What are the similarities being compared?

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 DISCUSSION

Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The Language of Mathematics is the structure used by the mathematicians to communicate
mathematically.
1. Precise – make an exact and accurate expressions.
2. Concise – say things briefly.
3. Powerful – express complex thoughts with a comparative event.

English, Noun and Sentence

Noun – a word used to identify the class of people, places, or things.
Sentence – used to state complete thoughts. An English sentence has at least one noun,
and at least one verb.

EXAMPLE 2.1
Janice loves mathematics.

Janice and mathematics are nouns and love is a verb.

Noun versus Sentence

Noun Sentence
James 1. James is the name of her brother.
Manila 2. The capital of Philippines is Manila.
mango 3. The national fruit of the Philippines is mango.

TABLE 2.1. Mathematical Operation Symbols and their Word Expressions

Operation Word Expression
Addition Add, added to, plus, the sum of, more than, the total of, increased by, going up by,
+ bigger by
Subtraction subtract, subtract from, less, minus, less than, decreased by, diminished by, take Away,
– Reduced by, The Difference Between
Multiplication multiply, times, the product of, multiply by, times as much as
x or ( )
Division Divide, Divided by, the quotient of, the ratio of, equal amounts of, per
/ or ÷
Equation Equals, Is Equal to, Is, Exactly as, Equivalent to, As similar to
=

Mathematical Expression is a name given to mathematical object of interest. An expression

does not state a complete thought, it does not as if an expression is true or false.

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 EXAMPLE 2.2
The value of the expression 1 + 2 × 3 is 7, because the expression is evaluated by first
multiplying 2 and 3 and then adding 1 to the result.

Mathematical sentence expresses a complete thought, it asks about the TRUTH of a

sentence. It is either True or False or Sometimes True or Sometimes False.

EXAMPLE 2.3
The value of the expression 1 + 2 × 3 is 7, because the expression is evaluated by first
multiplying 2 and 3 and then adding 1 to the result.
Mathematical Mathematical
Expression Sentence
1. 6 1. 6 is an even number
2. 7 + 6 2. 7 + 6 = 13
3. 5 × 6 3. 5 × 6 = 30
4. (2 + 3) – 1 4. (2 + 3) – 1 = 4

Writing Expression and Equation

Numbers and/or variables that are connected by operation/s is called expression. An
equation usually have words like “equals”, “is equal to” or is.

EXAMPLE 2.4
Ten and a number is fourteen
To translate a mathematical phrase:
Step 1: Identify the variable/s and/or constant/s
Constant – Ten and a number is fourteen
Variable - Ten and a number is fourteen
Step 2: Determine the connectors.
Connectors – Ten and a number is fourteen
Step 3: Perform the translation of the phrase into symbols.
Ten and a number is fourteen

10 + x = 4

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 EXAMPLE 2.5
Write each phrase or sentence as an algebraic equation
Phrase/Sentence Algebraic Equation
1. Twice as old as Vic is forty. 1. 2v = 40
x
2. Joe’s age divided by five all less than three is one. 2. – 3 = 1
s
3. Sonia’s age multiplied by two is seventy-eight. 3. 2s = 78
16
4. The ratio of sixteen and the number of workers is 4. 4. =4
w
5. Jamie’s age less two is twenty-four. 5. j – 2 = 24

EXAMPLE 2.6
Write each mathematical sentence in words
Algebraic Equation English Expression
1. 6 + a = 40 1. six more than a number is 40
2. 5b = 40 2. product of five and a number is 40
c
3. = 40 3. the quotient of a number and five is forty
5
4. 2m – 4 = 40 4. twice a number less four is forty
5. x + 4 = 40 5. four more than the product of six and a number is forty

TABLE 2.2. Common Issues in Converting English Phase into Mathematical Statement
Issue Incorrect Process Correct Process
Using the wrong key word for the
problem. One half of twenty. 1. 20
20 or
2 2
1
20 ÷ Key words are “half” and “of”.
2
“Half” indicates divide by 2, not
by ½. Also “of” indicates multiply
by ½, not divide by ½.
Incorrect word order with Five less than two times a 2x – 5
subtraction. number.
8 – 3x
Not validating by translating Twice the sum of three and eight. 2(3 + 8)
from symbols back to words. 2.3+8
Use of punctuation. Three times a number, plus four. 3x + 4
3(x + 4)
Redundancy 6(2) = 12 • Two times six is twelve.
• Twice the product of two and • The product of six and two is
six is twelve. twelve.
• Twice of six is equal to twelve.
Grammatical error 2+5=7 • Two plus five equals seven.
• Two plus five is equals to seven. • The sum of two and five is
• The sum of two and five equal equal to seven.
to seven. • Two increased by five is seven.

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 Issue Incorrect Process Correct Process
Multiple operations Four plus five divided by three is The sum of four and five all over
equal to three. three is three.
The ratio of four plus five, and
three is equal to three.
Missing the significance of word Mary worked 2 hours on Weekdays – MTWThF (5 days)
or phrase. weekdays and 6 hours on 2 hours . 5 days
weekends. How much does she Weekends – SS (2 days)
gets in a week if she makes 120 6 hours . 2 days
pesos per hour? 120 pesos . number of hours
2 . 120 + 6 . 120 120[(2 . 5) + (6 . 2)]

TABLE 2.3. Other Mathematical Symbols

These are some of symbols that are commonly used in mathematics.

Sample
Symbol Word Expression Use
Expression
> Indicates value on left is larger than
… is greater than … 3>2
Inequality sign the value on right
< Indicates value on left is smaller than
… is less than … 2<3
Inequality sign the value on right
≠ Indicates that two values are
… is not equal to… x≠y
Inequality sign different
≈
… is approximately equal Indicates two values are close to
Approximate x+y≈z
to … each othe
equal sign

∑
n

Summation sign
The summation of …
Sum of many or infinitely many
values ∑X i=1
i

! Product of all positive integral up to a

…. factorial 4! = 24
Exclamation certain value

The square root of … Algebraic expressions 4

square root
%
... percent ... Proportion 2.5%
Percent
Logical statement or mathematical
therefore … x=y
Three dots proof
∈
… is an element of … Sets a∈A
Epsilon
⊆
… is a subset of … Sets A⊆B
Subset
∪
… union … Sets A∪B
Union
∪
… intersection … Sets A∩B
Intersection

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 EXAMPLE 2.7
Convert each sentence into its appropriate mathematical symbol.
Phrase/Sentence Algebraic Equation
1. Mayee’s height is greater than or equal to 63 inches. 1. m ≥ 63
2. a number increased by seven is greater than seventy 2. x + 1 > 70
3. Mitch’s weekly earnings at ₱80 per hour were no more than ₱500 3. 8h < 50
4. The sum of Em and Jay’s is less than their mom’s age of 40. 4. e + j < 4
5. Ed’s age at least 14 5. n ≥ 14

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Identify if the given below is an English noun, Mathematical expression, English sentence
or Mathematical sentence.
1. Airplane
2. 7
3. 5 – 19
4. The word “book” begins with letter d.
5. 7 – 9 = 12
6. 10 – x + 9
7. 18 – 9 + 5 = 14
8. The dog is white.
9. x
10. b = 2
11. y – 0 = 4
12. Cellphone
13. x + 3 = 3 + x
14. The statement is false.
15. Cavite

B. Identify if the English sentence or mathematical sentence is True or False, or Sometimes

True or Sometimes False.
1. James loves English.
2. 3 + 4 – 7 = 0
3. Judith is a girl.
4. x + 3 = 0
5. y = 1
6. s + 3 = 3 + s
7. This statement is true.
8. x – 0 = x
9. 1 • t = t
10. The word “smart” begins with letter b.

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 C. Write EXP if the given is a mathematical expression. Write SEN f it is a mathematical
sentence. If it is a mathematical sentence, classify if it is true T, false F, or sometimes true
ST, or sometimes false SF.
1. 3 6. x ÷ 5
4 7. 3 + 7 + y
2. 10 + 9 – 12 = 7
3. x – 4 8. 1–5+x=x–5+1
4. s – 6 = 0 9. s+1=3
4 4
5. 2 + 7 – 10 = 9 10. 3 + 4 – 5 × 7 = -28

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 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Translate each phrase into a mathematical expression.

1. The sum of a 12 and 4

2. Seven less than five

3. From 15, subtract six

4. Two times the square of a number

5. The quotient of a number plus 3 and 4

6. Eleven multiplied by x

7. X decrease by 2

8. Eight times a number

9. Five more than thrice a number

10. Half of x

11. The square of a number is five

12. A number diminished by 4 is 7

13. 12 is equal to 6 minus a number

14. The sum of 2 times a number and 3 is 11

15. One fifth of a number

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 26 08.10.2018 2:18:52 PM
 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Convert the following sentences to mathematical equations.

1. Seven is the sum of three and four.

2. The ratio of six plus a number, and two is equal to five.

3. Two is the quotient of eight and four.

4. The product of nine and a number, decreased by one is seventeen.

5. One hundred less than three times a number is seven.

6. The quotient of seventy and ten, less five is two.

7. A number diminished by ten is eight.

8. Sixteen is the product of squares of a number.

9. Thrice the sum of five and a number, all over two is eighteen.

10. The difference of twice a number and one is three.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 28 08.10.2018 2:18:52 PM
 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Write each expression/equation into verbal phrase/sentence.

1. 4–x

2. 3x ≠ 12

3. 17a

4. 7+b

5. c – 2 ≥ 13

6. 4x 2

7. 3x
2
8. 3 (x – 2)

9. 15 ÷ y

10. 6(7 – x)

11. 12 – y = 2
3
12. 2(4 + 5) = 3
6
13. 5x – 3 = 1
2x + 4
14. 12 – (c + 4) = 5

15. a = 23

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 30 08.10.2018 2:18:52 PM
 ACTIVITY 4
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:
Translate each statement into mathematical expression.
1. Dante’s age after 10 years

2. The perimeter of equilateral triangle

3. There are 10 more children than adults

4. There are twice as many boys as girls

5. The interest Max get after investing ₱50,000 with annual interest rate of 3%

6. The distance Mary traveled by driving at the rate of 50 kph

7. The fraction of work done in 3 hours

8. The sum of three consecutive numbers

9. The total value of 10 coins consisting 5-peso coin and 1-peso coin

10. The area of a rectangle whose width is 4 less than its length

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 32 08.10.2018 2:18:52 PM
 LESSON
3 Problem Solving and Reasoning

DIFFERENT PROFESSIONS deal with different

problems. Most professionals are required to have A great discovery solves a great problem
good problem solving skills. In the previous lessons, but there is a grain of discovery in the
solution of any problem. Your problem
you built a clear understanding of mathematics as may be modest, but if it challenges your
a language and improved your skills in translating curiosity and brings into play your inventive
mathematical sentences to symbols. This skill is so faculties, and if you solve it by your own
means, you may experience the tension
important for you to become a better problem solver. and enjoy the triumph of discovery.
George Po’lya

PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY

Brain Blast
Brain Blast is a game that encourages groups to LEARNING OBJECTIVES
cooperate to come up with as many ideas related to a At the end of the lesson, students are
expected to:
specific topic as possible. Although it works well when
teaching about creative ideas for solving problems, it • discuss ways to solve a problem;
is also useful as a prelude to many creative writing • solve problems using inductive
and deductive reasoning; and
projects.
• solve problems using polya’s
Whole class as two teams strategy.

• One large die

• List of “umbrella topics” or general theme
According to the number rolled on the die, teams
provide the number of correct word or phrase choices
that fit the provided theme word. (Example: Number
2 equals two words provided.) If the two words are
correct, the team earns two points. If the team can
come up with only one correct answer, the team
earns one point. The teacher keeps track of scores
in some manner visible to students, perhaps using a
chalkboard, whiteboard, or overhead. Usually, the
first team to reach “20” wins. Sometimes, though,
determining the winner is up to the teacher. If both
teams end up tied at the end of a designated playing
time, the teacher may announce that the team that
obviously tried harder or had “more difficult choices”
than the other is the winner.

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 Game at a Glance
1. Teacher writes theme word (e.g., colors) on board.
2. Team A rolls die and gets “3.” Team A provides the words “red,” “green,” and “blue” and
gets three points.
3. Team B rolls “1.” The team provides the word “orange” and gets one point.
4. Team A rolls “6,” but can provide only five color words, so gets five points. (They lose a
point for the one word missed.) Team A now has seven points.
5. Team B rolls “4” and provides four words, including the made-up word “Roarange”
(combination of red and orange — teacher accepts the word). Team B now has five
points.]

DISCUSSION

Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that comes up to a conclusion by examining specific examples
is called inductive reasoning. A conclusion that is made by applying inductive reasoning is
called a conjecture. Conjectures may or may not be correct.
Inductive reasoning may be used in many life situations. For illustration, we show an
example of applying inductive reasoning to predict a number in a list.

EXAMPLE 3.1
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the lists.
1, 3, 6, 8, 11,?
Solution
The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the third and fourth by 2
again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2, the next difference would be 3, followed
again by 2, then by 3. Since the difference between 8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next
to 11 to be a number 2 more than 11, which is 13.

We used inductive reasoning when we predicted the number next to 11. We must take
note that though it can be helpful to use inductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion,
extra care must be observed when performing procedure. Conclusions based on inductive
reasoning may not be correct. The following example illustrates this instance.

EXAMPLE 3.2
Consider a circle and dots on the circle. What we do is connect each dot to all other dots
so that we draw all possible line segments. After this, we count the number of regions formed
inside the circle. The first five results are given in the Figure 3.1.

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 Figure 3.1. Maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle
Results may be summarized in the following table.

Number of dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 2 4 8 16 ?

Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of dots increase, the number
of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus, we expect that for 6 dots, there will be 16 . 2 = 32
regions. However, if we perform the procedure, we find out the only 31 regions are formed as
shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Maximum number of regions formed by connecting 6 dots on a circle

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 In itself, inductive reasoning is not a valid method of proof. Just because you observe
that a pattern exists in a number of situations, it does not mean that the pattern is true for
all situations. However, it is valuable because it allows us to form ideas on what we observed
which leads us to come up with a hypothesis.
A statement is true if it is true for all cases. If you can find one case where the statement
is not true then it is considered a false statement. The instance for which the statement
becomes false is called a counter-example. One can verify that a statement is false by using a
counter-example. This is illustrated in the next example.
EXAMPLE 3.3
If is an integer, then the absolute value of n is greater than 0.
Solution
Since 0 is an integer, we let n = 0. Now, |n| = |0| = 0 0. We have found a counter-example.
Thus, the statement “If n is an integer, then the absolute value of n is greater than 0.” Is a false
statement.

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form used in proving
observations and arriving at conclusions. It is a process by which one makes conclusions
based on previously accepted general assumptions, procedures, and principles.
To illustrate how deductive reasoning works, we make use of logic puzzles which are
best solved by deductive reasoning using a chart to display the given information.
EXAMPLE 3.4
Solve this puzzle using deductive reasoning.
John, Jenny, Shiela, and Jason were recently elected as new class officers (president, vice
president, secretary, treasurer) in a National High School. From the following clues, determine
which position each holds.
1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members of the
group.
3. Shiela and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
Solution
From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a mark “X” on positions
Jason do not hold.
President VP Secretary Treasurer
John
Jenny
Shiela
Jason X X

From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the youngest in the group, he
cannot be the president. From here, we also conclude that Jason is not the secretary since he is
older than the treasurer. Thus, Jason must be the treasurer and John must be the vice president.

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 President VP Secretary Treasurer
John X P X X
Jenny X X
Shiela X X
Jason X X X P

From clue 3, Sheila is not the secretary which leads us to conclude that Jenny is the secretary.
Since there are no other options, we conclude that Shiela is the president.
President VP Secretary Treasurer
John X P X X
Jenny X X P X
Shiela P X X X
Jason X X X P
Shiela is the president, John is vice president, Jenny is the secretary, and Jason is the
treasurer.

Deductive reasoning uses the Law of Syllogism to prove logical arguments.

EXAMPLE 3.5
Premise There are 23 books on the top of the bookshelf and 16 on the lower shelf.
There are no other books on the bookshelf.
Conclusion Therefore, there are 39 books in the bookshelf.

Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

One highly acceptable problem solving strategy is designed by George Polya (1887-
1985). The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of four steps.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand the Problem. You must have a clear understanding of the problem. Ready
answers to questions like “Can you restate the problem in your own words?”, “Can you
determine what is known about these types of problems?”, “Is there missing information
that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem?”, and “What is the goal of the
problem?” indicate that you have a clear understanding of the problem.
2. Devise a Plan. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt
to solve a problem. Some of these procedures include making a list of the known
information, making a list of information that is needed, sketching a diagram, making an
organized list that shows all possibilities, making a table or a chart, working backwards,
trying to solve a similar but simpler problem, looking for a pattern, writing an equation,
performing an experiment, guessing at a solution and then check your result.
3. Carry Out the Plan. Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out. However, you
need to work carefully and keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts. You
must also realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to
devise another plan or modify your existing plan.

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 4. Review the Solution. Once you have found a solution, check the solution. You must ensure
that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem. You must interpret the
solution in the context of the problem and ask yourself whether there are generalizations
of the solution that could apply to other problems.
EXAMPLE 3.6
Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
A basketball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could
they have two wins and two losses in four games?
Solution
Understand the Problem. There are many different orders. The team may have lost the first
game and won two straight games and lost the last one (LWWL). Or maybe they lost the first two
games and won the last two (LLWW). There are other possibilities.
Devise a Plan. This problem may be solved using an organized list. An organized list is a list that
is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once and
only once.
Carry Out the Plan. Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We start by writing
two Ws and two Ls and play along with the order using a system to ensure no duplication is done.
This strategy produces the six different orders shown below.
1. WWLL 4. LWLW
2. WLLW 5. LLWW
3. LWWL
Review the Solution. We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a basketball
team can win exactly two out of four games.

EXAMPLE 3.7
Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the decimal representation
Solution
4
Understand the Problem. Express the fraction 27 as a decimal and look for a pattern that will
enable us to determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point.
Devise a Plan. This problem may be solved using a table indicating a pattern. Dividing 4 by 27
produces the decimal 0.148148148…. Since the decimal representation repeats the digits 148 over
and over, we know that the digit located 100 places to the right of the decimal point is either a 1, a
4, or an 8. A table may help us see a pattern and enable us to determine which one of these digits
is in the 100th place. Since the decimal digits repeat every three digits, we use a table with three
columns.
Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit
1st 1 2nd 4 3rd 8
4 th
1 5th
4 6th
8
7 th
1 8th
4 9th
8
10th 1 11th 4 12th 8
13 th
1 14 th
4 15 th
8
Carry Out the Plan. Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit locations evenly divisible
by 3. From this pattern we can tell that the 99 th decimal digit must be 8. Since a 1 always follows
an 8 in the pattern, the 100 th decimal digit must be a 1.

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 Review the Solution. The above table illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of
the location numbers in column 1 is divided by 3, a remainder 1 is produced. If each of the location
numbers in column 2 is divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus, we can find the decimal
digit in any location by dividing the location number by 3 and examining the remainder.

4
For instance, to find the digit in the 3200 th decimal place of 27 merely divide 3200 by
3 and examine the remainder, which is 2. Thus, the digit 3200 places to the right of the
decimal point is a 4.

EXAMPLE 3.8
Apply Polya’s strategy on the following problem.
In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of the other teams
exactly 3 times. How many league games will be played?
Solution
Understand the Problem. There are 10 teams in the league, and each team plays exactly
three games against each of the other teams. The problem is to determine the total number of
league games that will be played.
Devise a Plan. This problem is best solved using a diagram of a similar and simpler problem
and a list. Consider a league with only four teams (denoted by A, B, C, and D) in which each team
plays each of the other teams only once. Figure 3.3 shows the games can be represented by line
segments that connect the points A, B, C, and D.

Figure 3.3. A diagram of the games played by 4 teams

Since each of the four teams will play a game against each of the other three, we might
conclude that this would result in 4.3=12 games. However, the diagram shows only six line
segments. It appears that our procedure has counted each game twice. For instance, when
team A plays team B, team B also plays team A. To produce the correct result, we must divide our
4×3
previous result 12 by 2. Hence, four teams can play each other once in 2 = 6 games.
Carry Out the Plan. Using the process developed above, we see that 10 teams can play each
10 × 9
other once in a total of 2 45 games. Since each team plays each opponent exactly three
times, the total number of games is 45 × 3 = 135.
Review the Solution. We could check our work by making a diagram that includes all 10
teams represented by dots labeled A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J. Because this diagram would be
somewhat complicated, let us try the method of making an organized list. Figure 3.4 shows an
organized list in which the notation BC represents a game between team B and team C.

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 AB AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ
BC BD BE BF BG BH BI BJ
CD CE CF CG CH CI CJ
DE DF DG DH DI DJ
EF EG EH EI EJ
FG FH FI FJ
GH GI GJ
HI HJ
IJ
Figure 3.4. Organized list
The notation CB is not shown because it also represents a game between team B and
team C. This list shows that 45 games are required for each team to play each of the other
nine teams once. Also, notice that the first row has nine items, the second row has eight
items, and the third row has seven items, and so on. Thus 10 teams require 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5
+ 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45 games if each plays every other team once, and 45 . 3 = 135 games if each
team plays exactly three games against each opponent.

EXAMPLE 3.9
Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
Katrina sells eggs by piece. On the first day, she sold a half more than half the number of
eggs for sale. On the second day, she sold a half more than half the remaining number of eggs
on the first day. On the third day, she again sold a half more than half the remaining number of
eggs from the second day. Only a dozen eggs were left for the fourth day. How many eggs did
she have originally?
Solution
Understand the Problem. We need to determine the number of eggs before Katrina started
selling them.
Devise a Plan. We could guess and check, but we might need to make several guesses
before we found the correct solution. An algebraic solution might work, but setting up the
necessary equation could be a challenge. Since we know the end result, let us try the method
of working backwards.
Carry Out the Plan. Since only 12 eggs were left, this is equivalent to a half less than half the
number before she started selling eggs on the third day. It follows that half the number is 12.5
which means that there were 25 eggs left on the second day. There were 25.5 . 2 = 51 eggs just
before she started selling eggs on the second day, and so before she started selling eggs on the
first day, there were originally 51.5 . 2 = 103 eggs.
Review the Solution. To check our solution, we start with 103 eggs and proceed through
each day of sale.
Day 1: 103 – (51.5 + 0.5) = 103 – 52 = 51
Day 2: 51 – (25.5 + 0.5) = 51 – 26 = 25
Day 4: 25 – (12.5 + 0.5) = 25 – 13 = 12

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 EXAMPLE 3.10
Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
The product of ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are of the same
age. What are the ages of the teenagers?
Solution
Understand the Problem. We need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from the
list 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, that have a product of 4590.
Devise a Plan. This problem is best solved by guessing at an answer based on given facts. If
we represent the ages by x, y, and z, then xyz = 4590. We are unable to solve this equation, but
we notice that 4590 ends in zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor of 5, which means
at least one of the numbers we seek is an even number and at least one number must have 5
as a factor. The only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus 15 is one of the three
numbers and at least one of the two numbers is even. At this point we try to solve by guessing
and checking.
Carry Out the Plan.
15 . 16 . 18 = 4,320
15 . 16 . 19 = 4,560
15 . 17 . 18 = 4,590
The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.
Review the Solution. Because 15 . 17 . 18 = 4,590 and each of the ages represents the age of
a teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a factor
of 4590, so there are no other solutions.

EXAMPLE 3.11
Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
A paper fan and a visor together cost ₱ 100.00. The visor costs ₱ 90.00 more than the paper
fan. What are the individual costs of the visor and the fan?
Understand the problem .After reading the problem for the first time, you may think that
the visor costs ₱90.00 pesos and the paper fan costs ₱10.00. The sum of these costs is also
₱100.00, but the cost of the visor is only ₱80.00 more than the cost of the fan. We need to find
two amounts that differ by ₱90.00 and whose sum is ₱100.00.
Devise a Plan. The use of equations is one way to solve this problem. Write an equation
using h for the cost of the paper fan and h+90 for the cost of the visor.
Carry Out the Plan.
h + h + 90 = 100
2h + 90 = 100
h=5
The cost of the paper fan is ₱5.00 and the cost of the visor is ₱ 5.00 + ₱ 90.00= ₱ 95.00.
Review the Solution. The sum of the costs is ₱5.00 + ₱95.00 = ₱100.00, and the cost of the
visor is ₱90.00 more than the cost of the paper fan.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 42 08.10.2018 2:18:54 PM
 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Work on the following situations using inductive reasoning. What is the next term in the
list? Write the answers on the blank.
1. 5, 14, 27, 65
2. 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207
3. A, D, C, H, E, L, G
4. 11, 121, 12321, 1234321

B. Use the diagram to determine whether the statement is true or false. If false, find a
counter-example.
1. If an animal is a beagle, then it is a dog.

2. If it is an animal, then it is a dog.

3. All animals are beagles.

4. All beagles are animals.

C. Verify that each statement below is false by finding a counter-example.

1. If X is a real number, then its square is greater than itself.

2. If X is a real number, then the square root of its square is equal to itself.

3. No one passed in yesterday’s test. Robert is absent yesterday. Robert will get the
test today and pass.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 44 08.10.2018 2:18:54 PM
 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:
Use Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy to solve the following problems.
1. A true or false quiz contains 10 questions. In how many ways can a student answer the
questions if the student answers two of the questions with false and the rest with true?

2. If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one another, how many
handshakes will there be?

3. Determine the unit’s digit of 4320.

4. Gardo picks a number. He doubles the number, squares the result, divides the square
by 3, subtracts 30 from the quotient, and gets 18. What are the possible numbers that
Gardo could have picked? What operation does Gardo perform which prevents us from
knowing the exact number he picked?

5. The bacteria in a petri dish grow in a manner such that each day the number of bacteria
doubles. On what day will the number of bacteria be half of the number present on the
12th day?

6. Assume that the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figure continues.

a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?

b. How many tiles are in the tenth figure of the sequence?

c. Which figure will consist of exactly 419 tiles?

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 7. How many squares are there in the following figure?

8. The number of ducks and pigs in a field totals 35. The total number of legs among them
is 98. Assuming each duck has exactly two legs and each pig has exactly four legs,
determine how many ducks and how many pigs are in the field?

9. A room measures 12 feet by 15 feet. How many 3-foot by 3-foot squares of carpet are
needed to cover the floor of this room?

10. Following the pattern shown in the number sequence below, what is the missing number?
1 8 27? 125 216

11. Suppose Gerry has four pairs of shoes and 12 pairs of socks. How many different pairs of
footwear can Gerry make?

12. In a group of 65 people, 15 are neither drinks milk nor a child. Of this group, 35 drink
milk and 23 are children. How many children in the group who don’t drink milk?

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 LESSON
4 Data Management

STATISTICS has a great influence in almost

all fields of human endeavor. It may have different Torture the data, and it will confess to
anything.
meanings. But what matter is that, to know how to
understand statistics so that we can make the proper Ronald Coase
judgments when a person or a company presents us
with an argument backed by data. There is a need
of statistical data in every walk of life. The word LEARNING OBJECTIVES
“statistics” has been derived from Latin word “status” At the end of the lesson, students are
or the Italian word “statista”, which “Political State” or expected to:
a Government. • organize and present data in
forms that are both meaningful
Statistics plays a vital role in intricacies of life. and useful decision-makers;
It aids in decision-making, summarizes or describes • use a variety of statistical tools to
data, helps to forecast or predict future outcomes, process and manage numerical
aids in making inferences, and helps in comparisons data;
or establishing relationships. In education, statistics • use the method of linear
gives information about a school’s population change. regression and correlations to
predict the value of a variable
In business and economics/government, statistics
given certain conditions; and
helps control and maintenance of quality products and
• advocate the use of statistical
helps a financial analyst make investment decisions data in making important
decisions

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 (human resource allocation).

PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
Human Bingo
Find someone in the class that satisfies the condition given in each box. Let them sign

B I NGO
the space once.

Has traveled Has more

Has been on a Has five or Likes to eat
out of the than three
plane. more pets. pickles.
country. siblings.

Plays Has been to Is home Knows how to

Likes to draw.
basketball. Disney World. schooled. surf.

Favorite color Doesn’t like Is good at

FREE SPACE Has no pets.
is orange. the beach. Math.

Doesn’t like Is afraid of Loves to bake Plays an Is allergic to

chocolate. spiders. cookies. instrument. cats or dogs.

Was born in Loves to eat Doesn’t like

Plays soccer. Loves to sing.
September. cheese. pizza.

DISCUSSION

Divisions of Statistics
Descriptive statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the
characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places or things that was based on
easily verifiable facts. It organizes the presentation, description, and interpretation of data
gathered. It includes the study of relationships among variables.
Inferential statistics is a statistical procedure used to draw inferences for the population
on the basis of information obtained from the sample using the techniques of descriptive
statistics.

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 Table 4.1. Descriptive vs Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
Describes what is or what the data shows Draws conclusions that extend beyond the
immediate data alone

Provides summaries about the sample and the Infers from the sample data what the population
measures might think

Describes the data in hand Infers the nature of a larger (typically infinite) set
of data
Simply describes what’s going on with the data Makes inferences from the data to more general
conditions

Uses sampling techniques Uses sampling distributions and hypothesis testing

Summary measures of data Simple time series analysis, correlation, and
regression

Normal distributions Test on proportion and chi-square test

Example: Example:
Descriptive statistics answers questions like: Inferential statistics answers questions like:
“How many students are interested to take statistics “Is there significant difference in the academic
online?” performance of male and female students in
A basketball player wants to find his average shots statistics?”
for the past 10 games. A politician wants to estimate his chance of winning
in the upcoming senatorial election.

DATA COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA

Types of Data
1. Raw data – data in their original form and structure
2. Grouped data – place in tabular form characterized by class intervals with the
corresponding frequency
3. Primary data – measured and gathered by the researcher who published it
Secondary data – republished by another researcher or agency

Table 4.2. Data-Gathering Techniques

Methods Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Direct or interview Person to person Clarification can easily Costly and time
method exchange of data be done consuming
from interviewer to
interviewee.
Indirect or Responses are written Saves time and money. Problem of retrieval
questionnaire method and given more time to Large number of
answer. Questionnaires samples can be reached.
are given to the
respondents either by
personal delivery or by
mail.
Registration method The respondents Most reliable since it is Data are limited to
provide information in enforced by law. what are listed in the
compliance with certain documents.
laws, policies, rules,
regulations, decrees, or
standard practices.

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 Methods Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Experimental Method The researcher wants Can go beyond plain Lots of threats to
to control the factors description internal or external
affecting the variable validity.
being studied to find
out cause and effect
relationships.
Observation method Utilized to gather data Data can be easily Information may be
regarding attitudes, gathered with the subjected to subjective
behavior or values available time of the judgments.
and cultural pattern researcher since it can
of the samples under be done anytime.
investigation.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN COLLECTING DATA

1. If measurements of some characteristics from people (such as height) are being obtained,
better results will be achieved if the researcher does the measuring instead of asking
the respondent for the value.
2. The method of data collection used may expedite or delay the process. Avoid a medium
that would produce low response rates.
3. Ensure that the sample size is large enough for the required purposes.
4. Ensure that the method used to collect data actually results in a sample that is
representative of the population.

DATA PRESENTATION
The collected data can be presented in three different ways which include textual,
tabular, and graphical presentations.

1. Textual Presentations
Data presented in paragraph or in sentences are said to be in textual form. This includes
enumeration of important characteristics, emphasizing the most significant features, and
highlighting the most striking attributes of the set of data.
EXAMPLE 4.1
Nominally, the peso improved by 1.4 percent as of April 14, 2003 compared to its level in
2002, followed by the Thai baht which gained 0.86 percent; Indonesian rupiah, 0.68 percent;
and Taiwan dollar, 0.2 percent.
Other currencies, on the other hand, depreciated during the same period. The Singapore
dollar fell 2.33 percent. The South Korean won slid 2.14 percent while the Japanese yen dropped
0.61 percent.
(Philippine Daily Inquirer, April 17, 2003. pg. B2)

2. Tabular Presentation
The tabular method makes use of rows and columns. The data are presented in a
systematic and orderly manner, which catches one’s attention and may facilitate the
comprehension and analysis of the data presented. The frequency distribution table (FDT) is
a statistical table showing the frequency or number of observations contained in each of the
defined classes or categories.
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 Parts of Statistical Table
1. Table Heading – includes the table number and the title of the table.
2. Body – main part of the table that contains the information or figures.
3. Stubs or classes – classification or categories describing the data and usually found at the
left most side of the table.
4. Box head – located at the top of the body which includes the stub head, the master
caption, and the column caption.

EXAMPLE 4.2

Frequency Distribution of Student’s Perception

on New Curriculum

PERCEPTION OF
FREQUENCY
LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR
Strongly Favorable 10
Favorable 11
Slightly Favorable 12
Slightly unfavorable 14
Unfavorable 22
Strongly Unfavorable 31
Total 100

3. Graphical Presentation of Data

The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution table or contingency table can
be made interesting and easier to understand when depicted in graphical form. A graph is a
pictorial representation of a given data. Graphs should be have good appearance, should be
accurate, clear, and simple.

Common Types of Graph

1. Scatter graph – a graph used to present measurements or values that are thought to be
related.
Scatter Plot of the Amount of Garbage Discaded
and Household Size
Household Size

Amount of Garbage Discarded (in kg)

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 2. Line chart – graphical presentation of data especially useful for showing trends over a
period of time.
Microsoft at Work

Problems

Bugs Security Holes Backdoors

3. Pie chart – a circular graph that is useful in showing how a total quantity is distributed
among a group of categories. The “pieces of pie” represent the proportions of the total
that fall into each category.
Gender of the Respondents of the Survey

38%
62%

Male Female

4. Column and bar graph – like pie charts, column charts and bar charts are applicable only
to grouped data. They should be used for discrete, grouped data of ordinal or nominal
scale.
Frequency Distribution of Staff Perception of the Leadership
Behavior of the Administration
35

30

25
frequency

20

15

10

0
e
...

bl
e

...

...

...
bl
ly

ra
ly

ly

ly
ra
ng

ht

ht

ht
vo
vo
ro

ig

ig

ig
fa
Fa

Sl

Sl

Sl
St

Un

Rate of Staff Perception

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 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Any single value that is used to identify the “center” of the data or the typical value. Is
referred to the average. Measure of central tendency is the numerical descriptive measures
which indicate or locate the center of a distribution of a set of data.

The Arithmetic Mean

Mean is most commonly known as “average”. Population mean is denoted by the Greek
letter μ (mu) and sample mean is represented by x (x bar).
To determine the ungroup mean, the formula is the summation of x i, going from 1
to n n
Σ i = 1xi
or x =
n
Where n is the number of observations in the sample.
EXAMPLE 4.3
The numbers of students at six different classrooms are 25, 27, 29, 24, 35, and 28. Find the
mean number of students for the classrooms.
n 6
Σ i = 1 x i Σ i = 1 x i 25 + 27 + 29 + 35 + 28 168
x= n = 6 = = = 28
6 6
The average score of the six students is 28.

Properties of Mean
• The sum of the deviations of all measurements in a set from the mean is 0.
• It can be calculated for any set of numerical data, so it always exist.
• A set of numerical data has one and only one mean.
• It lends itself to higher statistical treatment.
• It is the most reliable since it takes into account every item in the set of data.
• It is greatly affected by extreme or deviant values.
• It is used only if the data are interval or ratio and when normally distributed.

Median
The middle position of an arranged values from lowest to highest. Median precedes the
half value of an array and half follows it. It is denoted by Md.
(n + 1)
If the number of observed values (N) is odd, the median position is equal to , and
2
the value of the (n + 1) observation in the array is taken as the median.
th

2
If the N is even, the mean of the two middle values in the array is the median.
x n + x(n/2) + 1
Md = /2
2
EXAMPLE 4.4
Find the median of the given data set: 23, 43, 32, 12, and 54.
Step 1: X1 X2 X3 X4 X5
12 23 32 43 54
(n + 1)
Since the number of observed data is odd, use the formula :
2
(n + 1) (5 + 1) 6
Step 2: N = 5 Md = = = = 3rd
2 2 2
The median is in the 3rd position on the array which is 32.
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 EXAMPLE 4.5
Find the median of the given data set: 23, 43, 32, 12, 32, 54, 12, and 32.
Step 1: X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8
12 12 23 32 32 32 43 54
x n + x(n/2) + 1
The number of data observed is 8, which is even, Md /2 will be used.
2
4 +5
th th
32 + 32 64
Step 2: N = 8 Md = = = = 32
2 2 2
The median is 32.

Properties of Median
It is the score or class in a distribution below which 50% of the score falls and above
which another 50% lies.
• It is not affected by extreme or deviant values.
• It is appropriate to use when there are extreme or deviant values.
• It is used when the data are ordinal.
• It exists in both quantitative and qualitative data.

Mode
Mode is the most frequently observed value that occurs. Some data sets do not have a
mode because each value occurs only once. On the other hand, some data sets can have more
than one mode. This happens when the data set has two or more values of equal frequency
which is greater than that of any other value.
EXAMPLE 4.6
Identify the mode(s) of the following data sets.

Data set A: 6 8 5 4 9 5 3
Mode is unimodal and it is 5 because it has the most number of occurrence.

Data set B: 6 5 4 9 5 3 5 6 3 8 6
Mode is bimodal where in 5 and 6 which occurs both three times in the data set.

Data set C: Bus Train Car Bus Car Car Plane

Car Train Bus Plane Train Car Bus
Data set is unimodal which the car has the highest occurrence.

Weighted Mean
Weighted average is a mean calculated by giving values in a data set more influence
according to some attribute of the data. It is an average in which each quantity to be averaged
is assigned a weight, and these weightings determine the relative importance of each
quantity on the average. To find the weighted mean, find the sum of the products formed by
multiplying each number by its assigned weight
Σn w x
or weighted mean = i =n 1 i i
Σ i = 1w i

where w = weight of each value; and x = individual value

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 EXAMPLE 4.7
Ely wants to determine if he passed the subject. Given the following data, did Ely pass the
subject?
Grading System Weighted Percentage Ely’s Score
Quizzes 25% 74
Recitation 15% 90
Assignment 10% 85
Seatwork 20% 65
Term Examination 30% 73
TOTAL 100%

(74 × 25%) + (90 × 15%) + (85 × 10%) + (65 × 20%) + (73 × 30%)
Ely’s Grade =
100%
18.5 + 13.5 + 8.5 + 13 + 21.5
=
100%
= 75.4%

Ely passed the subject with a grade of 75.4.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Measures of dispersion indicate the extent to which individual items in a series are
scattered about an average. It is used to determine the extent of the scatter so that steps
may be taken to control the existing variation. It is also used as a measure of reliability of
the average value.
These are also the measures of the average distance of each observation from the center
of the distribution. It also indicates the homogeneity or heterogeneity of a particular group.
A small measure of variability would indicate that the data are stipend;
1. clustered closely around the mean… or… far away from the mean
2. more homogeneous … or… heterogeneous
3. less variable … or … more variable
4. more consistent … or … less consistent
5. more uniformly distributed … or … less uniformly distributed

Measures of Absolute Dispersion

The measures of absolute dispersion are expressed in the units of the original
observations. They cannot be used to compare variations of two data sets when the average
of these data set differ a lot in value or when the observations differ in unit of measurement.
Range is the most unstable and unreliable measure of dispersion because it can easily
be affected by the extreme values. It can be determined by finding the difference between
the largest and smallest values.
Range (R) = maximum value – minimum value

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 EXAMPLE 4.8
The IQ scores of 5 members of the Gonzalvo’s family are 112,114,109,120 and 116. Find the
range.
Solution
Arrange the scores from lowest to highest, then subtract the lowest score to the highest
score.
R = 120 – 109 = 11
The range of the IQ score is 11.

Variance describes how the data is spread out. It is the average of the squared differences
from the mean. A value of zero means that there is no variability. All the numbers in the data
set are the same.
The population variance is denoted by σ2 and can be calculated using the formula:
ΣN (x – μ)2
σ2 = i = 1 i
N
where x = individual value; μ = mean of population; and N = population size

Standard deviation can be obtained by taking the square root of the variance. Standard
deviation is the most reliable measure of dispersion.
The population standard deviation is denoted by σ and can be calculated using the
formula:
σ2 =
ΣNi=
= 1 (x1(xi
Ni −2 u)2
i – μ) ∑
NN

The population variance σ2, can be estimated by the sample variance, s2 where
∑ 1(xi −2 u) ∑
2
ΣNi=
Ni
= 1 (x i – x)
ΣNi=
= 1 x i 1(xi
Ni 2 2
– (Σ−Niu)
= 1 x i)
2

s 2 = =
n –N1 n(n
N – 1)

and the population standard deviation σ, can be estimated by the sample standard deviation
s, where
s =
nΣ= i = 1 x1(xi
Ni
N 2 N 2
− u)
i – (Σ ∑
i = 1 x i)
2

.
n(n
N – 1)

EXAMPLE 4.9
A sample of five households showed the following number of household members: 3,8,5,4,
and 4. Find the standard deviation.
Solution
xi2 = 32 + 82 + 52 + 42 + 42 = 130

xi 2 = (3 + 8 + 5 + 4 + 4)2 = (24)2 = 576

=
∑
n Σ= – (Σ− u)x )
Ni x 1(xi
N
i=1 i
n(n – 1)
2 N
i=1
=
∑2
5(130)
i= 2

5(4)
576 − u)∑
Ni –1(xi 74=
= 20 = 1.924
2
Ni 1(xi − u) 2

N N N

The standard deviation is 1.924. This means that the average distance of data are 1.924
apart.

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 Measures of Relative Dispersion
Measures of relative dispersion are unitless and are used when one wishes to compare
the scatterings of one distribution with another distribution.
The coefficient of variation (CV) is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean and is
usually expressed in percentage. It is computed as:
σ2
CV = μ × 100%

EXAMPLE 4.10
A company analyst studied recent measurements made with two different instruments.
The first measure obtained a mean of 4.96 mm with standard deviation of 0.022 mm. The second
measure obtained a mean of 6.48 mm with a standard deviation of 0.032 mm. Which of the two
instruments was relatively more precise?
Solution
0.022
Instrument #1: CV = × 100% = 0.44%
4.96

0.032
Instrument #2: CV = × 100% = 0.49%
6.48

Instrument # 1 was relatively more precise than instrument #2.

Standard Score
The standard score measures how many standard deviations an observation is above the
mean. Observed values above the mean have positive z-scores while values below the mean
have negative z-score. The standard score can be computed as:
Population Standard Score Sample Standard Score
x– μ x– x
Z= ; Z=
σ s ;

where where
x = observe value x = observe value
μ = population mean x = sample mean
σ = population standard deviation s = sample standard deviation

The standard score is useful for comparing two values from different series especially
when these two series differ with respect to the mean or standard deviation or both are
expressed in different units.
EXAMPLE 4.11
Joel got a grade of 78 in English and a grade of 93 in History. The mean grade in English is
68 and the standard deviation is 8, where as in History, the mean grade is 80 and the standard
deviation is 15. In which subject did Joel perform better?
Solution
93 – 80 78 – 68
Zhistory = = 0.87; Zenglish = = 1.25
15 8

The z-score of English is higher than the z-score in history which means that Joel performed
better in English.

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 EXAMPLE 4.12
A university had a policy that the student whose grade drops beyond two standard
deviations below the mean will fail. If the mean grade of students who took Elementary Statistics
is 76.8 and standard deviation is equal to 5.65, does Warren fail if he gets a grade of 66?
Solution
66 – 76.8
Z= = -1.91
5.65

Since the z-score in not beyond 2 standard deviations below the mean, Warren will not
fail the course.

MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION OR FRACTILES

Fractile is the division of an array into equivalent subgroups. It identifies the position of
a value in an array. An array divided into hundred equal parts is percentile. In quartile, array
is divided into four equal parts and decile divides an array into 10 equal parts.
th
General formula to is: i(n + 1)
F
where i = term of interest; n = number of observed values; and F = Fractile (percentile = 100;
decile = 10; quartile = 4)
Percentiles (Pk). Values in an array are subdivided into 100 equal parts. For instance,
P1 is read as first percentile which means that the value is greater than 1% of the observed
values in the array. P2, read as second percentile, value is greater than 2% of the observed
values in the array, and so on.
EXAMPLE 4.13
The following were the scores of 12 students in 20-item quiz, find the 80 th percentile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13
Solution
Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18
Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 80; n = 12; and F = 100 (percentile)
th th
i(n + 1) 80(12 + 1)
P80 = = = 10.4 th or the 11th position
F 100

The 80 th percentile is 17, which means that 80% of the scores are below 17.

Deciles (Dk). An array are subdivided into 10 equal parts. For instance, D1 is read as first
decile which means that the value is greater than 10% of the observed values in the array.
D2, read as second decile, is greater than 20% of the observed values in the array, and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.14
The following were the scores of 12 students in 20-item quiz, find the 6th decile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13

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 Solution
Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18
Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 6; n = 12 and F = 10 (decile)
th th th
i(n + 1) 6(12 + 1) 78
D6 = = = = 7.8th or the 8th position
F 10 10

The 6th decile is 11, which means that 60% of the scores are below 11.

Quartiles (Qk) Quartile subdivided an array into four equal parts. For instance, Q1 is read
as first quartile which means that the value is greater than 25% of the observed values in
the array, Q2, read as second quartile, value is greater than 50% of the observed values in the
array, and so on.

EXAMPLE 4.15
The following were the scores of 12 students in 20-item quiz, find the 1st quartile.

4 3 6 12 11 6 18 5 6 6 17 13
Solution
Step 1: Arrange the data from lowest to highest.

3 4 5 6 6 6 6 11 12 13 17 18
Step 2: Identify the values on the formula: i = 6; n = 12 and F = 4 (quartile)
th th th
i(n + 1) 1(12 + 1) 13
Q1 = = = 3.25th or the 4th position
F 4 4

The 1st quartile is 6, which means that 25% of the scores are below 6.

SHAPE OF A DISTRIBUTION
Normal Distribution. It is a distribution with a bell-shaped appearance. In a normal
distribution, the mean = median = mode.
No. of Correct
f
Normal Distribution Answer
6 1 1
5 2 2
4 3 4
3 4 5
2 5 4
1 6 2
0 7 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 N 19

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 Skewness (SK). It refers to the degree of symmetry or asymmetry of a distribution,
in relation to the center, while Kurtosis (Ku) refers to the peakedness or flatness of a
distribution.
A normal distribution has a coefficient of skewness (SK) of zero or about zero. As the
skewness (SK) departs
1. A negative value indicates a skewed to the left or a negatively skewed distribution.

No. of Correct
Skewed to the Left Distribution f
Answer

8 1 0
2 0
6
3 1
4 4 2
5 5
2
6 7
0 7 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N 19

A distribution is skewed to the left if the bulk of the distribution is on the right. This
is otherwise known as a negatively skewed distribution.

2. A positive value indicates a skewed to the right or positively skewed distribution.

No. of Correct
Skewed to the Left Distribution f
Answer

8 1 4
2 7
6
3 5
4 4 2
5 1
2
6 0
0 7 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
N 19

A skewed to the right distribution is one whose bulk of the distribution is on the left.
This is otherwise known as a positively skewed distribution.

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 Kurtosis (KU): It refers to the peakedness or flatness of a distribution.

Mesokurtic is a normal distribution Leptokurtic is more peaked Platykurtic is flatter or shorter than the
wherein kurtosis is zero. or taller than the normal normal distribution wherein kurtosis is
distribution wherein kurtosis less than zero.
is greater than zero.

Normal Probability Measures

Standard Deviations

99.74

95.44

28.26

34.13% 34.13%
13.59% 34.59%
2.15% 2.15%
.13% .13%
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3

The normal probability distribution is a continuous probability distribution which is both

symmetrical and mesokurtic. The curve representing the normal probability distribution is
often described as being “bell-shaped”. This is the Normal Curve.

Properties of Normal Curve

1. The mean = median = mode.
2. It is symmetrical about the mean, so the half the normal curve has an area of 0.5 or 50%.
3. The tails or ends are asymptotic relative to the horizontal axis.
4. The total area under the normal curve is 1.0 or 100%.
5. The normal curve area may be subdivided into standard deviations, at least 3 to the left
and 3 to the right.
6. Using the empirical rule, 68% of the data lie within 1 sd. of the mean; 95% of the data lie
within 2 sd. of the mean; and 99.7% of the data lie within 3 sd. of the mean;

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 Areas under the Normal Curve
The total area under the normal curve logically represents the sum of all probabilities
for a random variable. Hence, the area under the normal curve is one. Also, the standard
normal curve represents a normal curve with mean 0 and standard deviation. The area
under the normal curve may represent several things like the probability of an event, the
percentile rank of score, or the percentage distribution of the whole population.
The first step in finding areas under the normal curve is to convert the normal curve of
any given variable into standardized normal curve. The formula to be used is as follows:
x–x
Z=
s

where x observe value; x = sample mean; and s = sample standard deviation

EXAMPLE 4.16
Jose’s grade in Math is 80. His grade in English is 78. The section where he belongs got a
mean grade of 86 in Math and 75 in English. The standard deviation for both subjects is 5. In
which subject does he perform better?
Solution
x–x
Using the formula: Z =
s
80 – 86 78 – 75
Zmath = = -1.2 ; Zenglish = = 0.6
5 5
Jose’s grade in Math has a negative z-score of -1.2 which means that he got a grade lower
than the average grade of the class. While his grade in English has a positive z-score which
means that he got a grade higher than the average grade of the class. Therefore, Jose performed
better in Engish.

EXAMPLE 4.17
Consider the mean and the standard deviation in previous example. If Janette, Jose’s
classmates, has a z-score of 1.75 in English, what is her grade in English?
Solution
x – 86
= 1.75
5
x – 86 = 1.75 (5)
x =94.75
Janette’s grade in English is 94.75.

Some considerations and reminders when solving statistical problems using the areas
under the normal curve table. The total area under the normal curve is 1 or 100%. Since the
normal curve is symmetrical about the mean, the half of the normal curve has an area of 0.5
or 50%. The table you will use gives only the area to the right of the mean. The given area in
the table is the area from z = 0 to ± z area is always positive but z can be positive or negative.
Note: Finding the areas under the normal curve is the same as finding the probability.

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 Table 4.3. Areas under Normal Curve
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
.0 .0000 .0040 .0080 .0120 .0160 .0199 .0239 .0279 .0319 .0359
.1 .0398 .0438 .0478 .0517 .0557 .0596 .0636 .0675 .0714 .0753
.2 .0793 .0832 .0871 .0910 .0948 .0987 .1026 .1064 .1103 .1141
.3 .1179 .1217 .1255 .1293 .1331 .1368 .1406 .1443 .1480 .1517
.4 .1554 .1591 .1628 .1664 .1700 .1736 .1772 .1808 .1844 .1879
.5 .1915 .1950 .1985 .2019 .2054 .2088 .2123 .2157 .2190 .2224
.6 .2257 .2291 .2324 .2357 .2389 .2422 .2454 .2486 .2517 .2549
.7 .2580 .2611 .2642 .2673 .2703 .2734 .2764 .2794 .2823 .2852
.8 .2881 .2910 .2939 .2967 .2995 .3023 .3051 .3078 .3106 .3133
.9 .3159 .3186 .3212 .3238 .3264 .3289 .3315 .3340 .3365 .3389
1.0 .3413 .3438 .3461 .3485 .3508 .3531 .3554 .3577 .3599 .3621
1.1 .3643 .3665 .3686 .3708 .3729 .3749 .3770 .3790 .3810 .3830
1.2 .3849 .3869 .3888 .3907 .3925 .3944 .3962 .3980 .3997 .4015
1.3 .4032 .4049 .4066 .4082 .4099 .4115 .4131 .4147 .4162 .4177
1.4 .4192 .4207 .4222 .4236 .4251 .4265 .4279 .4292 .4306 .4319
1.5 .4332 .4345 .4357 .4370 .4382 .4394 .4406 .4418 .4429 .4441
1.6 .4452 .4463 .4474 .4484 .4495 .4505 .4515 .4525 .4535 .4545
1.7 .4554 .4564 .4573 .4582 .4591 .4599 .4608 .4616 .4625 .4633
1.8 .4641 .4649 .4656 .4664 .4671 .4678 .4686 .4693 .4699 .4706
1.9 .4713 .4719 .4726 .4732 .4738 .4744 .4750 .4756 .4761 .4767
2.0 .4772 .4778 .4783 .4788 .4793 .4798 .4803 .4808 .4812 .4817
2.1 .4821 .4826 .4830 .4834 .4838 .4842 .4846 .4850 .4854 .4857
2.2 .4861 .4864 .4868 .4871 .4875 .4878 .4881 .4884 .4887 .4890
2.3 .4893 .4896 .4898 .4901 .4904 .4906 .4909 .4911 .4913 .4916
2.4 .4918 .4920 .4922 .4925 .4927 .4929 .4931 .4932 .4934 .4936
2.5 .4938 .4940 .4941 .4943 .4945 .4946 .4948 .4949 .4951 .4952
2.6 .4953 .4955 .4956 .4957 .4959 .4960 .4961 .4962 .4963 .4964
2.7 .4965 .4966 .4967 .4968 .4969 .4970 .4971 .4972 .4973 .4974
2.8 .4974 .4975 .4976 .4977 .4977 .4978 .4979 .4979 .4980 .4981
2.9 .4981 .4982 .4982 .4983 .4984 .4984 .4985 .4985 .4986 .4986
3.0 .4987 .4987 .4987 .4988 .4988 .4989 .4989 .4989 .4990 .4990
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09

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 EXAMPLE 4.18
Find the area from z = 0 to z = 1.2
Solution
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.
z = 0 has area 0.0000
and z = 1.2 has area 0.3849
area = 0.0000 + 0.3849 = 0.3849
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

EXAMPLE 4.19
Find the area P(-1.30≤ z ≤ 2.0)
Solution
Step 1: Shade the required region.
Step 2: Find the area using the table.
z = -1.3 has area 0.4032
and z = 2 has area 4772
area = 0.4032 + 0.4772 = 0.8804
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

EXAMPLE 4.20
The average grade in the college entrance exam is 88 with standard deviation of 9. There
are 2,500 examinees for the year 2018. Determine the number of students
(a) whose average is equal to or between 81 and 86.
(b) whose average is 90 and above.
Solution
(a) First, change the grades into z-scores
81 – 88 86 – 88
Z= = -0.78 ; Z = = - 0.22
9 9

Area of -0.78 = 0.2823 Area of – 0.22 = 0.0871

Note: If the z-score has the same side reference to the mean, the operation to be
used is subtraction.
Area = 0.2823 – 0.0871 = 0.1952; then multiply the area to the number of examinees.
2,500 × 0.1952 = 488.
This means that out of
2,500 examinees, 19.52%
or 488 examinees got a
score between 81-86.
(b) Change the grade into
z-scores
90 – 88
Z= = 0.22
9

Area of 0.22= 0.0871 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

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 Note: The area on the table uses only the area to the right of the mean. The half
of the normal curve has an area of 0.5 since the area we got to the table. Subtract the
area to 0.5.
Area = 0.5000 – 0.0871 = 0.4129; then multiply the area to the number of examinees.
2,500 × 0.4129 = 1,032.25 or 1,033.
This means that out of 2,500 examinees, 41.29% or 1,033 examinees got a score 90
and above.

CORRELATION AND REGRESSION

When comparing two different variables, there are two questions to be considered: “Is
there a relationship between two variables?” and “How strong is that relationship?” These
questions can be answered using regression and correlation. Regression answers whether
there is a relationship and correlation answers how strong the linear relationship is. A
scatter plot is a graphical representation of the relation between two or more variables. In
the scatter plot of two variables x and y, each point on the plot is an x-y pair. An inspection of
a scatterplot can give an impression of whether two variables are related and the direction
of their relationship.
Correlation is a statistical measure that indicates the linear relationship or association
between variables, but no causal relationship is implied. Descriptive statistics that expresses
the degree of relation between two variables is called correlation coefficient (ρ). Sample
correlation coefficient is denoted by Correlation also tells the strength and the direction
of linear relationship. A positive correlation indicates the extent to which those variables
increase or decrease in parallel; a negative correlation indicates the extent to which one
variable increases as the other decreases. The range of values of the correlation coefficient
is from -1 to +1. If there is a perfect positive linear correlation between variables, the value of
is equal to +1. On the other hand, a perfect negative linear correlation between variables has a
value for r that is equal to 1. No linear correlation between variables has a value of r equals 0.
Since correlation is an effect sized, we can describe the strength of the correlation using
the guide that Evans (1996) suggested for the absolute value of r:
• .00-.19 very weak or negligible correlation
• .20-.39 weak or low correlation
• .40-.59 moderate correlation
• .60-.79 strong or moderately high correlation
• .80-1.0 very strong or high correlation
For example, a correlation value of 0.51 would be a moderate positive correlation.

Scatter Plot of Correlation Coefficient

Positive Linear Negative Linear No Relationship None or Weak

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 Nonlinear or Linear or
Weak Linear Strong Linear Curvelinear Exponential?

One way to determine the value of correlation coefficient is by using Pearson Product
Moment Coeffient or Pearson r, which the formula is:

r=
n ( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
n ( ∑ x ) − ( ∑ x )  n ( ∑ y ) − ( ∑ y ) 
 2 
2 
2

Where n = number of data pairs

x = observed data for the independent variable
y = observed data for the dependent variable

Pearson r is used for determining the degree of significance of the correlation

coefficient. This describes how the two variables are related by chance, and a hypothesis
test for r is done to help decide whether the observed r could have emerged by chance or
not. In hypothesis testing, the sample correlation coefficient is used to estimate the true
correlation coefficient r that would be observed if all population values were obtained. This
true correlation coefficient is usually given the Greek symbol ρ or rho.
The null hypothesis states that there is no significant correlation between the two
variables X and Y. That is, if ρ is the true correlation coefficient for the two variables X and Y,
when all population values are observed, then the null hypothesis is Ho : ρ = 0 .
The alternative hypothesis could be any one of three forms, with Ha: ρ ≠0, ρ < 0 or ρ > 0.
This means that there is a significant correlation between the two variables X and Y.
The test statistic for the hypothesis test is the sample or observed correlation coefficient.
T-test is a test statistic used to assess the relationship on various samples that are drawn in
each of sample size. The formula of t-test is:
n −2
t =r
1 − r2

Where the degrees of freedom (df) = n – 2.

The null hypothesis is rejected at a specific level if there is a significant difference
between the value of r and 0. Otherwise, the null hypothesis is accepted at a specific level if
value of r has no significant difference from 0.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

1. State the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (Ha).
2. Choose the level of significance α.
3. Select the appropriate test statistic and establish the critical region. Formulate decision
rule.

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 4. Collect the data and compute the value of the test statistic from the sample data.
5. Make the decision. Reject Ho if the value of the test statistic is in the critical region,
otherwise, do not reject Ho.

EXAMPLE 4.21
A coach conducted an investigation about the efficiency of physical training on the weight
of his athletes. Pre-training and post – training weights are listed below, determine if (a) there is
a relationship between the two variables; (b) physical training is effective.

Pre-training weight (X) 67 84 65 69 72 74 66 69 73 80

Post-training weight (Y) 64 80 65 67 70 73 66 67 70 77
Solution (a) Arrange the data in example 4.21 as shown in the table below.

Trainee X Y XY X2 Y2
A 67 64 4288 4489 4096
B 84 80 6720 7056 6400
C 65 65 4225 4225 4225
D 69 67 4623 4761 4489
E 72 70 5040 5184 4900
F 74 73 5402 5476 5329
G 66 66 4356 4356 4356
H 69 67 4623 4761 4489
I 73 70 5110 5329 4900
J 80 77 6160 6400 5929
Total 719 699 50547 52037 49113
Substitute the values to the formula of r.

r=
(∑ xy ) − (∑ x )(∑ y )
n

n ( ∑ x ) − ( ∑ x )  n ( ∑ y ) − ( ∑ y ) 
  2  2
2
  
10 ( 50,547 ) − ( 719 )( 699 )
r=
10 ( 52,037 ) − ( 719 )2  10 ( 49,113 ) − ( 699 )2 
   
r = 0.98392

The correlation coefficient 0.98392 tells that there is a very strong positive correlation
between the pre-training and post-training of the athletes.

(b) Test the Significance of the correlation. Use α = 0.05; n =10; and = 0.98392

1. Ho: ρ = 0
Ha: ρ 0

2. Level of significance: α = 0.05

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 3. Critical value of t-test – 2 tailed
df = 8; tα/2 = 2.306 (refer to the t distribution table)
Decision Rule: Reject Ho if │tc │> tα/2 ; otherwise, fail to reject Ho.
4. Computation:
n−2 10 − 2
=tc r = 0.98392 = 15.53332
1 − r2 1 − ( 0.98392 )
2

5. Since tc is greater than tα/2, then reject Ho. 15.53332 >2.306 Ho. There is a significant
difference in the pre-training and post-training weights of the athletes. Moreover, it
has a very strong positive correlation. Therefore, the physical training is effective.

Correlation and Causation

When two variables have a large positive or negative correlation with each other, there
is often a tendency to regard the two variables as causally related. The following relationship
occur:
1. There is a direct cause and effect relationship between the variables; that is; x caused, y.
2. There is a reverse cause and effect relationship between the variables; that is ,y caused, x.
3. The relationship between the variables may be caused by a third variable.
4. There may be a complexity of interrelationship among many variables.
5. The relationship may be coincidental.

In a simple relationship (x, y), it is composed of independent or predictor variable and

dependent response variable. Regression analysis determines where there is an independent
variable that is used to predict the dependent variable. It explores relationships that can be
readily described by straight lines or their generalization to many dimensions. When there
is a single continuous dependent variable and a single independent variable, the analysis is
called a simple linear regression analysis and can be expressed in this form:
Y = a + bx
Where Y = predicted value of the dependent variable
Σy Σx
a = the y – intercept ; a = –b → y – bx
n n
n(Σxy) – (Σx) (Σy)
b = slope of the line ; b =
n(Σx 2) – (Σx)2

Given data points (x i , y i) a and b shall now be chosen in the way that the corresponding
linear line will have the best fit for the given data. The criteria for best fit used in regression
analysis is the sum of the squared differences between the data points and the line itself,
that is the y deviations; thus, the closer the points to the line, the better the fit and the
prediction will be.
The coefficient of determination (r2) is the number that expresses the proportion of the
total variation in the values of the dependent variables. Coefficient of determination can be
obtained by squaring the correlation coefficient r.
Coefficient of Determination (r2) = r2 × 100%

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 EXAMPLE 4.22
From the example 21, Use the equation of regression line to predict the efficiency of
the physical training given that the standard athlete’s weight is 65, and determine how much
variations of athletes’ weight is due to the variations of the physical training.
Trainee X Y XY X2
A 67 64 4288 4489
B 84 80 6720 7056
C 65 65 4225 4225
D 69 67 4623 4761
E 72 70 5040 5184
F 74 73 5402 5476
G 66 66 4356 4356
H 69 67 4623 4761
I 73 70 5110 5329
J 80 77 6160 6400
Total 719 699 50547 52037
Solution
Slope of the regression line
n(Σ xy) – (Σ x)(Σy) 10(50,547) – (719)(699)
b= = = 0.8475
n(Σ x2) – (Σ x)2 10(52,037) – (719)2

y-intercept
Σy – b Σ x = 699 – (0.8475) 719 = 8.965
a=
n n 10 10

Regression equation:
Y = a +bx = 8.965 + 0.8475x
Solve for the efficiency of the physical training if the standard athlete’s weight is 65.
Y = 8.965 + 0.8475(65) = 64.0525
Calculating the coefficient of determination.
r2 = (0.98392)2 × 100% = 96.81%

From the physical training given, the athletes can obtain a weight of 64, and 96.81% of the
variation in the physical training is accounted for the variations in the weight of the athletes. The
remaining 3.19% is cause by other variables, which is called the coefficient of alienation.

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 2004 AP® STATISTICS FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

Probability p

t
Tail probability p

df .25 .20 .15 .10 .05 .025 .02 .01 .005 .0025 .001 .0005

1 1.000 1.376 1.963 3.078 6.314 12.71 15.89 31.82 63.66 127.3 318.3 636.6

2 .816 1.061 1.386 1.886 2.920 4.303 4.849 6.965 9.925 14.09 22.33 31.60

3 .765 .978 1.250 1.638 2.353 3.182 3.482 4.541 5.841 7.453 10.21 12.92

4 .741 .941 1.190 1.533 2.132 2.776 2.999 3.747 4.604 5.598 7.173 8.610

5 .727 .920 1.156 1.476 2.015 2.571 2.757 3.365 4.032 4.773 5.893 6.869

6 .718 .906 1.134 1.440 1.943 2.447 2.612 3.143 3.707 4.317 5.208 5.959

7 .711 .896 1.119 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.517 2.998 3.499 4.029 4.785 5.408

8 .706 .889 1.108 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.449 2.896 3.355 3.833 4.501 5.041

9 .703 .883 1.100 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.398 2.821 3.250 3.690 4.297 4.781

10 .700 .879 1.093 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.359 2.764 3.169 3.581 4.144 4.587

11 .697 .876 1.088 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.328 2.718 3.106 3.497 4.025 4.437

12 .695 .873 1.083 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.303 2.681 3.055 3.428 3.930 4.318

13 .694 .870 1.079 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.282 2.650 3.012 3.372 3.852 4.221

14 .692 .868 1.076 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.264 2.624 2.977 3.326 3.787 4.140

15 .691 .866 1.074 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.249 2.602 2.947 3.286 3.733 4.073

16 .690 .865 1.071 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.235 2.583 2.921 3.252 3.686 4.015

17 .689 .863 1.069 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.224 2.567 2.898 3.222 3.646 3.965

18 .688 .862 1.067 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.214 2.552 2.878 3.197 3.611 3.922

19 .688 .861 1.066 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.205 2.539 2.861 3.174 3.579 3.883

20 .687 .860 1.064 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.197 2.528 2.845 3.153 3.552 3.850

21 .686 .859 1.063 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.189 2.518 2.831 3.135 3.527 3.819

22 .686 .858 1.061 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.183 2.508 2.819 3.119 3.505 3.792

23 .685 .858 1.060 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.177 2.500 2.807 3.104 3.485 3.768

24 .685 .857 1.059 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.172 2.492 2.797 3.091 3.467 3.745

25 .684 .856 1.058 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.167 2.485 2.787 3.078 3.450 3.725

26 .684 .856 1.058 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.162 2.479 2.779 3.067 3.435 3.707

27 .684 .855 1.057 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.158 2.473 2.771 3.057 3.421 3.690

28 .683 .855 1.056 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.154 2.467 2.763 3.047 3.408 3.674

29 .683 .854 1.055 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.150 2.462 2.756 3.038 3.396 3.659

30 .683 .854 1.055 1.310 13

1.697 2.042 2.147 2.457 2.750 3.030 3.385 3.646

40 .681 .851 1.050 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.123 2.423 2.704 2.971 3.307 3.551

$ 50 .679 .849 1.047 1.299 1.676 2.009 2.109 2.403 2.678 2.937 3.2616 3.496

60 .679 .848 1.045 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.099 2.390 2.660 2.915 3.232 3.460

80 .678 .846 1.043 1.292 1.664 1.990 2.088 2.374 2.639 2.887 3.195 3.416

100 .677 .845 1.042 1.290 1.660 1.984 2.081 2.364 2.626 2.871 3.174 3.390

1000 .675 .842 1.037 1.282 1.646 1.962 2.056 2.330 2.581 2.813 3.098 3.300

00 .674 .841 1.036 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.054 2.326 2.576 2.807 3.091 3.291

50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 95% 96% 98% 99% 99.5% 99.8% 99.9%

Confidence level C

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Read the research article, then classify whether each statement is Descriptive or
Inferential. Write DS if it is descriptive statistics and IS if inferential statistics in the
space provided for each number. The number refers to the previous statement.

Philippine Economic Update: Investing in the Future

In 2017, the Philippines was among the top three growth performers in the region III
(1) . The Philippine economy grew from 6.9 percent year-on-year in 2016 to 6.7 percent
year-on-year in 2017. (2)
Sustained economic growth is likely to continue to contribute to poverty reduction.
(3) Under the assumption that the responsiveness of the poverty rate to economic
growth is projected to decline from 27.0 percent in 2015 to 22.9 percent and 21.7 percent in 2018
and 2019, respectively. (4) These projections would imply a continuing trend of one
million Filipinos being lifted out of poverty each year. (5)
In 2020, growth is expected to level at 6.6 percent. (6) The economy is currently
growing at its potential, making productive investment in physical and human capital essential
so that the economy can continue to grow along its current growth trajectory.
(7)
In recent years, the Philippine economy has made great strides in delivering inclusive
growth, evidenced by the declining poverty rates and a falling Gini coefficient. (8)
Unemployment has reached historic low rates, but underemployment remains high, near its 18-
20 percent decade-long average. (9) Employment increased between 2006 and 2015,
mean wages remained stagnant, with only a four percent increase in real terms over the same
period. (10)
Source: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/philippines/publication/philippines-economic-update-
investing-in-the-future

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 72 08.10.2018 2:18:58 PM
 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Identify the best data collection method to use in each described objectives. Write your
answer in the space provided after each item.

1. To differentiate the actuations and actions of elementary pupils

from high school students.
2. To identify the effects of trainings and physical workshops in
the Body Mass Index (BMI) of dancers.
3. To determine the proportion of dismissed students from the
total number of enrolled students.
4. To identify the students’ preferred type of examination.
5. To know the teachers’ opinion on the K to 12 program of the
Basic Education Curriculum.

B. Identify in each situation the possible errors or difficulties that may be encountered
during data collection.
1. You are asked to conduct a study on the increase on the number of enrolees for
education courses in Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology from 2008-
2017. What will you do in order to systematically obtain the data of enrolment?

2. Your superior in a managerial business required you to conduct a survey on the

quality of the services your company offered to your customers. The entry of the
customers to your establishment is very unpredictable and your superior gives you
a definite deadline for your report. To come up with the necessary results, what
method of data collection will you utilize?

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 74 08.10.2018 2:18:58 PM
 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Present the given data as indicated.

The enrolment data for Education courses, A.Y. 2006 - 2010 are the following:
BSE: 450 (2006), 315 (2007), 493 (2008), 482 (2009), 555 (2010)
BEED: 120 (2006), 136 (2007), 209 (2008), 198 (2009), 201 (2010)
BSIE: 57 (2006), 62 (2007), 45 (2008), 48 (2009), 38 (2010)
Present the data using textual form.

B. Interpreting Data. Use the graph as a reference to answer the questions below.
Favorite Superhero

1. Which hero was the most popular?

2. Which hero was the least popular?

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 3. What percent of people said Thor was their favorite?

4. What percent of people said either Superman or Spiderman was their favorite?

5. Which heroes were the favorite of about half of the people?

C. A survey was conducted to determine the leisure activities on persons aged 16-35 years
old. The following data was collected.

Q1.How many times in a Q3. What attribute do you

Q2. Indicate your most leisure
Respondent month do you go out for consider most in your choice
hub?
leisure? of leisure hub?
1 4 Aura Accessibility
2 5 Bar 88 Affordability
3 8 Bar 88 Parking space
4 6 Aura Accessibility
5 7 X Planet Crowd
6 16 X Planet Affordability
7 12 Bar 88 Affordability
8 11 X Planet Crowd
9 13 Aura Accessibility
10 13 X Planet Affordability
11 6 MixFud Crowd
12 4 X Planet Parking space
13 8 MixFud Accessibility
14 14 MixFud Affordability
15 14 Aura Parking space
16 8 Bar 88 Accessibility
17 13 Aura Parking space
18 9 MixFud Affordability
19 6 MixFud Accessibility
20 12 X Planet Parking space
21 16 Aura Crowd
22 10 Aura Accessibility
23 8 Bar 88 Affordability

Make simple FDT, then graph and interpret the result.

Q1: Scattered graph
Q2: Bar graph
Q3: Pie graph

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 Frequency Distribution Table
Q1 Q2 Q3

Q1 graph Interpretation

Q2 graph Interpretation

Q3 graph Interpretation

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 78 08.10.2018 2:18:58 PM
 ACTIVITY 4
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. For 1-3: Find the mean, median and mode(s).

1. 4, 3, 12, 5, 13, 3
Mean: Median: Mode:

2. -3, 0, 5, -2, 5, -3, 0

Mean: Median: Mode:

3. 120, 123, 123,120, 112, 134, 128, 126, 162

Mean: Median: Mode:

B. For 4-7: Consider the table below, show or explain how you got your answer.
Allie, Bran, Cathy, and Darlene went bowling. Their scores for four are shown in the
table below.

Scores
Name Game 1 Game 2 Game 3 Game 4
Allie 140 160 140 170
Bran 160 140 140 160
Cathy 170 115 165 130
Darlene 125 130 160 120

4. Who had the greatest median score for the four games?

5. What is the mean score of all the games?

6. Who had the greatest median score for the four games?

7. After Darlene bowled two more games, her mean score for six games was 140. What
could her scores for each of those two games have been?

8. A MMDA Constable is trying to work out the mean number of parking tickets he has
issued per day. He produced the table below, but has accidentally rubbed out some
of the numbers.

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 Fill the missing numbers and calculate the mean.
Tockets No. of Tickets
Frequency – Frequency
per day
0 1
1 1
2 10
3 7
4 20
5 2
6
Totals 26 72

9. The mean height of a class of 28 students is 162 cm. A new student of height 149 cm
joins the class. What is the mean height of the class now?

10. Five numbers have a mean of 12. When one number is removed, the mean is 11.
What is the value of the number removed?

11. The circle graph shows the ages of 200 students in a college psychology class. Find
the mean, median, and mode of the students’ ages.
College Students Ages

12. Use the following clues to find the age of each member of a family of five. The median
is 12. The mean is 21. The mode is 41. The age of one of the family members is the
median divided by 3.

13. Assume you are in a class where quizzes are 30% of your grade, homework is 10%,
exam I is 15%, exam 2 is 15%, and the final is 30%. Suppose it’s week 5 and you just
found out that you scored a 32/63 in the first exam. You also know that you received
a 6/9, 7/10, and 9/9 on the first three quizzes as well as a 6/11, 3/10, and 4.5/7 on the first
three homework assignments. What is your current grade in the course?

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 14. Juan and Alex are competing in a food competition. Their dish is graded in the
following categories each worth 18 points: taste, presentation, and addressing
the challenge. Taste is worth 60% of their final score; presentation is 25%, and
addressing the challenge is 15%. Whoever has the largest final score wins ₱50,000.
a. What is the largest score possible?

b. Suppose Mary received 15 points for taste, 9 points for presentation, and 14 points
for addressing the challenge. Further suppose John received 18 points for taste, 7
points for presentation, and 13 points for addressing the challenge. Who won?

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 82 08.10.2018 2:18:58 PM
 ACTIVITY 5
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Calculate the variance and standard deviation.

1. The scores of 10 students in a Math test are given below:

9 10 15 16 18 20 25 30 32 35

2. The daily sale of sugar in a certain grocery shop is given below:

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
75 kg 120 kg 12 kg 50 kg 70.5 kg 140.5 kg

3. A normal distribution of scores has a standard deviation of 10 and a sample mean of

50. Find the probability that corresponding to each of the following values:
a. a score of 67

b. a score that is below 36

c. a score that is greater than 78

d. a score between 52 and 67

4. Three students take equivalent stress tests. Which is the highest relative score
(meaning which has the largest z score value)?
a. A score of 144 on a test with a mean of 128 and a standard deviation of 34.

b. A score of 90 on a test with a mean of 86 and a standard deviation of 18.

c. A score of 18 on a test with a mean of 15 and a standard deviation of 5.

5. The mean speed of vehicles along a stretch of highway is 100 kph with a standard
deviation of 4 kph. You measure the speed of three cars traveling along this stretch
of highways as 82 mph, 67 mph, and 76 mph. Find the z-score that corresponds to
each speed. Determine which car had a relatively faster speed.

6. A university had an entrance policy that an applicant who placed at least 2 z-scores
above the mean on the entrance exam that has a mean of 80 and a standard deviation
of 6. What is the minimum score that an applicant must obtain to be admitted to the
university?

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 7. On a Math test the class mean was 63 and the standard deviation was 7 and for
the biology test the mean was 23 and has a standard deviation of 3.9. (a). Find the
z-score for each score. (b). Determine on which test the student had a better score.
a. A student received a 73 on the statistics test and a 26 on the biology test.

b. A student gets a 60 on the statistics tests and a 20 on the biology test.

c. A student gets a 78 on the statistics test and a 29 on the biology test.

8. The mean life of a tire is 30 000 km. The standard deviation is 2000 km.
a. About 68% of all tires will have a life between km and km.

b. What percent of the tires will have a life that exceeds 26 000 km?

c. If a company purchased 2000 tires, how many tires would you expect to last
more than 28 000 km?

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 ACTIVITY 6
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. For each of the following pairs of variables, determine the appropriate description of
strength of the correlation.
1. The age of a secondhand car and its price.
2. The weight of a new car and its overall
miles-per-gallon rating.
3. The height and the weight of a person.
4. The height of a person and the height
of the person’s father.
5. The height and the IQ of a person.

B. Solve the linear regression in each number.

1. Albert, Puno Ice Cream manager, notices that sales of ice cream are higher on hotter
days, he recorded the data in the table.
a. Make a scatter plot of the data.

Temperature (oC) No. of Ice cream sold

26 345
27 322
28 357
29 423
30 435

b. Find and graph a linear regression equation that models the data.

c. Use the model to predict ice cream sales if the temperature is 32 ℃.

d. Describe the form, direction and strength.

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 2. Theater ticket sales on successive night
a. Make a scatter plot of the data.

Patrons Revenue
32 480
33 495
40 600
81 1215

b. Derive a linear model for the data, rounding to the thousandth.

c. Use the linear model to predict revenue if 121 patrons attend.

d. What is the value of the correlation coefficient? In general, what do correlation

coefficient values indicate? What does this value tell us about this data in
particular?

C. Correlation and Hypothesis Testing

1. A new dietary supplement claimed it can reduce a person’s weight by 3kgs on the
average of four weeks. The weight of eight women who take the dietary supplement
were recorded before and after a four-week period.

Woman 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Weight Before 72.2 75.3 80.8 83.5 77.3 79.0 80.1 65.4
Weight After 71.2 70.2 76.6 79.1 78.1 75.7 81.2 64.7

Determine if (a) there is a relationship between the two variables; (b) the
dietary supplement is effective.

2. A researcher conducts a study to determine whether a peer review affect exam

performance. A peer review session is administered to a sample of students (n=9)
in an attempt to determine if this has an effect on the exam performance. The
population mean for a given exam is 24. The sample mean is 25, with a standard
deviation of 4. Determine if peer reviewing affects exam performance.

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 LESSON
5 Geometric Design

HAVE YOU ever believed (especially when you

were a kid) that the stars you see every night are Geometric shapes hold an energy
actually in the shape of a star? Have you ever been pattern, and scientists did some
fascinated by the moon and have always waited for experiments which say certain
geometric shapes can affect matter
its turn to go full? Have you ever tried visualizing around them. It’s simply because
several shapes and images formed from clouds during when a human looks at a shape, they
summer days? instantly receive energy from their
brain.
Geometry is not only observed in nature but it
could also be a tool for architectural designs, patterns Tom DeLonge, American musician
in weaving and crafts.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY
At the end of the lesson, students are
expected to:
The Shape of Soap Bubbles
• apply geometric concepts in
Materials describing and creating designs;
soap and
water • contribute to the enrichment of
the filipino culture and the arts
stirring rod using the concept in geometry.
bubble wand of different shapes
Procedures
1. Dissolve the soap in the water and make a bubble
solution.
2. Make bubbles using bubble wands with different
shapes.
Questions
1. What is the shape of the bubble produced by the
first wand?
2. What is the shape of the bubble produced by the
second wand?
3. What is the shape of the bubble produced by the
third wand?
4. Why is it that even if different shapes of wands
are used to produce the bubble, the bubble always
remains the same in shape?

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 DISCUSSION

Shapes in Mathematics
In mathematics, a shape (or geometrical shape)
refers to the figure or the outline of an object as
defined by its external boundary or limitations and/
or by its external surface/appearance as opposed to
its size, colour, and texture.
Geometrical shapes can be classified into broad
categories. Examples of these are polygons, circles
and spheres, polyhedrons, cones, and helixes.

Polygons
Polygons are closed two-dimensional figures
made up of line segments intersecting at their
The following are NOT polygons. common endpoints. These line segments (or the sides)
should not be collinear (meaning they must not be on
the same line).
Polygons with equal sides and equal angles are
called regular polygons.
Study the following illustrations:
Polygons are also classified as convex and non-
convex. A polygon is convex if a segment joining any
two interior points lies completely within the polygon.
Polygons are named according to the number of
their sides. The following table shows the name of
some polygons as well as the number of their sides.
Figures I and IV are regular polygons. Table 5.1. Polygons and the Number of their Sides

Name Number of Sides

Triangle 3
Quadrilateral 4
Pentagon 5
Hexagon 6
Heptagon 7
Octagon 8
Nonagon 9
Decagon 10
Icosagon 20
Pentacontagon 50
Hectagon 100
Googolgon 10100
n-gon n

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 For convenience, for polygons with 13 or more
sides, we can write “n-gon” with “n” indicating the
number of sides. For instance, we can write “13-gon”
instead of triskaidecagon and “15-gon” instead of
pentadecagon.
A circle, on the other hand, is a closed curve made
by connecting all points, which are all equidistant
from a point called the center, in a plane. The distance
of the any given point from the center is called the
radius.
Circle Sphere
Circles should never be confused with spheres. Source: mathblog.com
Circles are two-dimensional figures while spheres are
three-dimensional figures which have every point on
its surface equidistant from its centre.

Solids
Solids are three-dimensional shapes. There are
two main types of solids, which are polyhedra and
non-polyhedra. A polyhedron (polyhedra, in plural)
is a solid which is made up of definite number of flat
surfaces or polygonal faces. Non-polyhedra are solids
with curve surfaces.

Polyhedra
A polyhedron can be classified as platonic solid if
all its faces are congruent convex regular polygons
and same number of faces meet on its vertices. Euler’s
formula, F (no. of faces) + V (no.of vertices) = 2 + E (no.
of edges), is used to determine if a polyhedron is a
platonic solid.

EXAMPLE 5.1

The cube has 6 faces, 8 vertices, and 12 edges. Using

the Euler’s formula:
6 (faces) + 8 (vertices) = 2 + 12 (edges); thus, 14 = 14.
Therefore, a cube is a platonic solid.

A prism is a polyhedron that has two faces that

are parallel and congruent called the bases. The other
faces or the sides are always parallelogram.

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 Prisms are named for the shape of its base. Since
the figure above has triangle bases, therefore, its
name is triangular prism.
A prism can be classified as regular and irregular
prism. If the bases are regular polygons, then the
prism is also called a regular prism. Likewise, irregular
Pentagonal Pyramid prisms have bases that are irregular polygons.
When a polyhedron has triangular faces
connecting a base to a common point (apex), it is
called pyramid. Same with prism, naming a pyramid is
according to its base.

Non-polyhedra
Cone
A cone is a non-polyhedron that has a flat base,
which can be circular or oval, and a top that becomes
narrow until it forms a point called the vertex or apex.
Essentially, the cone resembles a pyramid but with
circular or oval bases.
A sphere is a three-dimensional perfectly round
Sphere figure that has no edges or vertices. All points on
the surface are the same distance from the center.
It occupies the biggest space, but has the smallest
surface area.
A cylinder is a solid with two congruent circles in
parallel planes connected by a curved surface. The
circles and their interiors are the bases. The altitude
of the cylinder is a perpendicular segment from the
Cylinder plane of one base to the plane of the other and the
height of the cylinder is the length of the altitude.
A torus is a solid formed by revolving a small circle
along a line made by another circle. It has no edges or
vertices.

Transformation
Torus Geometric transformation is a process which
changes the size, shape, orientation, or position of a
figure. The original figure is called the object and the
new picture is called the image. There are four types
of transformations: translation, reflection, rotation,
and dilation.
Translation is moving every point of the object at
the same distance in the same direction to form the
image (glided image).

Translation
Moved: 6 units right, 4 units up
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 Reflection is moving every point of the object at
the same distance from the line of symmetry to form
the image (flipped image).
Rotation is turning the object around a fixed point.
An object may turn at any degree measure (turned
image).
Glide Reflection is a combination of translation
and reflection in a line parallel to the direction of
translation.
Dilation is resizing an object to either stretch Reflection
Line of symmetry is the x-axis
or shrink the original figure. The changes could be
indicated by the scale factor and the centred of the
dilation. (reduced or enlarged image)

Symmetry in Design
Symmetry means that one shape becomes exactly
like another when you move it in some way: turn, flip,
or slide. For two objects to be symmetrical, they must
be the same size and shape, with one object having a
different orientation from the first. There can also be
symmetry in one object, such as a face. If you draw a
Rotation
line of symmetry down the center of your face, you can
see that the left side is a mirror image of the right side.
Symmetry includes patterns and explaining repetition
in design. Symmetrical designs are commonly used in
architecture, painting, crafts, dances, music, biology,
and mathematics.
Reflection symmetry is formed when a
figure is divided by a line so that the part on
one side of that line is the mirror image of
the part of the figure on the other side. The
line is called the axis of symmetry (reflection
line). The simplest case of reflection Glide Reflection
symmetry is known as bilateral symmetry.
For example, each of the following figures
exhibits bilateral symmetry:
The heart and smiley have only vertical
axis of symmetry. The axis of symmetry
bisect the figures that for every point on
one side of the line there is a corresponding
point on the other side of the line. If you
draw the reflection line horizontally (as shown in the
figure below), the reflected image is not the same.
Dilation
Scale Factor: 2, Center at origin

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 Some objects or images can have more than one
axis of reflection symmetry. Here are some examples:
Many letters in the alphabet also have one or more
mirror lines.
If a figure remains unchanged when rotated about
their center by certain angle, then it has a rotational
symmetry.
The angle of rotation of a symmetric figure is the
smallest angle of rotation that preserves the figure.
For example, the figures can be turned by 180°, 120°,
and 72° from left to right respectively. To determine
the angle of rotation, count the number of reflection
line/s. For the last figure, the star has five points. To
rotate it until it looks the same, you need to make 15 of
a complete 360° turn. Since 15 × 360o = 72o, this is a 72°
angle rotation.
Another way of describing the rotational
symmetry is by the order of rotation. A figure has
order n rotational symmetry if n1 of a complete turn
leaves the figure unchanged. An order n rotation
corresponds to a 360
o

n
angle of rotation.
As the three examples above, the figures have
order 2-rotation symmetry, 3-rotation symmetry, and
5-rotation symmetry respectively.

PATTERNS
Pattern in the plane are usually divided into three
groups: Rosette pattern (cyclic or dihedral),

Rosette Patterns
A rosette pattern describes the symmetries
of a figure rotating by 360o about its center. It has
two classes: the ones with mirror lines (dihedral
symmetry), like a sunflower, and the ones without
mirror lines, like a pinwheel (cyclic symmetry).
Triquetra with cyclic (C3) symmetry Cyclic symmetry group. Rotation symmetry only
around a center point. If the rotation has order n, the
group is called Cn.
Dihedral symmetry group. Rotation symmetry
around a center point with mirror lines through the
center point. If the rotation has order n, there will
be n mirror lines and the group is called Dn.

Diamond with dihedral (D2) symmetry.

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 The table below gives examples of figures with all cyclic and dihedral symmetry groups
for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Rot Order 1 2 3 4 5

Cyclic

Frieze Patterns
A pattern that repeats in a vertical or horizontal line is called frieze pattern or border
pattern.

Tile Frieze Palacio de Velazquez Parque de Retiro at Madrid, Spain

Source: www.maa.org

A frieze group is the set of symmetry of a frieze pattern; that is, geometric transformations
built from rigid motions and reflections that preserve the pattern. To name a frieze pattern,
International Union of Crystallography (IUC) notation is used. It uses a four-character
notation. All the names will begin with “p”. Second character will be noted by “m” if there is
a vertical reflection. Third character will be noted by “m” if there is a horizontal reflection
or “g” if there is a glide reflection. If the pattern shows 180o rotation, write “2” on the last
character. If each term doesn’t satisfy the condition, use “1”.
Table 5.2
Description Example IUC Notation

Translations only p111

Hop

Translations and glide-

p1g1
reflections
Step

Translations and vertical-

pm11
reflections
Sidle

Translations and 180o

p112
rotations
Spinning Hop

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 Translations, vertical-
reflections, glide-
pmg2
reflections, and 180o
rotations
Spinning Sidle

Translations and
p1m1
horizontal-reflections
Jump

Translations, vertical-
reflection, horizontal-
pmm2
reflections and 180o
rotations
Spinning Jump
Source: Conway, J. nicknames for frieze group using footsteps © www.maa.org

Wallpaper Patterns (Tessellations)

A tessellation is an art referring to the filling of a plane with tiles, usually repeated
polygons, arranged in patterns that leave no gaps or overlapping. Tessellations are commonly
used in designing pavements and wallpapers. It can also be found in arts especially for
aesthetic purposes.
Regular tessellations are tile patterns made up of only one shape placed in some kind of
a pattern.

Semi-regular tessellation is formed when two or three types of polygons share a common
vertex.

Demi-Regular Tessellations are tessellations that combine two or three polygon

arrangements.

Non-regular tessellation is a group of shapes that has the sum of all interior angles
equalling 360 degrees. There are no overlaps or gaps, and non-regular tessellations are
formed many times using polygons that are not regular.

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 LUZON DESIGNS, ARTS, AND CULTURE
Luzon is the largest and most populous island
of the Philippine archipelago. It is the home of more
than a dozen of ethno-linguistic groups; the, Bicolano, Source: tess-elation. Source: moillusions.
Ifugao, Gaddang, Ibaloi, Ibanag, Ilocano, Ilongots, co.uk com
Itawes, Ivatan, Pangasinense, Sambal, and Tagalog.
Each group possesses unique identity, culture, belief,
and worldview. It is show in their crafts, foods,
clothings, and architectural designs.
Gaddang weavers of Nueva Viscaya are known for Source: pinterest.
their bakwit, a belt used by mothers after giving birth. com

This cloth is usually made of white bead as accents

and patterns of rivers and mountains with bead works
on the central portion of the cloth. Source: www.slideshare.net
Singkaban of Bulacan is a festival focusing on the
singkaban, a Bulakenyo art of creating an entrance
arch and other decorative materials, mainly from
bamboo. Elaborating its design by kayas. Also in
Bulacan, pastillas wrappers are intricately cut with
different geometric designs. Source: gridcrosser. tanglednoodle.
blogspot.com blogspot.com
Pampanga is not only known for its delicious
delicacies but also its to big lanterns and the delicate
weaving of coconut leaves for their version of suman,
the patupat.
Pangsinan’s arts and crafts include the smoothly Source: Source:
weaved bolinao mats and hats made from buri or outoftownblog.com pinakbetrepublic.
blogspot.com
raffia leaves, and the bamboo crafts of San Carlos.
The runo reed grows abundantly in the steep
hillside of the mountains of the Cordillera. It is used in
many ways such as roofing materials, fencing material,
and basketry. It is also used when lashed together as a Source: slideshare.
Source: http:// com
sleeping mat to line the earthen floor in the traditional maeescartin.tumblr.
Bontoc or Ifugao house. com

The people of Kalinga are great weavers. Their

cloth and basketry are among the finest products
in the region. Kalinga textiles are characterized by
dominant red stripes and motif of geometric patterns
as well as nature symbols interlaced with white, Source: slideshare.
Source: http://
com
yellow, and black fibers. mygrade7art.
blogspot.com
The design of rose glass window of the Manila
Metropolitan Cathedral Basilica, (in photo) (commonly
called as Manila Cathedral) was inspired by Neo-
Romanesque style.
Source:
traveleronfoot.
wordpress.com
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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 96 08.10.2018 2:19:00 PM
 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:
Name the following figures.

1. 7. 12.

2.

8.

3.

9.

4.

10.
5.

6.

11.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 98 08.10.2018 2:19:00 PM
 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:
Determine if the following solids are platonic solid or not by completing the table below.

Solid Number of faces Number of vertices Number of edges Platonic solid (Y/N)

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 100 08.10.2018 2:19:00 PM
 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Identify the symmetry groups e.g., of the rosettes in the car wheel hubcaps pictured
below.

a b c d e

f g h i j

k l m n o
Example here

a b c d e

f g h i j

k l m n o

p q

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 102 08.10.2018 2:19:01 PM
 ACTIVITY 4
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Use this motif to draw seven frieze patterns, one with each symmetry group:

IUC FRIEZE PATTERN

p111

p1g1

pm11

p112

pmg2

p1m1

pmm2

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 104 08.10.2018 2:19:01 PM
 ACTIVITY 5
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Draw a tessellating pattern for one of the shapes below. Your tessellating shapes should
also have a color pattern. Use at least three colors.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 106 08.10.2018 2:19:01 PM
 ACTIVITY 6
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Exploring my locale. Go around to your local community. Identify the trademark that
makes your community unique and you can be proud of. Post the picture here and write a
brief description about the picture.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 108 08.10.2018 2:19:01 PM
 “We are not like the social insects. They have only the one way of doing things and t
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Pre – Discussion Activity

Pre – Discussion Activity
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY

on Activity Tell Your Story TELL YOUR STORY

Draw a series of emoticons thatYOUR
TELL state your journey
STORY
Draw
you experience a series
in life. of emoticons
Draw one emoticon inthat
eachstate
box. your journey you experience in life. Draw one e
TELL YOUR STORY
each box.
Draw a series of emoticons that state your journey you experience in life. Draw one emoticon in
Example:
Example:
OUR STORY
each box.
oticons that state your journey you experience in life. Draw one emoticon in
Example:
©deal.vistalist.
urney you experience in life. Draw one emoticon in
©deal.vistalist.co/story-emoji/

©deal.vistalist.co/story-emoji/

©deal.vistalist.co/story-emoji/
Source: deal.vistalist.co/story-emoji/

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 DISCUSSION

Binary Number System

In writing decimal (base 10) numbers, a positional notation system is used. Each digit is
multiplied by an appropriate power of 10 depending on its position in the number:

EXAMPLE 6.1

138 = 1 × 102 + 3 × 101 + 8 × 100

= 1 × 100 + 3 × 10 + 8 × 1
= 100 + 30 + 8

Same with decimal number system, binary number system is also using a positional
notation numbering system, but in this case, the base is two. Each digit position in a binary
number represents a power of two. So, each binary digit (bit) is multiplied by an appropriate
power of 2 based on the position in the number:

EXAMPLE 6.2

1101 = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
=1×8+1×4+0×2+1×1
=8+4+1

Conversion Between Decimal Number and Binary Number

To convert a binary number to a decimal number, write the binary number as a sum of
powers of 2. (Note: The rightmost bit has the smallest exponent or 1 × 20).

EXAMPLE 6.3

10112 = 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20
=1×8+0×4+1×2+1×1
=8+0+2+1
= 1110

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 In converting decimal number to binary number, it involves repeatedly dividing the
decimal number by 2, keeping track of the remainder at each step. To convert decimal
number to binary, divide the decimal number by 2 to obtain a quotient and remainder.
Repeat the process until the quotient is zero. The sequence of remainder forms the binary
representation of the number.

EXAMPLE 6.4
Convert the decimal 35 to binary number.

Quotient Remainder Place of Bits

35 16 1 1’s
16 8 0 2’s
8 4 0 4’s
4 2 0 8’s
2 1 0 16’s
1 0 1 32’s

Therefore, 3510 in binary number is 1000012.

Addition and Subtraction of Binary Numbers

Consider the equation 1 + 1 = 2, but it is an operation done using decimal number or in
base 10. Converting each decimal number of the equation into binary, we have 1 + 1 = 10. It
applies the principle of carry over. If the result of the addition is too big to be represented as
a single digit in the number system, carry over to the next column, and subtract the number
being added together.
In adding binary numbers, consider the fact that the numbers must be 1 and 0 only.
To add 11112 and 1012,
1111
+ 101
???
Starting with the column, 1 + 1 resulting to 0, with 1 carry over to the left:
1
1111
+ 101
??0
Now, in the next column, add 1 + 1 + 0 resulting to 0, with 1 carry over to the left. Continue
the process until you finish the leftmost column.
1111
1111
+ 101
10100
Subtracting binary numbers also applies the principle of borrowing. If the minuend is
smaller than the subtrahend, borrow 1 from the next column.

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 To subtract 11102 and 1012,
1110
- 101
???
Starting with the rightmost column, since the minuend is 0 and less than to the
subtrahend, borrow 1 from the next column:
1
1100
- 101
??0
Continue the process until you finish the leftmost column.
1
1100
- 101
1000

INTEGERS IN COMPUTER
Computer language only understands the binary numbers, 0 and 1. So a negative number
is neither 0 nor 1. The most intuitive solution is the sign and magnitude representation.
The leftmost bit represents the sign, 0 for positive and 1 for negative. The remaining bits
represent the magnitude.

EXAMPLE 6.5
Suppose the integers are in four bits with the sign and magnitude scheme, then 3 would be:
0011
and -1 would be:
1001
In binary, addition is not applicable if the signs of the binary numbers differ (from the
example above: 0011+1011).To make the sign-magnitude work, determine which of the
two binary numbers has the larger magnitude (ignore the sign bit). Then subtract the small
magnitude from the larger magnitude. Attach to the result the sign of the quantity that had the
higher magnitude.
Sign Magnitude
0 011 larger magnitude
1 - 001
010
Thus, the solution is 0010.

2’s Complement Notation

Computers represent integers in a manner that allows both positive and negative
numbers. To represent positive numbers, it uses its binary representation, but negative
binary numbers are represented by 2’s complement notation. To find the two’s complement
of a binary number, change each 1 to zero and each zero to 1, then add 1 to this quantity.

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 EXAMPLE 6.6
Convert 100100 into its 2’s complement.
Solution: Change each 1 to zero and each zero to 1, then add 1 to this quantity
100100 →011011
+ 1
0 1 1 1 0 0
Therefore, the 2’s complement of 100100 is 011100.

2’s Complement also represents the subtraction of binary numbers. (Note: Disregard the
leftmost bit in the result)

EXAMPLE 6.7
Find 12-3 in binary number.
Solution:
12 – 3 can also be written as 12 + (-3). Converting each integer into binary:
12 = 1100; use the 2’s complement for -3: 3 = 0011 → -3 = 1100+1= 1101
Perform the addition: 1100
+ 1101
11001
The answer is 1001.

TEXT DATA
Computers work in binary code and information is coded using 0 and 1. American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) developed a standard 8-bit code for
different characters such as letters and symbols for the computer comprehend. That is, it
uses eight bits to represent a letter or a punctuation mark. Eight bits are called a byte. A
binary code with eight digits, such as 1101 10112, can be stored in one byte of computer
memory. The word “CAT” in a word processor becomes 0100 00112, 0100 00012, and 0101
01002. The word “cat” is 0110 00112, 0110 00012, and 0111 01002.
Table 6.1
Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary
Character Character Character Character Character
Code Code Code Code Code
A 01000001 Q 01010001 g 01100111 w 01110111 – 00101101
B 01000010 R 01010010 h 01101000 x 01111000 . 00101110
C 01000011 S 01010011 i 01101001 y 01111001 / 00101111
D 01000100 T 01010100 j 01101010 z 01111010 0 00110000
E 01000101 U 01010101 k 01101011 I 00100001 1 00110001
F 01000110 V 01010110 I 01101100 “ 00100010 2 00110010
4 01000111 W 01010111 m 01101101 # 00100011 3 00110011
H 01001000 X 01011000 n 01101110 $ 00100100 4 00110100
I 01001001 Y 01011001 o 01101111 % 00100101 5 00110101
3 01001010 Z 01011010 p 01110000 & 00100110 6 00110110
K 01001011 a 01100001 q 01110001 ‘ 00100111 7 00110111

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 Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary
Character Character Character Character Character
Code Code Code Code Code
L 01001100 b 01100010 r 01110010 ( 00101000 8 00111000
M 01001101 c 01100011 s 01110011 ) 00101001 9 00111001
N 01001110 d 01100100 t 01110100 * 00101010 ? 00111111
0 01001111 a 01100101 u 01110101 + 00101011 @ 01000000
P 01010000 f 01100110 v 01110110 , 00101100 _ 01011111

Source: https://www.sciencefriday.com/educational-resources/write-your-name-in-binary-code/
There is also a code for blank space which 0010 0000.

EXAMPLE 6.8

Convert “I am Mai” in 8-bit code.

Solution:
I 01001001 M 01001101
a 01100001 a 01100001
m 01101101 i 01101000
So if you input “I am Mai” to the computer, computer read it as 01001001 00100000
01100001 01101101 0010 0000 01001101 01100001 01101000.
Try to convert your name into binary codes.

ERRORS AND ERROR CORRECTION

Recall that computer system stores data in series of bits and all digital devices transmit
information using binary codes. Data can be corrupted during transmission of information
due to some errors like noise in the communication channel. A noise in the channel may be
caused by lighting, radio disturbance, poor typing and may others.

Figure 6.1
In the data sequence, if an entry has changed, 1 become 0 or 0 become 1, it is called
“Bit Error”. There are three types of errors that can occur in data transmission from the
transmitter to the receiver: (a) single bit error, (b) multiple bit errors, and (c) burst errors.
Single Bit Error. The change in one bit in the whole data sequence is called single bit error.
This type of error occurs only in a parallel communication system. As data are transferred
bitwise in a single line, there is a chance for the single line to be noisy.
1 1 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 0

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 Multiple Bit Error. When a change happened in two or more bits on the data sequence
from the transmitter to the receiver is called multiple bit error. This type of error occurs in
both serial type and parallel type data communication system.
1 0 1 1 1 0

1 1 0 0 1 0

Burst Error. The change of set of bits in data sequence is called burst error. The burst
error is calculated from the first bit change to the last bit change.

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
The errors between the error bits are also considered errors.

Error Detecting Codes

In digital communication system, errors are transferred along with the data from one
transmitter to another system of receiver. Data will be lost if this error is not detected and
corrected.
Error detection is the process of detecting errors present in the data that has been
transmitted from transmitter to receiver. Some redundancy codes are added to detect the
errors in the data. These codes are called error detecting codes. There are four types of
error detection: (a) Parity Checking; (b) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC); (c) Longitudinal
Redundancy Check (LRC); and (d) Check Sum.
Parity Checking. Parity bit is the additional bit added to the data at the transmitter before
transmitting the data. The addition of parity bit will result in the change of data string size.
This means that if an 8-bit data added a parity bit, it will become 9-bit data string.
Parity check is also called as vertical redundancy check. A parity check is the process
that ensures accurate data transmission during communication. A parity bit is appended
to the original data bits to create an even or odd bit number; the number of bits with value
one. Data is considered accurate if the number of bits (even or odd) matches the number
transmitted from the source.
Even parity happens if the data have even numbers of 1’s, and the parity bit is 0.

EXAMPLE 6.9

100000001 (two 1’s)

101110011 (six 1’s)
110000101 (four 1’s)
However, the following bits are also considered even parity but the parity bit is 1, it is
because the number of 1’s is odd.
Example:
100001100 (three 1’s)
110110001 (five 1’s)
000001110 (three 1’s)

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 Odd parity happens when the data have odd number of 1’s, and parity bit is 0.
Example:
100001100 (three 1’s)
110110001 (five 1’s)
000001110 (three 1’s)
Also, odd parity with a parity bit 1 is when the number of 1’s in the data is even.
Example:
100000001 (two 1’s)
101110011 (six 1’s)
110000101 (four 1’s)

It should be observed that the counting of bits also include the parity bit. The circuit that
adds a parity bit to the data at the transmitter is called parity generator. The parity bits are
transmitted and checked at the receiver. If the parity bits at the transmitter and receiver are
not equal, an error is detected.
Table 6.2
Message with Even Message with Odd
3 bit data
Parity Parity
A B C Message Parity Message Parity
0 0 0 000 0 000 1
0 0 1 001 1 001 0
0 1 0 010 1 010 0
0 1 1 011 0 011 1

HAMMING CODES
Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be used to detect and correct
the errors that can occur when the data is moved or stored from the transmitter to the
receiver. This technique is developed by Richard W. Hamming. This codes uses a number of
parity bits located at certain position in the code word. The number of parity bits depends on
the number of information bits. The hamming codes uses the relation between redundancy
bits, and the data bits.
For example, 1001 is a 4-bit data containing two 1-bits; since that is an even number, a
zero would be added to maintain even parity, or, one if odd parity was being maintained.
Single bit errors are detected when the parity count indicates that the number of 1’s is
incorrect, indicating that a data bit has been flipped by noise in the line. Hamming codes
detect two bit errors by using more than one parity bit, each of which is computed on
different combinations of bits in the data.
Redundant bits are extra binary bits that are generated and added to the information-
carrying bits of data transfer to ensure that no bits were lost during the data transfer. The
number of redundant bits can be calculated using the following formula:
2p ≥ n + P + 1
Where, n is the number of bits in the data string;
P is the number of parity bits.

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 EXAMPLE 6.10

a. Suppose the number of data bits is 7, then the number of redundant bits can be calculated
using:
24 ≥ 7 + 4 + 1
Thus, the number of redundant bits is 4.
b. The number of data bit is 5, determine the redundant bit. By using the formula:
24 ≥ 5 + 2 + 1
The number of redundant bits is 2.

General Algorithm of Hamming Code

1. Write the bit positions starting from 1 in binary form (1, 10, 11, 100, etc).
2. All the bit positions that are a power of 2 are marked as parity bits (1, 2, 4, 8, etc).
3. All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.
4. Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined by its bit position
in binary form.
a. Parity bit 1 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the least significant position (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc).
b. Parity bit 2 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the second position from the least significant bit (2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, etc).
c. Parity bit 4 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the third position from the least significant bit (4–7, 12–15, 20–23, etc).
d. Parity bit 8 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the fourth position from the least significant bit bits (8–15, 24–31, 40–47, etc).
e. In general, each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise AND of the parity position
and the bit position is non-zero.
5. Check for even parity set a parity bit to 1 if the total number of ones in the positions it
checks is odd.
6. Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is even.

Determining the Position of Redundant Bits

These redundancy bits are placed at the positions which correspond to the power of 2.

EXAMPLE 6.11

Encode the data 1101 in even parity using Hamming Code.

Solution:
Using the formula: 24 ≥ 4 + 3 + 1
The number of data bits = 4
The number of redundant bits = 3
The total number of bits = 7

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 The redundant bits are placed at positions corresponding to power of 2: 1, 2,and 4

7 6 5 4 3 2 1
D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1

Bit Destination D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
Binary Location Number 111 110 101 100 011 010 001
Data Bits 1 1 0 1
Redundancy bits R4 R2 R1

Determining the Parity Bits

1. R1 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the least significant position.
R1: bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11
Bit Destination D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
Binary Location Number 111 110 101 100 011 010 001
Data Bits 1 1 0 1
Redundancy bits R4 R2 R1

To find the redundant bit R1, check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in all the
bit positions corresponding to R1 is an even number the value of R1 (parity bit’s value) = 0.
2. R2 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the second position from the least significant bit.
R2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11
Bit Destination D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
Binary Location Number 111 110 101 100 011 010 001
Data Bits 1 1 0 1
Redundancy bits R4 R2 0

To find the redundant bit R2, check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in all the
bit positions corresponding to R2 is an odd number the value of R2(parity bit’s value) = 1.
3. R4 bit is calculated using parity check at all the bits positions whose binary representation
includes a 1 in the third position from the least significant bit.
R4: bits 4, 5, 6, 7
Bit Destination D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1
Binary Location Number 111 110 101 100 011 010 001
Data Bits 1 1 0 1
Redundancy bits R4 1 0
0

To find the redundant bit R4, check for even parity. Since the total number of 1’s in
all the bit positions corresponding to r4 is an even number the value of R1 (parity bit’s
value) = 0.
∴ By encoding the parity bits at their respective position, the code word form is 11001100.

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 Error Detection and Correction
Suppose in the above example the 6th bit is changed from 1 to 0 during data transmission,
then it gives new parity values in the binary number:

1 0 0 0 1 1 0
By doing the parity check:

1 0 0 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 0

The bits give the binary number as 110 whose decimal representation is 6. Thus, the bit
6 contains an error. To correct the error the 6th bit is changed from 1 to 0. (Note: If the code
word has all zero’s (000000), there is no error in the data transmitted and received.

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Convert the following binary numbers to decimal.

1. 11001001= 9. 01101110=
2. 01000111= 10. 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 =
3. 10000110= 11. 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 =
4. 00010001= 12. 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 =
5. 10001000= 13. 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 =
6. 00111110= 14. 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 =
7. 01010101= 15. 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 =
8. 10101010= 16. 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 =

B. Write the following decimal into binary.

1. 137 = 11. 200 =
2. 128 = 12. 171 =
3. 63 = 13. 150 =
4. 213 = 14. 27 =
5. 49 = 15. 19 =
6. 111 = v 16. 189 =
7. 242 = 17. 222 =
8. 192 = 18. 79 =
9. 89 = 19. 73 =
10. 2 = 20. 136 =

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 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Convert these values to signed magnitude decimal Each is 8 bits long, in two’s complement
form (complement negative values before conversion).
1. 11001001= 9. 01101110=
2. 01000111= 10. 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 =
3. 10000110= 11. 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 =
4. 00010001= 12. 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 =
5. 10001000= 13. 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 =
6. 00111110= 14. 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 =
7. 01010101= 15. 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 =
8. 10101010= 16. 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 =

B. Convert the decimal into binary/2’s complement and perform the operation. Answers
must be in binary form.
1. 123 – 43

2. 327 – 112

3. 54 – 18

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 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Convert the 8-bit code into text.

01001001 00100000 01101100 01101111 01110110 01100101

00100000 01000011 01101111 01100100 01101001 01101110 01100111

B. Convert the text into 8-bit code.

Math is Fun!

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 ACTIVITY 4
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Determine the parities of the following message.

Message Even Parity Odd Parity
1. 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 =
2. 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 =
3. 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 =
4. 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 =
5. 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 =
6. 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 =
7. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 =
8. 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 =
9. 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 =
10. 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 =
11. 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 =
12. 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 =
13. 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 =
14. 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 =
15. 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 =
16. 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 =

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 ACTIVITY 5
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Encode the following data in even parity by using the Hamming Code.
1. 1101

2. 1001

3. 1100

4. 1110

5. 1011

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 LESSON
7 Linear Programming

IN LIFE, we are struggling to finish our task

with limited resources within a short period of time. If time is linear, every moment is new!
Monotony is just an experience of
We want to optimize the result of every action and
ignorance!
decision we make. Linear programming is one of the
Harrish Sairaman
simplest ways to perform optimization. It helps to
solve some very complex optimization problems by
making a few simplifying assumptions.
Linear programming is a method to achieve the
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
best outcome given by certain conditions. Linear
At the end of the lesson, students are
programming is the use of mathematics to provide
expected to:
ways for a real-world problems to be modeled and
• determine the solution of linear
then solved. It is commonly dealt with minimizing cos inequalities and the systems of
and labor, and determining the best production level linear inequalities; and
for maximal profits. • determine the optimal solution
of a linear programming problem
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY using the graphical method and
the simplex method..
Which of the MIDDLE circles looks bigger, the one
on the left, or the one on the right?

DISCUSSION
Linear Inequalities
When an equal sign is used, it states that both sides
of the equation are equal to each other. Inequality
states that both sides of the equation are not equal to
each other. It indicates a relation that one of the two
expressions is smaller, or larger, than the other one.
In a linear inequality, the highest variable
exponent is one.

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 EXAMPLE 7.1

a. x<5 → x is less than 5

b. 2x – 7 ≤ 3 → 2x – 7 is less than or equal to 3
c. x+y>5 → x + y is greater than 5
d. 2x – 7y ≥ 3 → 2x – 7y is greater than or equal to 3
The solution to an inequality is the value of the variable which makes the statement, or the
inequality, true. Example (a) x < 5 → This inequality “x is less than 5” as shown in the number line
indicates that any number less than five is a possible solution.

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Notice that the mark on 5 is a circle, indicating that the value 5 is NOT included to the
possible solutions of the inequality.
By solving the inequality example (b), the answer is x ≤ 5.

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
The difference of this number line from example a is that the mark on 5 is a dot, stating that
the value 5 is included to all possible solutions of the inequality.

Examples (a) and (b) are linear inequalities with one-variable that can be graph in a
numbered line, thus, examples (c) and (d) are linear inequalities with two-variables that will
be graph in a coordinate plane.
Graphing example (c): x + y > 5

Notice that dash-line is used, it shows that the points on that line are not included in
the solution of the inequality, and the shaded portion indicates the possible solutions in
the inequality. Since the inequality sign is “greater than” and the operation is addition, all
possible solutions are of the given inequality is on the right side/upper part of the line.
Graphing example (d): 2x – 7y ≥ 3

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 In this example, a straight line is used indicating that all points on that line and on the
shaded part of the graph are possible solutions to the inequality. Furthermore, notice that
the sign of the inequality is “greater than and equal to” but the operation is subtraction,
therefore all possible solutions are of the given inequality is on the left side/lower part of
the line.

System of Linear Inequalities

A system of linear inequalities with two variables consists of at least two linear
inequalities in the same variables. The solution is the set of all points within the feasible
region (all points in that the graph of linear inequalities intersect).

EXAMPLE 7.2

Determine the solution to the system of linear inequalities.

2x – 4y ≥ -6
x≤2
y ≥ -2
Solution:
Step 1: Express all inequalities into standard - form of equation.
2x – 4y = -6
x=2
y = -2
Step 2: Graph and find the intersections of the equations.
Inequality Sign Operation Shading
2x – 4y ≥ -6 greater than subtraction left side/lower part
x≤2 less than left side/lower part
y ≥ -2 greater than right side/upper part

Find the intersections of the equations.

2x – 4y = - 6 2x – 4y = - 6 x=2
x=2 y = -2 y = -2
2(2) – 4y = - 6 2x – 4(-2) = - 6 (2,-2)
-4y = -10 2x = -14
y = 2.5 x = -7
(2, 2.5) (-7, -2)

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 All points within the region (the heavily shaded) are the possible answers of the linear
inequalities system. The point of intersection are called the optimal values, it could give the
maximum or minimum value of the objective function.
One point on the region is (-3,-1), as shown in the solution below, it satisfies all the
inequalities given.

2x – 4y≥ -6 x≤2 y ≥ -2
2(-3) – 4(-1) ≥ -6 -3 ≤ 2 - ≥ -2
-2 ≥ -6

LINEAR PROGRAMMING MODEL

Linear programming model is used to optimize the result of production. The model is
made by considering the objective function and constrain. The maximum or minimum value
of linear expression is called objective function. Objective function is expressed as a linear
equation. The largest or smallest value of the objective function is called the optimal value,
optimal values identified are called decision variables.
On the other hand, constraints are the restrictions on the values for the objective
function. Constraints are expressed in linear inequalities.

EXAMPLE 7.3

Maximize: P = 30x + 25y

Subject to: 2x + y ≤ 12
4x + y ≥ 9
2x + 3y ≥ 16
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Express all inequalities into standard - form of equation.
2x + y = 12
4x + y = 9 2x + y = 12 2x + y = 12 4x + y = 9
2x + 3y = 16 4x + y = 9 2x + 3y ≤ 16 2x + 3y ≤ 16

Step 2: Graph and find the intersections(1,10) (5,2)

of the equations. (1.727,4.182)

Inequality Sign Operation Shading P = 30x + 25y

2x + y ≤ 12 less than addition (1, 10) 30(1) + 25(10) = 280
left side/lower part
1 (5, 2) 30(5) + 25(2) = 200
4x + y ≥ 9 4x + y ≥ 16than
greater addition right side/upper part
2
((1.727, 4.182) 30(1.727) + 25(4.182) = 156.36
2x + 3y ≥ 16 greater than addition right side/upper part

To maximize the objective function, the value of x and y should be 1 and 10 respectively
to obtain a maximum value of 280.

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 EXAMPLE 7.4

Minimize: Z = 12x + 15 y
Subject to: 6x +6y ≥ 30
2x + y ≥ 8
x + 3y ≥ 12
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Express all inequalities into standard - form of equation.
6x + 6y = 30
2x + y = 8
x + 3y = 12
Step 2: Graph and find the intersections of the equations
Inequality Sign Operation Shading
6x + 6y ≥ 30 greater than addition right side/upper part
2x + y ≥ 8 greater than addition right side/upper part
x + 3y ≥ 12 greater than addition right side/upper part

6x +6y ≥ 30
5 (3,2)
2x + y ≥ 8
6x +6y ≥ 30
(1.5, 3.5)
x + 3y ≥ 12

Z =512x + 15 y
(3, 2) 12(3) + 15(2) = 81
0 (1.5, 3.5) 12(1.5) + 15(3.5) = 70.5

To minimize the objective function, the value of x and y should be 4 and 0 respectively to
obtain a minimum value of 48.

EXAMPLE 7.5

Meredith sells flowers. She bought the roses and daisies for ₱34 and ₱22 each, respectively.
A piece of rose yields a profit of ₱6 while a piece of daisy yields a profit of ₱3. Meredith estimates
that no more than 200 flowers will be sold in a week. She can only invest not more than ₱ 5,000
for the flowers. How many roses and daisies should be stocked in order to maximize his profit?
Solution:
Step 1: Determine the unknown quantities in the problem and represent it using variables.
Let x = total number of roses
y = total number of daisy (NOTE: values of x and y cannot have a negative value)
Step 2: Formulate the objective function.
The objective function of the problem is about profit. From the problem, “A piece of
rose yields a profit of ₱6 while a piece of daisy yields a profit of ₱3” contains the objective
function.

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 Let P denotes for total profit.
Objective Function P = 6x + 3y
Step 3: Identify all constraints in the problem and then represent each by inequalities.
Total number of flowers: x + y ≤ 200
Price of the flowers: 34x +22y ≤5,000
Total number of rose: x≥0
Total number of daisy: y≥0
Step 4: Identify the optimal values by finding the intersections of the constraints, then plot
the inequalities for visualization.

x + y = 200
(50, 150)
34x + 22y = 5000
x + y = 200
(0, 200)
x=0
34x + 22y = 5000
(0, 227.3)
x=0
x + y = 200
(200,0)
y=0
34x + 22y = 5000
(147.1, 0)
x=0
x=0
(0, 0)
y=0

Step 5: Substitute the optimal values in the objective function to determine the maximum
amount of profit. (Note: Look in the graph and use only the points that are in the feasible region.
Maximizing the objective function P = 6x + 3y

(50, 150) P = 6(50) + 3(150) = 750

(0, 200) P = 6(0) + 3(200) = 600
(147.1,0) P = 6(147.1) + 3(0) = 882.6

Meredith needs to stock 147 roses and none of daisies to maximize her profit by ₱882.6.

EXAMPLE 7.6

A company makes at least one desk for each two models- office model and student model.
Each workers spend time in assembling, finishing, and crating each desk as shown in the table
below. Labor for each office desk costs ₱1,500 and each student desk costs ₱1,200. How many
model, should be produced to make at least one desk of each model to minimize the labor cost?
Labor Cost (in hours)
Type of Desk Assembling Finishing Crating
Office 2 2 2
Student 3 1 .5
Available Hours 30 12 10

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 Solution:
Step 1: Let x = number of office desks made
y = number of student desks made
Step 2: To minimize the cost of labor
Minimize: P = 1,500x + 1,200y
Step 3: Subject to:
2x + 3y ≤ 30 Assembling hours
2x + y ≤ 12 Finishing hours
2x + 0.5y ≤ 10 Crating hours
x, y≥ 0
Step 4: Optimal values
In Minimization, all corner points are the values that corner points could minimum optimal
values of the objective function.

(Find intersections that are in feasible region only).

2x + 3y ≤ 30
(3,8)
2x + 0.5y ≤ 10
2x + 3y ≤ 30
(15,0)
y≥0
2x + 0.5y ≤ 10
(0,20)
x=0
STEP 5: Substitute to P = 1,500x + 1,200y

(3,8) 1,500(3) + 1,200(8) 14,100

(15,0) 1,500(15) + 1,200(0) 22,500
(0,20) 1,500(0) + 1,200(20) 24,000

To minimize the labor cost, the company may produce three office desks and eight student desks.

SIMPLEX METHOD
The graphical method is the easiest way to solve a linear programming problem. However,
this method is difficult to use when three or more variables are involved. A very useful
method in solving linear programming problems of any size is the so called Simplex method.

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 The Simplex method is another approach in solving linear programming models. This is
done by hand using slack variables, tableaus, and pivot variables as a means to finding the
optimal solution of an optimization problem.

EXAMPLE 7.7

Maximize: Z = 200x + 350y

Subject to: 4x + 3y ≤ 24
y–x≤4
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Transform the system into standard form of equation. (No need to transform
x, y ≥ 0 as it is not included for the tableau. It only indicates that all of the answers must be
a positive number).
(1) -200x -350y +z = 0
4x + 3y =24
y–x=4
Step 2: Determine slack variables
Slack variables are additional variables that are introduced into the linear constraints
of a linear program to transform them from inequality constraints to equality constraints.
If the model is in standard form, the slack variables will always have a +1 coefficient. Slack
variables are needed in the constraints to transform them into solvable equalities with one
definite answer. (Note: Usual variables use are s, t or u. The number of different variables
to be added is depending on the number of equations to be subjected to.)
(2) 4x + 3y + s = 24
(3) y – x + t = 4
Since we have two equations to be subjected to, two slack variables need to be added,
variable s for equation (2) and variable t for equation (3).
Step 3: Set up the tableau
The table shall be the table of numerical coefficients of the variables present in the
equations and of the constants. Each row represents a particular equation in the system.
The last row are reserved for the equation representing the objective function while the
last column contains the constant terms.

x y s t Z
4 3 1 0 0 24 (2)
-1 1 0 1 0 4 (3)
-200 -350 0 0 1 0 (1)
Step 4: Identify pivot variables (column, row, and element)
Pivot column contains the smallest negative value in the bottom row. In the table, -350 in
column y is the smallest negative value in the bottom row. Thus, column y is the pivot column.

x y s t Z
4 3 1 0 0 24
-1 1 0 1 0 4
-200 -350 0 0 1 0

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 To determine the pivot row, divide each entry in the constant column with the
corresponding non-zero entry in the pivot column. The row that corresponds the smallest
positive quotient is the pivot row.
x y s t Z
4 3 1 0 0 24 24/3 = 8
-1 1 0 1 0 4 4/1 = 1 (smallest
positive quotient)
-200 -350 0 0 1 0
Second row got the smallest positive quotient, hence, it is the pivot row. Pivot element
is the intersection of the pivot row and pivot column, thus the pivot element is 1. (Note: The
pivot element must be 1; if not, divide the pivot row by the pivot element).
Step 5: Create new tableau
Transform all entries in the pivot column to 0 except for the pivot element. (Note: The
pivot element must be 1; if not, divide the pivot row by the pivot element). Elementary row
operations (same operation will be done to all the entries of the row that is subjected to
(Operations addition/subtraction must be related within the rows of the tableau) can be
performed to optimize the pivot variable while keeping the rest of the tableau equivalent.
For the entry 3 in the row 1 in the pivot column, the only way to make it 0 is to subtract
it by -3. Notice that the entry in the pivot column of row 2 or the pivot element is 1. So,
multiply -3 to the pivot element to obtain -3. Then, do the row operation to obtain the new
entries in row 1. Do the same for row 3.
For Row 1: Multiply - 3 in all entries in Row 2 then add to the corresponding entries in
Row 1.
-3R2 + R1
x y s t Z
-3 (-1) + 4 = 7 -3(1) + 3 = 0 -3(0) + 1 = 1 -3(1) + 0 = -3 -3(0) + 0 = 0 -3(3) + 24 = 12
-1 1 0 1 0 4
-200 -350 0 0 1 0
For Row 3: Multiply 350 to Row 2 then add to the corresponding entries in Row 3.
350R2 + R3
x y s t Z
7 0 1 -3 0 12
-1 1 0 1 0 4
350 (-1) + (-200) = -550 350 (1) + (-350) = 0 350(0) + 0 = 0 350(1) +0 = 350 350(0) +1 = 1 350(4) + 0 = 1400

New table would be;

x y s t Z
7 0 1 -3 0 12
-1 1 0 1 0 4
-550 0 0 350 1 1400

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 REPEAT steps 4 and 5 until no negative entry exists in the last row.
x y s t Z
7 0 1 -3 0 12 12/7 (smallest
positive quotient)
-1 1 0 1 0 4 4/-1 = -4
-550 0 0 350 1 1400
pivot column
Since the pivot element is not 1; divide the row by by the pivot element.

x y s t Z
1 0 1/7 -3/7 0 12/7 new entry
-1 1 0 1 0 4 in row 1

-550 0 0 350 1 1400

Transform all entries in the pivot column to 0 except for the pivot element (Note: No
changes must occur in the previous pivot column.)

x y s t Z
1 0 1/7 -3/7 0 12/7
-1 1 0 1 0 4
-550 0 0 350 1 1400
For Row 2: Add Row 1 to the corresponding entries in Row 2.
R1 +R2

x y s t Z
1 0 1/7 -3/7 0 12/7
1 +(-1) = 0 0+1=1 1/7 + 0 = 1/7 -3/7 + 1 = 4/7 0+0=0 12/7 + 4 = 40/7
-550 0 0 350 1 1400
For Row 3: Multiply 550 to Row 1 then add to the corresponding entries in Row 3.
x y s t Z
1 0 1/7 -3/7 0 12/7 Value for x
0 1 1/7 4/7 0 40/7 Value for y
550(1) +(-550) = 0 550 (0) +0 = 0 550 (1/7) +0 = 50/7 550 (-3/7) +350 = 800/7 550 (0) +1 = 1 550 (12/7) +0 = 16400/7 Value for Z

The solution for this linear programming is as follows:

x = 12/7 y = 40/7 z = 16400/7.

EXAMPLE 7.8

Maximize: P = 13x + 5y
Subject to: x – 3y ≤ 12
2x – y ≥ 16
2x + y ≤ 30

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 Solution:
Step 1: Transform to standard equation
-13x – 5y + P = 0 (1)
x – 3y = 12
2x – y = 16
2x + y = 30
Step 2: Determine slack variables
x – 3y + s = 12 (2)
2x – y + t = 16 (3)
2x + y + u = 30 (4)
Step 3: Set up the tableau

x y s t u P
1 -3 1 0 0 0 12 (2)
2 -1 0 1 0 0 16 (3)
2 1 0 0 1 0 30 (4)
-13 -5 0 0 0 1 0 (1)
step 4: Identify pivot variable

x y s t u P
1 -3 1 0 0 0 12 12/1 = 12
2 -1 0 1 0 0 16 16/2 = 8
2 1 0 0 1 0 30 30/2 = 15
-13 -5 0 0 0 1 0
Step 5: Create new tableau
(a) Make the pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation

x y s t u P
1 -3 1 0 0 0 12 R1 – R2
1 -1/2 0 1/2 0 0 8
2 1 0 0 1 0 30 2R2 – R3
-13 -5 0 0 0 1 0 13R2 + R4
(b) After, identify the new pivot variables

x y s t u P
0 -2 1/2 1 - 1/2 0 0 4
1 - 1/2 0 1/2 0 0 8
0 -2 0 1 -1 0 -14
0 -11 1/2 0 6 1/2 0 1 104
(c) Make the new pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation

x y s t u P
0 -2 1/2 1 -1/2 0 0 4 5/2 R3 + R1
1 - 1/2 0 1/2 0 0 8 1/2 R3 + R2
0 1 0 -1/2 1/2 0 7
0 -11 1/2 0 6 1/2 0 1 104 11.5 R3 + R4

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 (d)

x y s t u P
0 0 1 -1 3/4 1 1/4 0 21 1/2
1 0 0 1/4 1/4 0 11 1/2 x
0 1 0 -1/2 1/2 0 7 y
0 0 0 3/4 5 3/4 1 184 1/2 P

To maximize the objective function, the values of x and y should be 11.5 and 7, respectively,
to obtain the maximum value of 184.5.

EXAMPLE 7.9

Gigi’s meat shop supplies meat for two consumers, MS Market and Mega market. She earns
₱4,500 per deliverAy in MS Market and ₱3,000 per deliver in Mega Market. MS Market orders
22 kilos of beef and 36 kilos of pork per delivery, while Mega Market orders 14 kilos of beef and
16 kilos of pork per delivery. Gigi’s meat shop has 120 kilos of beef and 150 kilos of pork in her
stock freezer. How many deliveries must the meat shop make to MS Market and Mega Market
to maximize profit? How much is the maximum earnings?
Let x = MS Market
y = Mega Market
Maximize: P = 4,500x +3000y
Subject to: x,y ≥ 0
22x + 14y ≤120 kilos of beef for delivery
36x + 16y ≤ 150 kilos of pork for delivery
Solution:
Step 1:Transform into standard form
-4,500x – 3,000y + P = 0
22x +14y = 120
36x + 16y = 150
Step 2: Determine slack variables
22x + 14y + s = 120
36x + 16y + t = 150
Step 3: Create a tableau

x y s t P
22 14 1 0 0 120
36 16 0 1 0 150
-4,500 -3000 0 350 1 0
Step 4: Identify pivot variables

x y s t P
22 14 1 0 0 120 120/22 =5.45
36 16 0 1 0 150 150/36 = 4.16
(pivot row)
(pivot element)
-4,500 -3000 0 350 1 0
pivot column

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 Since the pivot element is greater than 1, divide all entries in the pivot row by the pivot
element.

x y s t P
22 14 1 0 0 120
1 16/36 0 1/36 0 150/36
-4,500 -3000 0 350 1 0
Step 5: Create new tableau

x y s t P
-22R2 + R1 22 14 1 0 0 120
1 4/9 0 1/36 0 25/6
4500(R2) +R3 -4,500 -3000 0 350 1 0
New Tableau

x y s t P
0 38/9 1 -11/18 0 85/3
1 4/9 0 1/36 0 25/6
0 -1000 0 475 1 18,750
Repeat steps 4 and 5.
Identify pivot variables.

x y s t P
0 38/9 1 -11/18 0 85/3 85/3÷38/9 = 255/38 (pivot row)

pivot element
1 4/9 0 1/36 0 25/6 25/6÷4/9 = 75/8
0 -1000 0 475 1 18,750
pivot column
Make the pivot element into entry 1.

x y s t P
0 1 1 -11/76 0 255/38 new pivot row
1 4/9 0 1/36 0 25/6
0 -1000 0 475 1 18,750
Create new tableau.

x y s t P
0 1 1 -11/76 0 255/38 ≈ 6.7 x
-4/9R1 + R2 1 0 0 -32/57 0 45/38 ≈1.1 y
1000R1 +R3 0 0 1000 6275/19 1 25,460.5 P
Solution for the linear programming problem:
x ≈ 6.7 y ≈ 1.1 P ≈ 25,460.5
Gigi could earn as much as ₱25,460 if she supplies MS market by six times and one time
for delivery to Mega Market.

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 Minimization using simplex method is quite different from the maximization. Finding
the minimum value using the simplex method, the first step is to convert this problem to
form augmented matrix for this system of inequalities. To this augmented matrix we add
a last row that represents the coefficients of the objective function, then the tableau will
be transposed. This means the rows and the columns will interchange. (Note: The rows of
the tableau are the columns of the first tableau, and vice versa.) Finally, interpret the new
tableau as a maximization problem. The maximization problem is the dual of the original
minimization problem.

EXAMPLE 7.10

Minimize: Z = 12x + 15 y
Subject to: 6x +6y ≥ 30
2x + y ≥ 8
x + 3y ≥ 12
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Transform into augmented matrix
6 6 30
2 1 8
1 3 12
12 15 0

Step 2: Transpose the matrix

6 2 1 12
6 1 3 15
30 8 12 0

Step 3: Form the dual maximization problem.

Maximize: w = 30s + 8t + 12u dual objective function
Subject to: 6s + 6t + u ≤ 12
6s + 3t + 3u ≤ 15
Step 4: Transform into standard form and determine the slack variables.
6s + 2t + u + x = 12 (1)
6s + t + 3u + y = 15 (2)
-30s – 8t – 12u = 0 (3)

s t u x y
6 2 1 1 0 12
6 1 3 0 1 15
-30 -8 -12 0 0 0

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 Step 6: Create new tableau
(a) Make the pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
1 1/3 1/6 1/6 0 2
6 3 3 0 1 6 6R1-R2
-30 -4 -9 0 0 -30 30R1+R3
(b) Identify the new pivot variables.

s t u x y
1 1/3 1/6 1/6 0 2 2÷1/6 = 12
0 1 -2 1 -1 -3 3/2 = 1.5
0 2 -7 5 0 60
(c) Make the new pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.

s t u x y
1 1/3 1/6 1/6 0 2 R1-1/6R2
- - 1
0 1 1/2
1/2 1/2 1/2
0 2 -7 5 0 60 7R2+R3
(d)
s t u x y
- 1
1 5/12 0 1/4 1/12 3/4
- - 1
0 1/2 1 1/2 1/2 1/2
-1 1 3 70
0 1/2 0 1/2 1/2 1/2
To minimize the objective function the values of x and y should be 1.5 and 3.5 respectively
to obtain the minimum value of 70.5, same answer with the example 4.

The fact that a dual maximization problem has the same solution as its original
minimization problem is stated formally in a result called the von neumann duality principle,
after the American mathematician John von Neumann (1903-1957).
The von Neumann duality principle states that objective value w of a minimization
problem in standard form has a minimum value if and only if the objective value z of the dual
maximization problem has a maximum value. Moreover, the minimum value of w is equal to
the maximum value of z.

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 EXAMPLE 7.11

Minimize: Z = 12x + 15 y
Subject to: 6x +6y ≥ 30
6x + 3y ≥ 4
x + 3y ≥ 9
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Transform into augmented matrix
6 6 30
6 3 4
1 3 9
12 15 0
Step 2: Transpose the matrix
6 2 1 12
6 3 3 15
30 4 9 0
Step 3: Form the dual maximization problem.
Maximize: w = 30s + 4t + 9u dual objective function
Subject to: 6s +6t +u ≤12
6s +3t +3u ≤ 15
Step 4: Transform into standard form and determine the slack variables.
6s +6t +u + x = 12 (1)
6s +3t +3u + y = 15 (2)
-30s – 4t – 9u = 0 (3)
s t u x y
6 6 1 1 0 12
6 3 3 0 1 15
-30 -4 -9 0 0 0
Step 5: Identify pivot variables.
s t u x y
6 6 1 1 0 6 12/6 = 2
6 3 3 0 1 6 15/6 = 2.5
-30 -4 -9 0 0 -30
Step 6: Create new tableau
(a) Make the pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
1 1 1/6 1/6 0 2
6 3 3 0 1 6 R2-6R1
-30 -4 -9 0 0 -30 30R1 +R3

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 (b) Identify the new pivot variables.

s t u x y
1 1 1/6 1/6 0 2 2÷1/6 = 12
0 -3 2 -1 1 3 3/2 = 1.5
0 26 -4 5 0 60
(c) Make the new pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.

s t u x y
1 1 1/6 1/6 0 2 R1-1/6R2
0 -1 1/2 1 - 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
0 26 -4 5 0 60 4R2+R3
(d)
s t u x y
1 1 1/4 0 1/4 - 1/12 1 3/4
0 -1 1/2 1 - 1/2 1/2 1 1/2
0 20 0 3 2 66
To minimize the objective function the values of x and y should be 3 and 2 respectively to
obtain the minimum value of 66.

EXAMPLE 7.12

From the example problem 6, use the simplex method to minimize the cost of labor.
Minimize: P = 1,500x + 1,200y
Subject to: 2x + 3y ≤ 30
2x + y ≤ 12
2x + 0.5y ≤ 10
x, y ≥ 0
Solution:
Step 1: Transform into augmented matrix, then transpose the matrix.
2 3 30 2 2 2 1500
2 1 12 3 1 0.5 1200
2 0.5 10 30 12 10 0
1500 1200 0
Step 2: Form the dual maximization problem.
Maximize: w = 30s + 12t + 10u dual objective function
Subject to: 2s +2t +2u ≤1500
3s +t +0.5u ≤ 1200
Step 3: Transform into standard form and determine the slack variables.
2s + 2t +2u + x = 12 (1)
3s + t + 0.5u + y = 15 (2)
-30s – 12t – 10u = 0 (3)

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 s t u x y
2 2 2 1 0 1500
3 1 1/2 0 1 1200
-30 -12 -10 0 0 0
Step 4: Identify pivot variables.

s t u x y
2 2 2 1 0 1500 1500/2 =750
3 1 1/2 0 1 1200 1200/3 = 400
-30 -12 -10 0 0 0
Step 5: Create new tableau.
(a) Make the pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
2 2 2 1 0 1500 2R2-R1
1 1/3 1/6 0 1/3 400
-30 -12 -10 0 0 0 30R2+R3
(b) Identify the new pivot variables.
s t u x y
0 -1 1/3 -1 2/3 -1 2/3 -700 420
1 1/3 1/6 0 1/3 400 2400
0 -2 -5 0 10 12000
(c) Make the new pivot element equal to 1, then proceed to row operation.
s t u x y
0 4/5 1 3/5 - 2/5 420
1 1/3 1/6 0 1/3 400 R2-1/6R1
0 -2 -5 0 10 12000 5R1+R3
(d)
s t u x y
0 4/5 1 3/5 - 2/5 420
1 1/5 0 - 1/10 2/5 330
0 2 0 3 8 14100
To minimize the labor cost, the company may produce three office desks and eight student
desks to had a minimum labor cost of ₱14, 100.

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:
State the inequality represented in each graph. Write your answer in the line.
1. 5.

2. 6.

3. 7.

4. 8.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 150 08.10.2018 2:19:05 PM
 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:
Sketch the solution to each system of inequality.
1. y > 3; x ≥ 4 4. y ≤ -x – 2; y ≥ -5x + 2

2. x ≥ 3; 4x + 5y ≤ 20 5. y ≤1/2x + 2; y < -2x – 3

3. y > -x – 2; y < -5x + 2 6. 3x + 2y ≥ -2; x + 2y ≤ 2

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 152 08.10.2018 2:19:05 PM
 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:
Sketch the solution to each system of inequality.
A. Find the minimum and maximum values of the given objective function, subject to the
indicated constraints. Use graphical methods.
1. Objective Function
Z = 4x + 3y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
3x – 2y ≤ 9
2x + 3y ≥ 6
x + 5y ≤ 20

2. Objective Function
Z = 4x +4y
Constraints

x, y ≥ 0
x + 3y ≤ 18
3x + 2y ≤ 24

3. Objective Function
Z = 4x + 5y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
4x + 2y ≥ 15
5x + y ≤ 16
x+y≤9

4. Objective Function
Z = 200x + 320y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
6x + 2y ≥ 12
4x + 2 ≥ 10
x + 2y ≥ 4

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 B. Minimize the objective function, subject to constraints 3x +y ≤12 and 4x + 3y ≤25. Where
x, y ≥ 0.
2 1
5. Z = x + y 10. Z = x + y
3 5

1
6. Z = x + 5y 11. Z = 8x + 12y
2

7. Z = 3x + 2y 12. Z = 23x + 34y

8. Z = 14x + 21y 13. Z = 280x + 500y

9. Z = 150x + 200y 14. Z = 120x + 240y

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 ACTIVITY 4
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Generate a linear programming model for each problem and determine the optimal
solution and the minimum/maximum value of the objective function.
1. RAD Company Inc. produces screws and bolts. The company earns ₱7 for each screw
produced and ₱6.5 for a piece of bolt. Each of these products has to go through machines
A and B. A piece of screw requires 4 hours in machine A and 2 hours in machine B. A
piece of bolt requires 3 hours in machine A and 2 hours in machine B. Machine A can only
operate for 18 hours nonstop while Machine B can operate nonstop for 20 hours. How
many screws and bolts can be produced per production cycle to maximize the company’s
profit? How much is the maximum profit?

2. A housewife wishes to mix together two kinds of food, I and II, in such a way that the
mixture contain at least 10 units of vitamin A, 12 units of vitamin B, and 8 units of
vitamin C. The vitamin contents of one kg of food is given below;

Vitamin A Vitamin B Vitamin C

Food I 1 2 3
Food II 2 2 1

A 1 kg of Food I costs ₱160 and 1 kg of Food II costs ₱110. Formulate the above
problem as a linear programming problem and find the least cost of the mixture which
will produce the diet.

3. GRR Company needs to buy some filing cabinets. Cabinet X costs ₱1200 per unit that
requires 8ft 2 of floor space, and holds 8ft 3 of files. Cabinet Y costs ₱2400 per unit that
requires 8ft 3 of floor space, and holds 12ft 3 of files. RGR Company has a budget of ₱36,000
for purchasing cabinets. The office has room for no more than 120 ft 2 of cabinets. How
many of which model should you buy, in order to maximize storage volume and not to
spend much?

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 4. Rachelle mixes two brands of fertilizer, Brand A and Brand B. Brand A costs ₱250 per bag
and contains 20 units of Nitrogen (N), 7 units of Phosphorus (P) and 5 units of Potassium
(K). Brand B costs ₱360 per bag and contains 10 units of N, 10 units of P and 10 units
of K. Find the number of bags of each brand that should be mixed to produce a mixture
having a minimum cost per bag. The minimum requirements for N,P, and K are 100 units,
70 units and 80 units respectively.

5. Mr. Go eats a mix of Cereal A and Cereal B for breakfast. The amount of calories, sodium,
and protein per ounce for each is shown in the table below. Mr. Go’s breakfast should
provide at least 600 calories but less than 700 milligrams of sodium. Mr. Go would like
to maximize the amount of protein in his breakfast mix.

Cereal A Cereal B
Calories (per ounce) 100 140
Sodium (mg per ounce) 150 190
Protein (g per ounce) 9 10

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 ACTIVITY 5
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Determine the optimal solution of the following linear programming problems using
simplex method.
1. Objective Function
Z = 6x + 8y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
16x + 7y ≤ 60
2x + 2y ≤ 14

2. Objective Function
Z = 3x +12y
Constraints
x, y ≥0
x + 6y ≤ 30
7x – 6y ≤ 24

3. Objective Function
Z = 12x + 15y
Constraints x, y ≥ 0
4x + 2y ≥ 15
7x – 6y ≤ 24
x + y ≤ 16

4. Objective Function
Z = 20x + 32y
Constraints
x, y ≥ 0
3x + 2y ≥ 6
x–y≤2
y≤7

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 5. Ceelis Furniture’s produces two tables and chairs. It takes two hours to produce the
parts of one table, one hour to assemble, and two hours to polish. It takes four hours
to produce the parts of one chair, 2.5 hour to assemble and 1.5 hours to polish. Per
month, 7000 hours are available for producing the parts, 4000 hours for assembling
the parts, and 5500 hours for polishing the tables. The profit per unit of table ₱3,400
and per unit of chair is ₱1,100. How many tables and chairs should be produced in
order to maximize the total monthly profit?

6. Tahani has ₱300,000 to invest in three funds in F1, F2, and F3. Fund F1 offers a
return of 2% and has low risk. Fund F2 offers a return of 4% and has a medium
risk. Fund F3 offers a return of 5% but has a high risk. To be on the safe side, Tahani
invests no more than ₱30,000 in F3 and at least twice as much as in F1 than in F2.
Assuming that the rates hold till the end of the year, what amounts should he invest
in each fund in order to maximize the yearend returns?

7. Each month a store owner can spend at most ₱1,000,000 on PC’s and laptops. A PC
costs the store owner ₱10,000 and a laptop costs him ₱15,000. Each PC is sold for a
profit of ₱4000 while laptop is sold for a profit of ₱7000. The store owner estimates
that at least 15 PC’s but no more than 80 are sold each month. He also estimates that
the number of laptops sold is at most half the PC’s. How many PC’s and how many
laptops should be sold in order to maximize the profit?

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 LESSON
8 Mathematics of Finance

IN EARLY YEARS, business is simple as trading

services and goods in exchanged for other services Catch a man a fish, and you can sell it to
him. Teach a man to fish, and you ruin a
and goods in return. Nowadays, most businesses and
wonderful business opportunity.
individuals purchase assets by means of money. Money
Karl Marx
is affects many aspects in our life, so handling it is
important. Financial management helps to determine
proper use and allocation of funds. It helps reduce the
cost of capital and increase the value of the assets.
In addition, it promotes saving while maximizing LEARNING OBJECTIVES
productivity and wealth. At the end of the lesson, students are
expected to:
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY • support the use of mathematics
in various aspects and
Visualize that you and your friends have earned endeavours in life;
₱1,000 altogether by doing sorts of jobs in your • define terms about basic
neighborhood like cleaning backyards and watering financing;
plants. You must all decide how you will use the • compute for simple and
compound interest;
₱1,000. You must put some money into SAVINGS, some
• discuss the financial terms;
money into SPENDING, and some money into GIVING.
• differentiate stocks, bonds, and
Savings: mutual funds; and
1. How much your group will save? • identify the process of home
ownership.

2. What will your group be saving for?

Spending:
1. How much your group will spend?

2. What will your group buy?

Giving:
1. How much your group will give?

2. Where will you donate your money, and who will

it help?

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 DISCUSSION

INTEREST
Interest is the charged fee for the advantage of borrowing money. You can receive an
interest when you let others use your money such as depositing money in a bank or lending
to a friend. You pay an interest when use other people’s money such as borrowing money
from a bank or a friend.
The amount of money you loan or credit either to or from someone is called principal.
Interest rate is the percent charged to the principal. This charged interest between the loan
date and the repayment date that is identified by the period of time is called the interest
period or the term of the loan. There are two types of interest, simple, and compound.

Simple Interest
The quoted percent for a simple interest is usually annual (yearly) rate. A rate of 10%
means that the interest payment for a year will be 10% of the principal. To compute the
simple interest on a 1-year loan, simply multiply the principal by the rate.
Interest (I) = Principal (P) × Rate (r) × Time (t)

EXAMPLE 8.1

Rosario borrowed ₱10,000 for a one year at a rate of 8% simple interest. Compute the
interest.

Solution: To compute for the interest, multiply the amount of principal, interest period
(time) and interest rate. Since, the principal is ₱10,000 and the interest for one year is 8%, by
using the formula:
₱10,000 × 0.08 x 1 = ₱800.
The interest that Rosario needs to pay is ₱800.

However, some loans don’t have exact period in years. To compute the simple interest
on loans of any period, multiply the principal by the rate and then multiply by the time, with
Time stated in terms of years or in fractions of years. For easier computation, if the time
period is not exact period in years, use the measured in months instead of years. Change the
time into years by dividing the number of months by 12 (the number of months in one year).

EXAMPLE 8.2

Find the simple interest on loans of ₱10,200 when the rate is 4% and the loan periods are
six months; and three years.
Solution:
6
For 6 months: I = ₱10,200 × 0.04 × = ₱204
12
For 3 years: I = ₱10,200 × 0.04 × 3 = ₱1,224

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 Ordinary Simple Interest. If the period of the loan is stated in terms of days, computing
its interest involves dividing the number of days by the number of days in 1 year. This
computation uses 360-day method assuming that every year had 360 days and that every
month had 30 days.

EXAMPLE 8.3

Compute the ordinary simple interest on ₱12,000 at 3% for 120 days.

Solution:
120
I = ₱12,000 × 0.03 × = ₱120.
360
After a period of 120 days with ordinary interest computation, the interest is ₱120.

Exact Simple Interest. Banks, savings, and loan institutions, credit unions, and the
federal government use a 365-day year (366 days for leap years) to compute interest. The
computations are the same as for ordinary simple interest, except that 365 days is used
instead of 360 days.
EXAMPLE 8.4

Compute the exact simple interest on ₱12,000 at 3% for 120 days.

Solution:
120
I = ₱12,000 × 0.03 × ≈ ₱118.36
365
After a period of 120 days with exact simple interest computation, the interest is ₱118.36.

Maturity or Future Value with Simple Interest. The sum of principal and interest is called
maturity (A) or future value.
A = Principal (P) + Interest (I)
In other form, A = P × Prt or A = P (1 + rt)
EXAMPLE 8.5

Joanne lends ₱8,000 to his friend Dyan, so that Dyan can fly to Palawan to visit her family
there. If Joanne is charging Dyan only 3% simple interest within 6 months, how much does Dyan
need to pay?
Solution: Given that the principal is ₱8,000 with 3% simple interest in 6 months, to compute
the total amount Dyan needs to play, use the formula: (Note: period of time should be in terms
of years or fraction of a year)
A = P(1 + rt)
= ₱8,000 [1 + 0.03(6⁄12)]
= ₱8,000 (1 + 0.015)
= ₱8,000 (1.015)
= ₱8,120
Dyan needs to pay Joanne a total amount of ₱8,120

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 Present Value with Simple Interest. In some loans, the interest is being deducted in advance
from the principal amount. If a borrower applies for a loan of ₱10,000, he will receive less
than ₱10,000 since the interest is deducted to the principal amount. To compute the present
value (S), the formula is
S = Principal (P) – Interest (I)
In other form, S = P – Prt or S = P (1 – rt)
EXAMPLE 8.6

Missy needs now to pay a medical bill worth ₱20,000. She plans to take a loan form a
lending company that charges 6% simple interest payable in two years deducted in advance.
How much loan does she need to apply now?
Solution: Since the interest is deducted in advance, Missy needs to apply for a loan that
is more than ₱20,000. Hence, the ₱20,000 is the present value, and the principal amount is
unknown. By using the formula: S = P(1-rt), we get:
₱20,000 = P[1 – 0.06(2)]
₱20,000 = P(1 – 0.12)
₱20,000 = P(0.88)
₱20,000 = P(0.88)
(0.88) = (0.88)
₱22,727.27 ≈ P

Compound Interest and Future Value

People avails car or home with the support of loans to a bank. Most of banks offers
interest that is compounded. Compound interest means that the computations of the simple
interest formula are performed periodically during the term of the investment. The amount
from the previous interest computation is added to the principal before the next interest
computation is performed. If an investment is compounded annually for two years, the simple
interest is computed once at the end of each year. The simple interest earned in year 1 is
added to the principal for the beginning of year 2. The total value of an investment is the
principal plus all the compound interest, called the future value or the compound amount.

EXAMPLE 8.7

Don invests ₱20,000 for two years in an account that pays 6% compounded annually.
Compute the total compound interest and future value.
Solution:
During the first year, the interest is: In the second year, the interest is:
₱20,000.00 Original principal ₱21,200.00 Second-year principal
x 0.06 Interest rate x_ 0.06 Interest rate
₱1,200.00 First-year interest ₱ 1,272.00 Second-year interest

After a year, the total amount is: After the second year, the total amount is:
₱20,000.00 First-year principal ₱21,200.00 Second-year principal
+ ₱1,200.00 First-year interest + ₱ 1,272.00 Second-year interest
₱21,200.00 Second-year principal ₱22,472.00 Final compound amount

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 On the other hand, computing the future values using this method is time-consuming
and becomes more tedious with each compounding. There is another way to compute for the
compound amount by using this formula:
nt
 r
=
A P1 + 
 n

Where A = future value or compound amount

P = Principal amount
r = interest rate
t = time or loan period
n = number of periods per year

EXAMPLE 8.8

If ₱20,000 is invested for two years at 6% compounded annually, compute the future value
of the investment.
Solution: Given that P = ₱20,000; r = 6% compounded annually; n= once a year; t = 2 years,
substitute the values into the formula.
1( 2 )
 0.06 
A = ₱20,000  1 + 
 1 
A = ₱20,000 (01.06) 2

A = ₱20,000 (1.12360000) Use at 8 decimal places.

A = ₱22,472.00
Compounding was not always computed annually, it could also be done daily (every day),
monthly (every month), quarterly (every quarter), or semiannually (every half-year). Period is
the unit of time of the compounding. The period will be a day, a month, a quarter, a half-year,
or a year.

Annually Semi-annually Quarterly Monthly Daily

Periods in a Year 1 time 2 times 4 times 12 times 365 times
1 2 4 12 365

EXAMPLE 8.9

Find the future value of ₱38,000 invested for 5 years at 8% compounded quarterly.
Solution: Given that P = ₱38,000; r = 5% compounded quarterly; n= 4; t = 4 years, substitute
the values into the formula.
nt
 r
AA = P  1 + 
=
 n 
4( 4 )
 0.05 
A = ₱38,000  1 + 
 4 
A = ₱38,000 (1.0125)16
A = ₱38,000 (1.21988955) Use at 8 decimal places.
A = ₱46,355.80

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 Present Values. Basic investment problem is to compute what a given sum of money
invested today will be worth in the future. Sometimes a business will estimate its future
revenues and costs (future values). Then the business might use these numbers to compute
the required amounts to invest initially (present values). The present value is the original
principal invested before it earns interest.

EXAMPLE 8.10

Mrs. Celestine has a 12-year-old son and she is planning to invest for her son’s education
that will be worth ₱120,000 when he turns 18. If Mrs. Celestine can earn 5% compounded semi-
annually, how much money should she put into each investment today?
Solution: Mrs. Celestine knows that the future value of the investments is ₱120,000. Now,
she wants to know the present value, the amount that she needs to invest today for her son.
Since her son is 12 years old, the duration for her investment to reach ₱120,000 is six years.
Given that A = ₱120,000; r = 5% compounded semi-annually; =2; t = 6 years, substitute the
values into the formula.
2( 6 )
0.05 
₱120,000 = P  1 + 
 2 
₱120,000 = P (1.025)12
₱120,000 = P (1.34488882)
P ≈ ₱89,226.70
Mrs. Celestine needs to invest ₱89,226.70 now so that her son’s education is ensured with
₱120,000 after six years.

INFLATION
Inflation is the rate at which the prices for goods and services is rising and, hence, the
purchasing power of currency is falling. The effect of inflation is the same as computing the
compound amount of the given principal amount.
EXAMPLE 8.11

Assuming an annual inflation rate of 3%, what is the equivalent value of ₱50,000 10 years
from now?
Solution: To compute the equivalent amount of ₱50,000 ten year from now, use the formula:
nt
 r
=AA =P  1 + 
 n
Given that P = ₱50,000; r = 3% compounded annually; n = 1; t = 10
110
 0.03 
A = ₱50,000  1 + 
 1 
A = ₱50,000 (1.03)10
A = ₱50,000 (1.34391638)
A = ₱67,195.82

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 This means that in 10 years, the purchasing power of ₱50,000 is equivalent to ₱67,195.82.
Furthermore, if your salary ₱50,000, suffices your lifestyle now, you can still maintain the
same lifestyle in 10 years from now if you can earn ₱67,195.82.

FINANCIAL INTEREST RATES

Finance and investment industries such as banks and lending companies use interest
rates. Almost every type of financial product has an interest rate associated with it.
Nominal Interest Rate. The compounded annual interest rate that financial product or
loan is stated is the nominal interest rate. For example, if a bank says that a loan has 5%
interest, the 5% is the nominal interest rate. If you borrow a ₱10,000 loan at 5% nominal
interest, you need to pay ₱500 interest to the bank.
Real Interest Rate. The real interest rate takes the effects of inflation into account. Your
purchasing power goes down over time because prices for goods and services rise. It is the
actual interest rate you earn or pay after taking the effects of inflation into account. To
calculate the real interest rate is to take the nominal interest rate and subtract the inflation
rate. For example, assume an investment offers to pay you 5% interest. The 5% is the nominal
rate. Upon the 1% inflation rate for the year. That means the real amount of interest you will
earn is 4% (5%-1%).
Effective Interest Rate. The simple interest rate that would yield the same amount of
interest after a year is effective interest rate. If a bank offers a saving account that pays 4%
compounded monthly and yielding 4.07%. For example, assume a ₱10,000 investment pays
10% interest, compounded semi-annually. The investment starts at ₱10,000; six months
later, it receives half of the 10% interest, or 5%, so it’s worth ₱10,500. Six months later, it
receives another 5%, but this time, the 5% is calculated on ₱10,500. Instead of receiving
₱50, the investment receives ₱525. The total interest received on ₱10,000 is ₱1,025, so the
effective interest rate is 10.25%.
Annual Percentage Rate (APR). APR is the same with effective interest rate that the
total cost of borrowed money is expressed as a percentage of the total owed applied per
year. If you are charged ₱1,000 for a merchandise and your APR is 24%. It means that in a
year, you’d owe ₱1,240. That’s the ₱1,000 you owe plus ₱240 in interest and fees (24% of
₱1,000). Moreover, you are charged 2% each month. So if you owe ₱1,000 at the end of your
monthly statement period, you’d be charged ₱20 in interest. Your total due would be ₱1,020.
If you made no payment, you’d be charged interest on the new balance, which is now ₱1,020.
Interest, and fees for the second month would be ₱20.40.

ANNUITIES AND LOANS

Annuities and loans both involve series of regular cash flows with fixed frequency. Loan
are the payments that we make while annuity are the payments that we receive. Furthermore,
rent payments, car payments and cell phone bill payments can all be considered an annuity.
Also, the monthly salary you receive from a steady job is an annuity. There are several types
of annuities which are:
1. Annuity certain – has a fixed number of cash flows
2. Contingent annuity – the number of cash flows made depends on other factors.

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 3. Level payment annuity – an annuity in which the cash flows are all of equal size. For non-
level annuities- the cash flows may vary in unpredictable ways.
4. Ordinary annuity – payments are made at the end of each period.
5. Simple annuity – the frequency of payments is identical to the frequency of interest
compounding.
6. Complex annuity – the frequency of payments and frequency of interest compounding
are different.
Suppose Jackie took out a four year loan from Pure Auto financing. She borrowed ₱8,000
for 6% interest rate and she actually made payments of ₱192.31 at the end of each of the next
48 months that corresponded to 7.2% APR compounded monthly.
For Jackie this was a loan as she was the one that had to make payments but for the Pure
Auto financing, this was an annuity. They were the one who received the stream of regular
cash payments over. Thus, loans and annuities are the same thing. Switching between loans
and annuities just involves swapping the payer and the payee. In particular, the loan formula
can also be used to value annuities:
 1 − (1 + i ) − n 
P =R 
 i 

Where P = Principal amount;

R = Payment size/loan payoff;
t = number of years;
r = nominal interest rate per year;
m = number of periods per year;
i = interest rate per period, so ;
n = number of periods in the term, so

EXAMPLE 8.12

Lenie borrows ₱1,000 today. She will repay the loan by making four equal payments over
the next year. The payments will be made at the end of every third month. The interest is 3.2%
APR compounded quarterly. Determine the amount she needs to pay every quarter.
0.032
Solution: P= ₱1,000; t = 1; m = 4; n = 4(1) = 4; r = 0.032; i = = 0.008
4
 1 − (1 + 0.008 )−4 
Then substitute the formula: 1000 = R  
 0.008 
= R ( 3.921262 )

1000
Solving for R gives R =
3.921262
R = 255.02
Therefore, Lenie needs to pay ₱255.02 every quarter.

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 Loan Payoffs. Paying the remaining loan before the end of the loan term is called loan
payoff. Suppose that you had a car loan payable for five years and you decided after three
years to pay off the car loan. The payoff amount in not just multiplying the monthly payment
by the remaining 24 months because the computation is based on APR. To compute the
payoff, the following formula is used:

 1 − (1 + i ) − n 
LP = R  
 i 

Where P = Loan payoff;

R = payment;
t = number of years;
r = nominal interest rate per year;
i = interest rate per period, so;
n = number of remaining periods in the term

EXAMPLE 8.13

Luis wants to pay his car loan that he owned for three years. His monthly payment is
₱14,500 on a five year loan at an interest of 5% APR. Find the load payoff amount.
0.05
Solution: R = ₱14,500; i = = 0.00416667; n = 24
12
 1 − (1 + i)−n 
Substitute the values in the formula: LP = R  ;
 i 
 
 1 − (1 + 0.00416667 )−24 
We have: LP = 14,500  
 0.00416667 
 
LP = 330,511.51

Therefore the payoff amount is ₱330,511.51.

Credit Cards
An individual who uses a credit card in purchases is actually contracting a loan with the
issuing bank. It has zero interest for your purchases if you pay in full on or before the due
date; otherwise there will be additional charges. Late payment fee is also charge if you fail
to pay the minimum amount required on the payment due date. The charged will be added
to the annual fee for the use of the credit card.
A monthly bill is issued to the credit card holders, including the payment due date in
which it is usually 20 days from the statement date, the total amount due and the minimum
amount due.
The statement date of 20 th day of the month states that any purchase made on the 21st
day of the current month up to the 20 th day of the succeeding month will be included in the
next billing month. If your statement date is September 21, and you made a purchased on
September 22, the purchase bill will be included to the October 21 billing statement. If you
purchased on October 20, then the purchase bill will be included to the October 21 billing
statement. Usually the payment due is 20 days from the statement date. So a statement date
of October 21 has a payment due date of December 10.
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 EXAMPLE 8.14

Your statement date is every 25th day of the month, and you made purchase on November
16. (a)When the statement date of the purchase? (b) What is the payment due date?
Answer: (a) November 25
(b) December 15

Assume that your bill has a payment due date of December 15. You made a partial
payment to your total amount due on December 15, so a finance charge on the outstanding
balance will start to accumulate on December 15. Any purchase made after December 15
will immediately start to accumulate finance charges. To calculate the financial charges,
daily balance method is used. It is identified by dividing the sum of the total amounts owed
each day of the month through the number of days in the billing period.

Average Balance (ADB) = sujm of total amount owed each day of the month
number of days in the billing period

EXAMPLE 8.15

Darwin had a credit card bill worth ₱8,500, and paid ₱4,000 only on its due date on January
3. His purchase worth ₱3,000 was made on January 8, and a payment of ₱3,700 was done on
January 12. If the interest for the average daily balance is 2% per month, find the finance charge
on January 14.
Solution:

Unpaid Balance Times

Payment/ Balance Number Number of Days
Date
Purchase Each Day of Days
(Aggregated Balance)
Dec. 14 – Jan. 2 8,500 19 161,500
Jan. 3 – Jan. 7 - 4,000 4,500 10 45,000
Jan. 8 – Jan. 11 3,000 7,500 6 45,000
Jan. 12 – Jan. 14 - 3,700 3,000 14 42,000
Total 293,500
The sum of the total amounts owed each day of the month is ₱293,500. Thus, the average
daily balance is:
293,500
ADB =
31
ADB ≈ 9,467.74

The finance charge on February 3 bill is:

I = Prt
I = (9,467.74) (0.02) (1)
I = 189.35

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 INVESTMENT
An investment is a purchase of goods that are not consumed today but used in the future
to create wealth. Moreover, it can be a monetary asset purchased with the idea that this will
provide income in the future or will later be sold at a higher price for a profit. An investment
may involve the extension of a loan or line of credit, which entitles one to repayment with
interest, or it may involve buying an ownership stake in a business, with the hope that the
business will become profitable. There are many types of investments and investing styles
some are mutual funds, ETFs, individual stocks, and bonds.
Stocks. A stock is proprietorship in a company.
When you buy a stock, you buy a piece of the company
and you are then a stockholder. Stockholders receive
stock certificates that indicate the number of share
of stocks they own. When you own a stock, the value
of your shares goes up and down as the company’s
perceived market value fluctuates. Selling shares of
stock is a common method corporations use to raise
capital for things such as expansion and improvements,
without borrowing large amounts of money. Market
value sets the price of the stock for which the stockholder is willing to sell a share of stock.
Trading stocks may use brokers that charge commissions. The Philippine Stock Exchange
(PSE) serves as stock market in the Philippines. Using the Rule of 72, so if you have ₱5,000
in stocks that have average 10% return overtime, it takes 7.2 years to double your original
investment to ₱10,000. By the end of 36 years you will have potentially ₱160,000.
Distributing profit to the company’s stockholders are in the form of dividends. A
dividend is usually given per share of stock. So if you own 10 stocks in a certain company
and the dividend per share is ₱50, your total dividend is ₱500.
Dividend yield is percentage of dividend over the price of stock. Same as the rate of the
dividend to the stock price. This can be computed by using simple interest formula:
I = Prt
where the principal (P) is the stock price; rate (r) is the dividend yield; and interest (I)
is the dividend per share.
EXAMPLE 8.16

A stock pays an annual dividend of ₱75 per share. If the stock is trading at ₱1,000, what is
the dividend yield?
Solution: By using the formula: I = Prt; I = 75; P = 1,000 and t = 1.
75 = (1,000)r(1)
75 = 1000r
0.075 = r
The dividend yield is 7.5%

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 Table 8.1. Stock Quotations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

High Low Stock Div Yld % P-E Ratio Volume High Low Close Net Change
100s
52 Week

Dell-
1671/2 225/8 48 95803 1667/8 1623/16 164 +4
Cptr

95 33 Intel .12 0.1 23 166698 90 3/4 88 891/2 +1 1/4

38 5/8 22 Sears 2.00 5.1 15 17969 39 7/8 37 1/8 391/2 +2 1/8

Columns 1, 2 and 3 During the last 52 weeks, the highest price paid for a share of Sears common stock
High, Low, Stock was ₱385/8 and the lowest was ₱22.
Column 4 Sears stock pays ₱2.00 yearly in dividends per share.
Column 5 At today’s price, the investor receives a return of 5.1% or ₱5.10 for every ₱100
Yield invested. The yield is obtained by dividing the annual dividend by the closing price.
Column 6 At today’s price, the ratio of price to earnings is 15. It is one way to compare stocks
P-E Ratio of firms in the same industry. In general, low P-E stocks tend to have higher dividend
yields and less risk. The P-E ratio is obtained by dividing the stock’s price by the
company’s latest 12 months earnings per share.
Column 7 On this day, 1,796,900 shares of Sears’s stock changed hands.
Volume in 100s
Column 8, 9, 10, During the trading day, the price was as high as ₱39.87 1/2 per share and as low as
and 11 High, Low, ₱37.121/2. The final price was for ₱39.50 which was ₱2.12 1/2 more than the final
Close, Net Change price on the previous day.

Bonds. Bonds are investment instruments

that are basically loans to a company with the
expectation that the loan will be paid back at
a set date in the future. Bond certificates are
given to the investors indicating a promise of
paying the face value of bond at a maturity
date along with a coupon or the interest rate.
Again, using the Rule of 72, and have ₱5,000 in
bonds that have average 6% return overtime, it
will take you 12 years to double your original
Sample bond certificate
Source: randelltiongson.com investment to ₱10,000.

The Philippine Bureau of Treasury (BTr) issues Retail Treasury Bond (RTB) for the
government to raise the needed funds. The RTBs are medium to long-term government
securities that pay interest regularly. Bonds can be purchased as new offerings or on the
secondary market, just like stocks. A bond’s value can rise and fall based on a number of
factors. Bonds can be bought in increments like ₱1,000, ₱5,000 or even ₱10,000. For instance,
if you buy a ₱10,000 bond, you will receive that ₱10,000 back when the bond matures and in
the interim, you will receive interest payments (generally) twice per year.

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 Bonds are safer investment than stocks. In a case that a company declares bankruptcy,
bondholders are the first to claim the assets of the company that the stockholders. Prices of
bonds may vary depending on the demand of the market or to market performance.
EXAMPLE 8.17

A RTB issued by BTr which has 10-year maturity date and a coupon rate of 6 1/2. This stated
interest rate represents the 6.5 percent paid on the bond’s ₱1,000 face value. How much
interest will the bondholder receive?
Solution: The interest is computed by using the formula: , where
I = 1000(0.065)(10)
I = 650
The bondholder will receive an interest of ₱650.

Table 8.2. Bond Quotations

1 2 3 4 5

Bonds Cur Yld Vol Close Net Change

Chiquita 10 1/2 04 10.7 144 98 1/4 + 3/8

K Mart 6.2s97 cv 50 91 + 1/4
Disney zr05 ... 414 45 3/4 + 3/4

Column 1 A bond issued by Chiquita which matures in 2004 has a coupon rate of 10 1/2. This
Bond, Coupon Rate, stated interest rate represents the 10.5 percent paid on the bond’s ₱1,000 face value.
Date of Maturity The holder of this bond will receive ₱105 annually.

The “s” in the K Mart quotation separates the 6.2 percent rate from the 1997
maturity date. Note this bond is listed in fractions of 10s instead of 8s.

The Disney bonds are zero coupon bonds as indicated by the “zr.” They do not pay
annual interest.

Column 2 At this day’s price, the holder of a Chiquita bond annually will receive 10.7 percent or
Current Yield ₱10.70 for every ₱100 invested. The current yield is calculated by dividing the annual
interest by the closing price.

“cv” indicates the K Mart bond is convertible and can be exchanged for K Mart stock.
Column 3 On this day, 500,000 Chiquita bonds were sold. The number 50 has been multiplied
Volume by 10,000.
Column 4, 5 The final price for Chiquita bonds was ₱982.50 which was ₱3.75 more than the final
Close, Net Change price on the day before.

Mutual Fund. Mutual Funds are a way for a group of investors to pool their money so they
can invest in a wider variety of stocks and bonds. The group of investors forms a “mutual”
investment group and hires a professional fund manager. This manager makes decisions
about how to invest the money based on the goals of the group. In a mutual fund, the value of
your shares goes up and down as the value of the stocks and bonds in the fund rise and fall.

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 Every mutual fund publishes a prospectus that contains information such as the fund’s
investment objective, risks, fees, and expenses. Mutual funds are valued at the end of
trading day and any transactions to buy or sell shares are executed after the market close.
Mutual fund units or shares can be purchased or redeemed at the funds current net asset
value (NAV). The NAV is dependent on the performance of the stocks in the fund and can be
computed using the formula:
NAV = A – L
N
Where A = total fund asset; L = total liabilities; and N = number of shares outstanding.

EXAMPLE 8.18

A mutual fund has ₱349,000,000 worth of stocks, ₱230,000,000 worth of bonds and
₱401,000,000 worth of other assets. The total fund liabilities is worth ₱51,000,000 and there
are 20,000,000 shares outstanding. If you invested ₱200,000 in this find, find the net asset value
of the mutual fund and the number of shares you purchased.
Solution: Given A ₱349,000,000 + ₱230,000,000 + ₱401,000,000 = 908,000,000;
L = ₱51,000,000; and N= 20,000,000
908,000,000 – 51,000,000
NAV =
20,000,000
The net asset value of the fund is ₱42.85.
To find the number of shares you purchased, divide the amount you invest by the net asset
value.
200,000
Number of Shares =
42.85
Number of Shares = 4,667.44
Therefore, with the amount of ₱200,000 you purchased of shares.

Table 8.3. Mutual Fund Quotations

1 2 3 4
FIDELITY INVEST NAV Net Chg YTD % Ret
MAGLN 83.35 -0.21 +5.8
OVRSE 32.15 +0.03 +4.2
VANGUARD GROUP
SELVALU 11.07 -0.03 +1.5
STAR 16.67 -0.03 +5.1

Column 1 Magellan and Overseas are names of mutual funds within the Fidelity Investment family.
Fund Family Select Value and STAR are mutual funds within the Vanguard Group of funds.
Column 2 The NAV stands for the net asset value per share of the fund at the close of the previous
NAV business day. A fund’s NAV is calculated by adding up the value of all stocks or other
securities owned by the fund, subtracting the liabilities, and then dividing by the number
of fund shares available. However, sales commissions are not subtracted from the NAV.
Column 3 The net change column shows the change in the NAV from the preceding day’s quote. In
Net Chg this example, there was a 21 percent loss in net asset value of the Fidelity Magellan Mutual
Fund as compared to the previous day. Both of the listed Vanguard funds lost three cents
a share.
Column 4 YTD % return refers to the year-to-date percentage change in the value of the fund.
YTD % Ret That includes re-investment of all distributions, subtracting annual expenses charged to
investors.

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 Home Ownership
Most Filipinos acquire a house through the housing program of PAG-IBIG fund. PAG-IBIG
usually approves loans less than the amount of the selling price of the property. Mortgage
is the amount borrowed to procure a property, and equity is the amount that supplements
the mortgage to purchase the property. Suppose the house-and-lot is worth ₱1,230,000,
and PAG-IBIG approves a loan of ₱1,000,000, so there is still ₱230,000 needed to secure the
property. The ₱1,000,000 is the mortgage and the ₱230,000 is the equity.
Home loans can not only be done through PAG-IBIG, banks and other financial institutions
also have housing loans. When the housing loans is applied from a bank, a down payment
of at least 10% of the selling price is required. Most of the mortgages are paid monthly
that lasts for 15, 20, or 25 years, depending on the terms given by the bank or the financial
institution. If there was a failure of payment, the bank has the right to foreclose. The bank
takes the ownership of the foreclosed property and has the right to sell it.
EXAMPLE 8.19

Art purchase a house-and-lot worth ₱1,410,000, he made a down payment of ₱150,000

and the remaining is through bank loan. He was approved for a 20-year mortgage with a rate of
5%. Determine the monthly payment of Art.
Solution: First, calculate the mortgage by subtracting the down payment to the selling price.
Mortgage = Selling Price – Down Payment
Mortgage = 1,410,000 – 150,000
Mortgage = 1,260,000
1 – (1 + i) –n
Then compute the monthly payment by using the formula P = R where P =
i
1,260,000; n = 240; and i =0.00416667; then substitute the values to the formula.
 1 − (1 + 0.00416667 )−240 
R  = 1,260,000
 0.00416667 
 
R ( 88.47454566 ) = 1,260,000
R = 14,241.38
Art needs to pay the bank at least ₱14, 241.38 monthly for his housing loan.

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

In problems 1-4, compute the amount of (a) ordinary simple interest and (b) the amount
of exact simple interest. Then compute (c) the difference between the two interest amounts

Ordinary Exact
Principal Rate Time Difference
Interest Interest
1) ₱4,590 6% 180 days

2) ₱2,450 8% 60 days

3) ₱34,520 3.8% 92 days

4) ₱2,000 9.2% 150 days

5. Ronnie borrowed money for 240 days at a rate of 7.2% ordinary simple interest. How
much did Ronnie borrow if he paid ₱190 in interest?

6. Gianne loaned ₱10,500 to one of her employees for 70 days. If the employee’s interest
amount was ₱120.50, what was the ordinary simple interest rate?

7. Terry James loaned ₱150,000 to a machine shop owner who was buying a piece of used
equipment. The interest rate was 6.5% exact simple interest, and the interest amount
was ₱3,650. Compute the number of days of the loan.

8. Kaycee loaned ₱20,000 to Farah, she charged only 3% ordinary simple interest. A month
later, when Fay received a monetary incentive, she repaid the entire loan and all the
interest. What was the total amount that Farah paid?

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 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

1. Calculate the future value (compound amount) and compound interest

Principal Rate Time Future Value Interest

a. ₱ 14,000 6% 3 yrs
compounded
monthly

b. ₱120,000 8% 7 yrs
compounded
quarterly

c. ₱240,000 9% compound 11 yrs

annually

d. ₱ 87,000 10% 10 yrs

compounded
semi-annually

2. Calculate the present value (principal) and compound interest.

Principal Rate Time Present Value Interest

a. ₱30,000 5% 2 yrs
compounded
monthly

b. ₱ 6,000 4% 12 yrs
compounded
quarterly

c. ₱15,000 9% compound 5 yrs

annually

d. ₱40,000 6% 8 yrs
compounded
semi-annually

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 3. Ryan Lee received a ₱16,000 bonus from his employer. He can invest it safely in his credit
union at 6% compounded quarterly. What will be the value of the investment in seven
years?

4. Donna James inherited ₱600,200. She invested it immediately in an investment fund

paying 4.5% compounded semi-annually. How much interest would Donna earn if she
left principal and interest invested for 10 years?

5. Lourdes was planning to buy a new car in three years. She has some money today that
she can invest for three years in an account that will pay 6% compounded quarterly.
How much of it would she need to deposit today so that she will have ₱800,000 in her
account in three years?

6. Benjie will need to buy a ₱125,000 machine in three years. He can deposit excess profits
from this year in an investment that should pay 9% compounded monthly. If Benjie earns
the ₱125,000 in three years, how much will he earn in interest?

7. If you deposit ₱2500 into an account paying 11% annual interest compounded quarterly,
how long until there is ₱4500 in the account?

8. How much money would you need to deposit today at 5% annual interest compounded
monthly to have ₱20,000 in the account after 9 years?

9. If you deposit ₱6000 into an account paying 6.5% annual interest compounded quarterly,
how long until there is ₱12,600 in the account?

10. If you deposit ₱5000 into an account paying 8.25% annual interest compounded semi-
annually, how long until there is ₱9350 in the account?

11. Assuming an annual inflation rate of 2.5%, what is the equivalent value of ₱25,000 ten
year from now?

12. In the year 2016, Teddy was buying 10 apples and 10 oranges, each ₱100 for 1kg. In 2017,
Teddy still buys 10 oranges and 10 apples, but oranges are now ₱130/kg and apples
₱120/kg. How much has the price of oranges risen? how much has the price of apples
risen? What is the percent of inflation?

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 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

1. Neil’s refrigerator has stopped working and he needs to get a new one. He purchase a
new refrigerator for ₱36,700. He paid a 10% deposit and obtain a loan for the balance.
The interest charged on the loan was 7.5% APR compounded annually. He repaid the
loan and interest in equal monthly installment for over a period of two years. Calculate
each of the following:.
a. deposit

b. loan he made

c. interest on the loan

d. total amount to be repaid

e. amount of monthly payment

2. Lola always wanted to be the first to have the latest gadget on the market. So after the
release of a new phone Find X, she bought it in an instant by using her credit card. Find X
costs ₱62,000 that she will be paying monthly over a year with an interest of 2.5% APR
compounded monthly.

a. How much will she pay every month?

b. If she got pay her monthly bill dated March 25, when will be her due date?

c. Lola missed to pay her bill for this month. Given that a charge will be made, how
much does she need to pay for the next billing?

3. Lallie repays ₱21,250 per month over five years on her car loan of ₱1,000,000. What
nominal rate of interest was Lallie being charged?

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 4. A ₱750,000 loan is being paid off at 6% nominal rate per annum reducible interest over a
period of 12 years. The monthly repayment is ₱7,320. Calculate the total amount repaid
on the loan.

5. Pedro’s ₱ 60,000 loan at 8% per annum nominal/flat interest is repaid over a period of
six years. Calculate the effective rate of interest charged on the loan.

6. A ₱45,000 loan at 8% per annum reducible interest in to be repaid over 15 years at

₱430.20 per month. Calculate the following:

a. total repayment on the loan

b. total amount of interest paid

c. equivalent flat rate of interest on the loan.

7. Shane is planning to repaint her house. She estimates the total cost to be ₱34,900. They
decide to pay 40% up front and finance the balance at 10% interest for 24 months.
a. Calculate the down payment.

b. Determine the amount financed.

c. Determine the monthly payment.

d. Calculate finance charge.

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 ACTIVITY 4
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:
Complete the table and find the average daily balance for each statement shown.
1. March Statement
Date Details Amount (₱)
1 Mar Opening balance 380
5 Mar Phone bill 1,490
16 Mar Jeans 750
21 Mar Payment -800
25 Mar Dress 940

Daily Balance Number of Days Aggregated Balance (₱)

38 4 152

187

Total

Average daily balance:

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 2. The activity date, details, and amount for a credit card bill are shown below. The due
date of the bill is May 1. On April 1, there was an unpaid balance of ₱2,350. Find the
finance charge if the interest rate is 1.5% per month.

Statement
Date Details Amount (₱)
1 Apr Opening balance 2,350
3 Apr Purchase 490
10 Apr Purchase 1,230
12 Apr Payment -500
15 Apr Cash Advance 2,000
22 Apr Purchase 860
23 Apr Cash Advance 1,000
29 Apr Payment -1,200
1 May Purchase 360
12 May Payment -1,345

Daily Balance Number of Days Aggregated Balance (₱)

Total

Average daily balance:

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 ACTIVITY 5
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

1. A stock pays an annual dividend of ₱1,342 per share. Calculate the dividends paid to a
shareholder who has 375 shares of the company’s stock.

2. A stock pays an annual dividend of ₱248 per share. Calculate the dividends paid to a
shareholder who has 1500 shares of the company’s stock.

3. Calculate the dividends paid to a shareholder who has 850 shares of a stock that is paying
an annual dividend of ₱63 per share.

4. Find the dividend yield for a stock that pays an annual dividend of ₱132 per share and
has a current price of ₱4,970.

5. A corporation is paying an annual dividend of ₱67 per share. If the price of a share of the
stock is ₱8,125, what is the dividend yield on the stock?

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 ACTIVITY 6
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Stock Quotations
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

High Low Stock Div Yld % P-E Ratio Volume High Low Close Net
52 Week 100s Change

1671/2 225/8 DellCptr 48 95803 1667/8 1623/16 164 +4

95 33 Intel 0.12 0.1 23 166698 903/4 88 891/2 +1 1/4
38 /85
22 GoToo 2.00 5.1 15 17969 39 /8
7
37 /81
39 /2
1
+2 1/8

1. How many transactions of Intel common stock were made?

2. What is the common stock dividend of each of these companies stocks:

a. Dell Computer
b. Intel
c. GoToo

3. Which stock is trading closest to its high of the year?

4. What was the increase today in the dollar value of Dell stock?

5. What was Intel’s closing price on the previous day?

6. GoToo has a dividend yield of

7. If you bought 100 shares of Dell at its low for the year and sold it at this day’s closing
price, what would be your capital gain?

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 ACTIVITY 7
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Bond Quotations
1 2 3 4 5

Bonds Cur Yld Vol Close Net Change

FlyHigh 16 1/4 99 14.5 15 111 7/8 ...

YESPO zr01 ... 20 42 /8
1
- 3/4
CBN 9.8s08 cv 32 109 1/2 +2

1. How many transactions of FlyHigh bonds were made?

2. What year are each of these bonds due?

a. FlyHigh
b. CBN

3. What is the stated coupon interest paid to the bondholder for each of these bonds?
a. FlyHigh
b. YESPO
c. CBN
4. If you bought the following bonds at these prices, what would your real annual return
from interest be?
a. FlyHigh
b. YESPO

5. What was the closing price for these bonds on the previous day?
a. FlyHigh
b. CBN

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 ACTIVITY 8
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

1. You buy a ₱286,000 home with a down payment of 25%. Find the amount of the down
payment and the mortgage amount.

2. Mr. Reyes purchases a home for ₱143,000 with a down payment of 10%. Find the amount
of the down payment and the mortgage amount.

3. Jethro Simon purchased a condominium and obtained a 20-year loan of ₱1,172,000 at an

annual interest rate of 10.75%.
a. What is the mortgage payment?

b. What is the total of the payments over the life of the loan?

c. Find the amount of interest paid on the mortgage loan over the 20 years.

4. Morris Bato purchased a townhouse and obtained a 25-year loan of ₱2,012,000 at an

annual interest rate of 5.25%.
a. What is the mortgage payment?

b. What is the total of the payments over the term of the loan?

c. Find the amount of interest paid on the mortgage loan over the 25 years.

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 5. Yari Miguel purchased a home and obtained a 15-year loan of ₱1,202,710 at an annual
interest rate of 5.6%. Find the amount of interest paid on the loan over 15 years.

6. After making monthly payments of ₱19,513.00 for 10 years on your 30-year loan at 5.2%,
you decide to sell your home. What is the loan payoff?

7. Makisig Cruz has a 25-year mortgage loan at an annual interest rate of 5.8%. After
making payments of ₱10,587 for four years, Makisig decides to sell his home. What is
the loan payoff?

8. Suppose you have a 20-year mortgage loan for ₱1,468,500 at an annual interest rate of
8.25%. Her annual property tax bill is ₱23,500 and her annual fire insurance premium
is ₱12,530. Find the total monthly payment for the mortgage, property tax, and fire
insurance.

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 LESSON
9 Apportionment and Voting

DEMOCRATIC COUNTRIES like Philippines are

experiencing problems in selecting members of The vote is the most powerful instrument
ever devised by man for breaking down
their legislative bodies according to votes of their
injustice and destroying the terrible walls
population. The method by which this selection which imprison men because they are
of representatives is performed is commonly different from other men.
known as an election method. The mathematics of Lyndon B. Johnson
apportionment and voting are important elements
in a democratic form of government. These are being
practiced in the selection of leaders, passage of laws LEARNING OBJECTIVES
and ordinances and coming up to decision on certain At the end of the lesson, students are
issues. An example is in the Philippine Constitution expected to:
Article 6, Section 5(2) which states that “The party- • describe the basic notions of
apportionment and voting;
list representatives shall constitute twenty per centum
of the total number of representatives….” • apply the different methods of
apportionment; and
Beyond politics and governance, apportionment • apply the different voting system.
can be used to allocate a group of people to places to
do tasks in an equitable way.

PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY

Don’t Turn Into a Monster

Think about the things that help you calm down
when you are angry or upset. Circle each of the things
you can do at the bottom, then add you own.

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 DISCUSSION

APPORTIONMENT
The mathematical investigation into apportionment was originated in the U.S Congress.
Since 1790, the U.S House of Representatives first attempted to apportion itself, various
methods have been used to decide how many voters would be represented by each member
of the House. These methods are Hamilton plan, Jefferson plan, Adam’s Method, Webster’s
method, and Huntington-Hill apportionment method.
Hamilton Plan. It was proposed by Alexander Hamilton in the U.S Congress in 1790.
President George Washington vetoed the plan, so it was used only after the US Government
census from 1850 to 1900. Under the Hamilton plan, the total population is divided by the
number of representatives. The number of citizens represented by each representatives is
called standard divisor.
Total Population
Standard Divisor (d) =
Number of People to Apportion
Dividing the population of each subgroup by the standard divisor, the quotient is called
standard quota. The standard quota is the allocated number of representatives from each
subgroup. Round down the standard quota, the result should be the whole number. If the
sum of the standard quotas is not equal to the required number of representatives, assign
additional representatives to the subgroup with the largest decimal quotient.
PROBLEM 9.1

Suppose the University Student Council needs 25 representatives to be chosen from the
different college in the University. The population is shown in the table below. Use the Hamilton
plan to determine the number of representatives in each college.
Colleges Population
College of Education 1,459
College of Architecture 450
College of Arts and Science 1,230
College Of Hotel and Management 2,457
College of Business Administration 2,796
TOTAL 8,392
Solution:
Step 1: Find the Standard Divisor
8,392
Standard Divisor (d) =
25
= 335.68
Step 2: Calculate the standard quota and determine the number of representatives.
Standard No. of
Colleges Population Quotient
Quota Representative
1,459
College of Education (COEd) 1,459 ≈ 4.35 4 5
335.68
450
College of Architecture (COA) 470 ≈ 1.34 1 1
335.68
1,230
College of Arts and Science (CAS) 1,230 ≈ 3.66 3 4
335.68
2,457
College Of Hotel Management (CHM) 2,457 ≈ 7.32 7 7
335.68
2,796
College of Business Administration (CBA) 2,796 ≈ 8.33 8 8
335.68
TOTAL 8,392 23 25

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 The sum of the standard quotas is 23, two more must be added to complete the
needed 25 representatives. The additional representatives, will be given to the CAS
and COEd since they have the highest decimal places. Thus, the composition of the USC
using the Hamilton plan is COEd 5, COA 1, CAS 4, CHM 7, and CBA 8.

Jefferson Plan. It was proposed by Thomas Jefferson after Hamilton plan was vetoed by
President Washington. It was actually the first method used in the US Congress from 1790 to
1830. Jefferson plan divides all populations by a modified divisor and then rounds the results
down to the lower quota. The modified divisor (dm) is acquired by picking a number, that is
slightly less than the standard divisor. Divide each subgroup by the modified divisor to get
its modified quota. If the sum is too large, pick a new modified divisor that is larger than dm.
If the sum is too small, pick a new modified divisor that is smaller than dm. Repeat the trial
and error until the correct number of representatives are apportioned.

PROBLEM 9.2

From the previous example problem 1, determine the number of representatives by using
Jefferson plan.
Solution:
By trial and error, identify modified standard divisor (dm) and calculate the quota. (Note:
Round down into lower quota).
dm 330 300 308
Colleges
Population Quotient Quota Quotient Quota Quotient Quota
COEd 1,459 4.42 4 4.86 4 4.72 4
COA 470 1.42 1 1.57 1 1.52 1
CAS 1,230 3.72 3 4.1 4 4 4
CHM 2,457 7.44 7 8.19 8 7.96 7
CBA 2,796 8.47 8 9.32 9 9.06 9
TOTAL 8,392 23 26 25

Therefore, the modified divisor (dm) is 308 that gives the appropriate quota, and the
composition of the USC using the Jefferson plan is COEd 4, COA 1, CAS 4, CHM 7, and CBA 9.

Adam’s Method. John Quincy Adams first proposed this method as an alternative to
Jefferson plan in 1832. Adam’s method is the mirror image of Jefferson plan: Instead of
rounding all quota down to their lower quotas, it rounds them up to their upper quotas.
Adam’s Method chooses a modified divisor dm that is slightly near to the standard divisor.
Divide each subgroup by the modified divisor to get its modified quota. Round up each quota.
Repeat the trial and error until the correct number of representatives are apportioned.
Using the stated problem above:

dm 330 300 308

Colleges
Population Quotient Quota Quotient Quota Quotient Quota
COEd 1,459 4.42 5 4.86 5 3.99 4
COA 470 1.42 2 1.57 2 1.29 2

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 dm 330 300 308
Colleges
Population Quotient Quota Quotient Quota Quotient Quota
CAS 1,230 3.72 4 4.1 5 3.37 4
CHM 2,457 7.44 8 8.19 9 6.73 7
CBA 2,796 8.47 9 9.32 10 7.66 8
TOTAL 8,392 28 31 25

Webster’s Method. Senator Daniel Webster introduced this method in 1832. This method
is the combination of Hamilton plan and Jefferson plan. Finding the standard divisor is by
dividing the total population by the number of people to be apportioned. Use this standard
divisor as the first modified divisor. Divide each state’s population by the modified divisor to
get the modified quota. Round each modified quota to the nearest integer using conventional
rounding rules (lower/upper quota). If the sum is too large, pick a new modified divisor that
is larger than dm. If the sum is too small, pick a new modified divisor that is smaller than dm.
Repeat the trial and error until the correct number of representatives are apportioned.
From the previous example, determine the number of representatives applying the
Webster’s Method.
Solution: The standard divisor is determined by dividing the total population by the
required number of representatives.
8,392
Standard Divisor (d) =
25
= 335.68
Colleges Population Quotient Rounded Quota
COEd 1,459 4.35 4
COA 470 1.34 1
CAS 1,230 3.66 4
CHM 2,457 7.32 7
CBA 2,796 8.33 8
TOTAL 8,392 24

Since the quota doesn’t satisfy the number of representatives, try another modified
divisor until the number of representative is attained. In continuous trial and error, we
could attain the modified divisor, 308.

Colleges Population Hamilton Plan Jefferson Plan Webster’s Method

COEd 1,459 5 4 4
COA 470 1 1 1
CAS 1,230 4 4 4
CHM 2,457 7 7 7
CBA 2,796 8 9 9
TOTAL 8,392 25 25 25

Comparing the results of the three methods, Webster’s method is the same with Jefferson
plan.

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 PROBLEM 3

The LGU is planning to donate 300 new units of computer to four local school districts for
the students to use. The allocation of the number of computers will be apportioned based on
their population as shown in the table below. Use (a) Hamilton plan, (b) Jefferson plan (c) Adam’s
Method and (d) Webster’s method to determine how the distribution of computer units among
the schools.
School Aliaga Quezon Sto Domingo Licab TOTAL
Population 1,237 1,358 923 1,754 5,272

(a) Hamilton plan:

5,272
Standard divisor: ≈ 17.33
300

School Population Quotient Standard Quota No. of Computer Units

Aliaga 1,237 70.39 70 70
Quezon 1,358 77.28 77 77
Sto. Domingo 923 52.52 52 53
Licab 1,754 99.81 99 100
TOTAL 5,272 298 300
(b) Jefferson plan:
dm 15 17 17.42
Colleges
Population Quotient Quota Quotient Quota Quotient Quota
Aliaga 1,237 82.47 82 72.76 72 71.01 71
Quezon 1,358 90.53 90 79.88 79 77.95 77
Sto. Domingo 923 61.53 61 54.29 54 52.99 52
Licab 1,754 116.93 116 103.18 103 100.69 100
TOTAL 5,272 349 308 300

The modified divisor used is 17.42 to obtain the appropriate apportion of the computer
units.
(c) Adam’s Method:
dm 15 17 17.7
Colleges
Population Quotient Quota Quotient Quota Quotient Quota
Aliaga 1,237 82.47 83 72.76 73 69.89 70
Quezon 1,358 90.53 91 79.88 80 76.72 77
Sto. Domingo 923 61.53 62 54.29 55 52.15 53
Licab 1,754 116.93 117 103.18 104 99.10 100
TOTAL 5,272 353 312 300

The modified divisor used is 17.7 to obtain the appropriate apportion of the computer
units.

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 (d) Webster’s Method:

School Population Quotient Rounded Quota

Aliaga 1,237 70.39 70
Quezon 1,358 77.28 77
Sto. Domingo 923 52.52 53
Licab 1,754 99.81 100
TOTAL 5,272 300
The table below shows that the Hamilton plan, Adam’s method, and Webster’s method
have the same apportionment for the computer units among the schools.

Colleges Population Hamilton Plan Jefferson Plan Adam’s Method Webster’s Method
Aliaga 1,237 70 71 70 70
Quezon 1,358 77 77 77 77
Sto Domingo 923 53 52 53 53
Licab 1,754 100 100 100 100
TOTAL 5,272 300 300 300 300

The Huntington-Hill Apportionment Method. This method is based on the apportionment

principle and known for the method of equal proportions. Huntington-Hill number (H A)
was calculated to determine the number of representatives needed. This number is derived
from the apportionment principle that states, “When adding a new representative to a state,
the representative is assigned to the state in such a way as to give the smallest relative
unfairness of apportionment.”
The Huntington-Hill number of can be computed using this formula:
(PA)2
HA =
a(a + 1)
Where PA = Population of one subgroup
a = current number of representative of the subgroup
Huntington-Hill method is used to apportion representatives between two or more
subgroups, the subgroup with the greater Huntington-Hill number receives the next
representative.
PROBLEM 4

If University of Student Council needed an additional representative, determine which

college will get the slot for the new representative. Use the Huntington-Hill apportionment
method.

Colleges Population No. of Representative

College of Education (COEd) 1,459 5
College of Architecture (COA) 470 1
College of Arts and Science (CAS) 1,230 4
College of Hotel Management (CHM) 2,457 7
College of Business Administration (CBA) 2,796 8

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 Solution:
Calculate the Huntington-Hill number for each college.
COEd CAS CBA
(1459)2 (1230)2 (2796)2
HCOEd = HCAS = HCOEd =
5(5 + 1) 4(4 + 1) 8(8 + 1)
HCOEd ≈ 70,956 HCAS ≈ 75,645 HCOEd ≈ 108,578

COA CHM
(470)2 (2457)2
HCOA = HCHM =
1(1 + 1) 7(7 + 1)
HCOA ≈ 110,450 HCHM ≈ 107,801

Colleges Population No. of Representative HA

COEd 1,459 5 70,956
COA 470 1 110,450
CAS 1,230 4 75,645
CHM 2,457 7 107,801
CBA 2,796 8 108,578

According to Huntington-Hill apportionment principle, a College of Architecture student

will represent the new member in the student council.

Flaw of Apportionment
In 1982, Michael Balinski and H. Peyton Young proved that all apportionment methods
have some flaws. This leads to Balinski-Young impossibility theorem in which states that
“any apportionment method may either violate the quota rule or may produce paradoxes.”
Quota Rule Violation. The quota rule says that each group should be given the number of
representatives either its upper quota or its lower quota. The violation happens when the
group receives a number of seats which is smaller than its lower quota or larger than its
upper quota.
PROBLEM 5

The University is granting free tuition fee for 100 College of Education students. The College
of Education has three departments. BSIE department has 98 students, BSE department has 689
students and BEED department has 212 students. Using Jefferson Plan with dm = 9.83.

Department Population Standard Quota Quotient Quota

BSIE 98 9.81 9.97 9
BSE 689 68.97 70.09 70
BEED 212 21.22 21.58 21
TOTAL 999 100
BSE has a standard quota of 68.97 so it should get either its lower quota, 68, or its upper
quota, 69, seats. Using this method, BSE received 70 slots for the free tuition, one more than its
upper quota. This is a Quota Rule violation.

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 Population Paradox. It occurs when the population of a subgroup increases but its
allocated number of representative decreases.

PROBLEM 6

The teacher decides that he will give 11 chocolate bars among three students based on
the number of plastic bottle they recycled. Agatha recycled 54 plastic bottles, August recycled
243 plastic bottles and Agapito recycled 703 plastic bottles. Near the end of the deadline, the
teacher reminds the students about the deal and the three students recycled an additional 2,
12, and 86 plastics bottles, respectively. Use the Hamilton plan to apportion the chocolate bars
both before and after the reminder.
Chocolate Bars Apportionment Before the Reminder

Student No. of Plastic Bottle Standard Quota Lower Quota Apportionment

Agatha 54 0.54 0 0
August 243 2.67 2 3
Agapito 703 7.73 7 8
TOTAL 1000 9 11
Chocolate Bars Apportionment After the Reminder

Student No. of Plastic Bottle Standard Quota Lower Quota Apportionment

Agatha 56 0.56 0 1
August 255 2.55 2 2
Agapito 789 7.89 7 8
TOTAL 1100 9 11
Agatha’s recycled plastic bottle only increased by 3.7% while August’s recycled plastic
bottle increased by 4.9%. However, Abby gained a candy bar while August lost one. This is an
example of the population paradox.

New-States Paradox. It occurs when a new group is added along with additional members/
representatives and existing group lose representatives.
PROBLEM 7

Employees of Sloan Hospital and Grey Hospital are forming an association that aimed
to disseminate information in the prevention of dengue. There are 65 employees from Sloan
Hospital and 52 employees from Grey Hospital. The association agreed to send 10-member
advance party to survey and assess the situation in the community. Suppose Avery Hospital
with 28 employees want to join the association use the Hamilton plan to determine the number
of representative of employees before and after Avery Hospital joined.
Before Avery Hospital joined. d = 11.7

Hospital Employees Quotient Standard Quota No. of Members

Sloan 65 5.56 5 6
Grey 52 4.44 4 4
Total 117 9 9

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 Calculating the quota for the employees from Avery Hospital who will join the advance
party;
28
q= ≈ 2.39
11.7
Hence, additional 2 members are to be added to the advance party, so the total number of
members to be sent is now 12.
After Avery Hospital joined. d=13.67
Hospital Employees Quotient Standard Quota No. of Member
Sloan 65 4.75 4 5
Grey 52 3.80 3 4
Avery 28 3.44 3 3
Total 117 10 12

Avery Hospital has a population of 28 so it should get two representatives. When Avery
Hospital is added with its two slot for the representatives, Sloan Hospital loses a representative
and Avery Hospital gains an additional representative. This is an example of the New-States
Paradox.

Alabama Paradox. It occurs when an increase in the number of representatives being

apportioned, in and of itself, forces a group to lose one of its representatives.

PROBLEM 8

A teacher has an incentive program to get her five students to read more. She has 30 pieces
of candy to divide among her students at the end of the week based on the number of minutes
each of them spends reading. At the last minute, the teacher finds another piece of candy and
does the apportionment again. Use the Hamilton plan before the additional candy was found.
Apportionment of 30 Candies d = 25
Student Population Quotient Standard Quota Allocation
Adie 138 5.52 5 5
Bon 218 8.72 8 9
Cassie 142 5.68 5 6
Dean 188 7.52 7 7
Earl 64 2.56 2 3
Total 750 27 30
Apportionment of 31 Candies d = 24.19
Student Population Quotient Standard Quota Allocation
Adie 138 5.71 5 6
Bon 218 9.01 9 9
Cassie 142 5.87 5 6
Dean 188 7.77 7 8
Earl 64 2.65 2 2
Total 750 28 31
Notice that adding another piece of candy caused Adie to lose a piece while Dean and Earl
gain a piece. This is an example of the Alabama paradox.

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 Balinski-Young Impossible Theorem
This theorem states that “there is no perfect method of apportionment.” If one method
satisfies the quota rule, then a paradox will occur, or if a paradox does not occur, it will not
satisfy the quota rule.

Hamilton Jefferson Webster Adam Huntington-

Flaw
Plan Plan Method Method Hill
May violate the Quota Rule 3 3 3 3

May produce the Alabama Paradox 3

May produce the Population Paradox 3

May produce the New-States Paradox 3

VOTING
Voting the leaders we believe in is one of the privileges a democratic government. In
addition, many decision- making situations using group consensus or the essence of voting.
Voting is a process of choosing someone or something in an election. The basic idea of voting
is deciding upon a winner, there is always one main goal: to reflect the preferences of the
people in the fairest way possible. These are the methods for counting a vote: preference
schedule, plurality method of voting, plurality with elimination, borda count method, and
pairwise comparison voting method.
Preference Schedule. This method uses a preference ballot, in which the voter ranks the
choices in order of their preference.

EXAMPLE 9.1

Ben, Borj, Bing, Carl, Cara, Colyn, and Dony are planning to buy an ice cream. There are
only three available flavors; cheese, chocolate, ube, and macapuno. They decided to buy an ice
cream by ranking their preference flavors. Their votes are shown below:

Ben Borj Bing Carl Cara Colyn Dony

1st choice cheese chocolate chocolate cheese ube cheese cheese
2nd choice ube ube ube ube chocolate ube ube
3rd choice chocolate cheese cheese chocolate cheese chocolate chocolate

These preference ballots are tallied in preference schedule, as shown in the table below,
the number of voters are written in the top row on each option they voted.:

4 2 1
1 choice
st
cheese chocolate ube
2 choice
nd
ube ube chocolate
3 choice
rd
chocolate cheese cheese
Notice that by totaling the vote counts across the top of the preference schedule.

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 Plurality Method. This method states that the choice with the most first-preference votes
is declared the winner. Sometimes it is mistakenly called the majority method, but in this
method it is not necessary for a choice to gain a majority of votes to win. In case of ties, it will
be settled by a run-off vote.
EXAMPLE 9.3

From the election above, determine which ice cream flavor they will buy using plurality
method.

4 2 1
1 choice
st
cheese chocolate ube
2 choice
nd
ube ube chocolate
3 choice
rd
chocolate cheese cheese
Solution: In plurality method, we only look for the 1 choice option.
st

Cheese : 4 votes Chocolate: 2 votes Ube : 1 votes

Therefore, the group will buy ice cream with cheese flavor.

Plurality with Elimination. This is a modification of plurality method where it considers

a voter’s alternative choices. Generating a preference schedule, the choice with the least
first-place votes is then eliminated from the election, and any votes for that candidate are
redistributed to the voters’ next choice. This continues until a choice has a majority (over
50%).
EXAMPLE 9.4

A company is planning its annual RnR and has asked its employees to rank five different
choices of recreational activities in order of preference. The results are given in the table below.

Ranking
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
Going to a videoke bar 2 5 2 1 5
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Solution:
From the preference table, count the number of first-choice votes for each recreational
activity.

Swimming at Visiting a Going to a Dinner at a Out-of-

Recreational Activity
a Beach Museum Videoke Bar Restaurant town Tour
No. of 1st choice votes 3 + 12 = 15 24 35 19 0

Using the plurality with elimination method, the first to eliminate is the recreational activity
with the fewest number of first-choice votes. If two or more of these alternatives have the same
number of first-choice votes, all are eliminated unless that would eliminate all alternatives.
In that case, a different method of voting must be used. From the table above, “out-of-town”

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 is eliminated because it received no first-choice votes. Then the votes are retaken, note that
voters do not change their preferences from round to round. This means that after “out-of-
town” is deleted, the 35 people in the fourth column would adjust their preferences so that
“swimming at a beach” becomes their second choice, “visiting a museum” becomes their third
choice, “going to a videoke bar” remains their first choice, and “dinner at a restaurant” becomes
their fourth choice. Similar adjustments are made by the remaining voters. The new preference
schedule is:
Ranking No. of 1st Choice Votes
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 2 2 3 + 12 = 15
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 3 1 24
Going to a videoke bar 2 4 2 1 4 35
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 4 4 3 19
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Repeat the process and eliminate the recreational activity with the fewest first-choice
votes. In this case it is “swimming on a beach”. The new adjusted preference schedule is:

Ranking No. of 1st Choice Votes

Visiting a museum 3 1 2 2 1 3 + 24 = 27
Going to a videoke bar 2 3 1 1 3 12 + 35 = 47
Dinner at a restaurant 1 2 3 3 2 19
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
The recreational activity with the fewest first-choice votes is “dinner at a restaurant”, so it
will be eliminated from the table. The new adjusted preference schedule is:

Ranking No. of 1st Choice Votes

Visiting a museum 2 1 2 2 1 3 + 24 = 27
Going to a videoke bar 1 2 1 1 2 19 + 12 + 35 = 66
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
From the table, “going to a videoke bar” has 66 first-choice votes, which is the majority
of the votes. Therefore, “going to a videoke bar” is the selected recreational activity for the
company’s RnR.

Borda Count Method. Jean-Charles de Borda, a member of French Academy of Sciences,

developed the system of voting in 1770. This method assigned points to the candidates
based on their ranking. If there are n candidates in election, each voter ranks their choices
from first choice to nth choice; so each candidate receives n points for each first choice, n-1
points for the second choice, and so on. Hence, 1 point for last choice, 2 points for second-to-
last choice, and so on. The point values for all ballots are totaled, and the candidate with the
largest point total is the winner.

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 EXAMPLE 9.5

From the previous example, use the Borda count to determine the company’s recreational
activity for their annual RnR. The preference schedule of the employees’ choice is shown in the
table.
Rank
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
Going to a videoke Bar 2 5 2 1 5
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Solution:
Using the Borda Count method, each first choice vote receives 5 points, each second choice
vote receives 4 points, each third choice vote receives 3 points, each fourth choice vote receives
2 points, and each fifth choice vote receives 1 point.
Swimming at a Beach: Dinner at a Restaurant:
1st choice = 15 × 5 pts = 45 pts 1st choice = 19 × 5 pts = 95 pts
2 choice= 24 × 4 pts = 96 pts
nd
2nd choice = 0 × 4 pts = 0 pt
3 choice = 35 × 3 pts = 105 pts
rd
3rd choice = 3 × 3 pts = 3 pts
4 choice = 19 × 2 pts = 38 pts
th
4th choice = 24 × 2 pts = 48 pts
5 choice = 0 × 1 pt = 0 pt
th
5th choice = 47 × 1 pt = 47 pts
TOTAL 284 pts TOTAL 193 pts
Visiting a Museum: Out-of-town Tour:
1 choice = 24 × 5 pts = 120 pts
st
1st choice = 0 × 5 pts = 0 pt
2nd choice = 3 × 4 pts = 12 pts 2nd choice = 35 × 4 pts = 140 pts
3rd choice = 31 × 3 pts = 93 pts 3rd choice = 24 × 3 pts = 74 pts
4th choice = 35 × 2 pts = 70 pts 4th choice = 15 × 2 pts = 30 pts
5th choice = 0 × 1 pt = 0 pt 5th choice = 19 × 1 pt = 19 pts
TOTAL 295 pts TOTAL 263 pts
Going to a Videoke Bar:
1st choice = 35 × 5 pts = 175 pts
2nd choice = 31 × 4 pts = 124 pts
3rd choice = 0 × 3 pts = 0 pt
4th choice = 0 × 2 pts = 0 pt
5th choice = 27 × 1 pt = 27 pts
TOTAL 326 pts
By the Borda Count method, “going to a videoke bar” obtains the largest number of points.
Therefore, the company’s annual RnR would be going to a videoke bar.

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 Pairwise Comparison Voting Method. This method is known as Copeland’s method or a
“head-to-head comparison”. In this method, each pair of candidates is compared, using all
preferences to determine which of the two is more preferred. The more preferred candidate
is awarded 1 point. If there is a tie, each candidate is awarded 0.5 point. After all pairwise
comparisons are made, the candidate with the most points, and hence the most pairwise
wins, is declared the winner.

EXAMPLE 9.6

Using the pairwise method, determine the company’s recreational activity for their annual
RnR. The preference schedule of the employees’ choice is shown in the table.

Rank
Swimming at a beach (S) 4 1 1 3 2
Visiting a museum (V) 3 2 3 4 1
Going to a videoke bar (G) 2 5 2 1 5
Dinner at a restaurant (D) 1 3 5 5 4
Out-of-town tour (O) 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Solution:
Match each pair of recreational activity and determine who get the higher rank as winner
for the round wins. Add all the number of votes for each win.

Ranking
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Swimming at a beach vs Visiting a museum: Swimming at a beach: 3 + 12 + 35 = 50
Visiting a museum: 19 + 24 = 43

Ranking
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Going to a videoke bar 2 5 2 1 5
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Swimming on a beach vs Going to a videoke bar:
Swimming on a beach: 3 + 12 + 24 = 39
Going to a videoke bar: 19 +35 = 54

Rank
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24

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 Swimming at a beach vs Dinner at a restaurant
Flaws of Voting System
Swimming at a beach: 3 + 12 + 35 +24 = 74
Dinner at a restaurant: 19
Ranking
Swimming at a beach 4 1 1 3 2
out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Swimming at a beach vs Out-of-town tour:
Swimming at a beach: 19 +3 +12 +24 = 58
Out-of-town tour: 35
Ranking
Visiting at the museum 3 2 3 4 1
Going to a videoke bar 2 5 2 1 5
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Visiting a museum vs Going to a videoke bar:
Visiting a museum: 3 + 24 = 27
Going to a videoke bar: 19 + 12 + 35 = 66

Ranking
visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Visiting a museum vs Dinner at a restaurant:
Visiting a museum: 3 +12 + 35 +24 = 74
Dinner at a restaurant: 19
Ranking
Visiting a museum 3 2 3 4 1
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Visiting a museum vs Out-of-town tour:
Visiting a museum: 19 +3 +12 +24 = 58
Out-of-town tour: 35
Ranking
Going to a videoke bar 2 5 2 1 5
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24

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 Going to a videoke bar vs Dinner at a restaurant:
Going to a videoke bar: 12 + 35 = 47
Out-of-town tour: 19 + 3 + 24 = 46
Ranking
Going to a videoke bar 2 5 2 1 5
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Going to a videoke bar vs Out-of-town tour:
Going to a videoke bar: 19 + 12 + 35 = 66
Out-of-town tour: 3 + 24 = 27

Ranking
Dinner at a restaurant 1 3 5 5 4
Out-of-town tour 5 4 4 2 3
Number of votes: 19 3 12 35 24
Dinner at a restaurant vs Out-of-town tour:
Dinner at a restaurant: 19 +3 = 22
Out-of-town tour: 12 + 35 + 24 = 71
To summarize:
Going to a Videoke Dinner at a
VS Visiting a Museum Out-of-Town Tour
Bar Restaurant
Going to a videoke Swimming on a Swimming on a
Swimming at a beach Swimming at a beach
bar beach beach
Going to a videoke
Visiting a museum Visiting a museum Visiting a museum
bar
Going to a videoke Going to a videoke
Going to videoke bar
bar bar
Dinner at a restaurant Out-of-town tour

In total, “swimming at a beach” has 3 points, “visiting a museum” has 2 points, “going to a
videoke bar” has 4 points, “dinner at a restaurant” has no point, and “out-of-town tour” has 1
point. Thus, based on the Borda Count method, the company will go to a videoke bar for their
annual RnR.

Flaws of Voting System

Kenneth J. Arrow outlined in 1948 the various criteria for a fair voting system that leads
to Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem. This theorem states that “it is mathematically impossible
to create any system of voting with three or more candidates that satisfy all four fairness
criteria.” These fairness criteria are: (a) Majority Criterion, (b) Monotonicity Criterion, (c)
Cordocet Criterion, and (d) Irrelevant Alternatives Criterion.

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 Majority Criterion
The candidate who receives a majority of the first-choice votes or more than half of first-
choice votes will be declared as winner. In order for the Majority Criterion to be violated,
there must have been a candidate with a majority votes. An election in which no one has a
majority votes never violates the Majority Criterion.

Monotonicity Criterion
If a candidate A wins an election, it assumes that candidate A also wins in re-elections.
The only changes in the voters’ preferences is that voters of a different candidate change
their votes to support a candidate. An election violates the Monotonicity Criterion if the
winner turned into a loser by moving the winner up the preference list on some of the ballots.

EXAMPLE 9.7

Plurality with elimination can violate the Monotonicity Criterion. Consider the following
preference schedule.

Rank No. of First-choice Votes

A 2 2 1 3 6
B 3 1 3 2 5
C 1 3 2 1 2+4=6
No. of votes: 2 5 6 4
Solution:
In the first round of elimination, B will be eliminated since B has the fewest first-choice
votes, so the next round will be A vs C.

Rank No. of First-choice Votes

A 2 1 1 2 5 + 6 = 11
C 1 2 2 1 2+4=6
No. of votes: 2 5 6 4

More voters prefer C than A so A loses. Suppose A moved up in the first column so the
preference order is 1, 3, 2.

Rank No. of First-choice Votes

A 1 2 1 3 2+6=8
B 3 1 3 2 5
C 2 3 2 1 4
No. of votes: 2 5 6 4
Then C loses in the first round so next round would be A vs B.

Rank No. of First-choice Votes

A 1 2 1 2 2+6=8
B 2 1 2 1 5+4=9
No. of votes: 2 5 6 4
Now, more voters prefer B than A so A now loses. This shows that moving A up makes A lose.
Thus, in this election using plurality with elimination, the Monotonicity Criterion is violated.

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 Condorcet Criterion
A candidate that wins all head-to-head matchups should win an election when all
candidates appear on the ballot. An election violates the Condorcet Criterion if a candidate
is preferred head to head against every other candidate but ends up not being the winner of
the election.

EXAMPLE 9.8

Use Pairwise comparison method and Borda count method. Consider the following
preference schedule.
Rank
A 1 3
B 2 1
C 3 2
No. of votes: 14 13
Solution:
Pairwise Comparison method:
A vs B: A vs C: B vs C:
A : 14 ; B : 13 A : 14 ; C : 13 B : 27 ; C : 0
Using the Borda Count method:
A: B: C:
1st choice: 14 × 3 pts = 42 pts 1st choice: 13 × 3 pts = 39 pts 1st choice: 0 × 3 pts = 0 pts
2nd choice: 0 × 2 pts = 0 pt 2nd choice: 14 × 2 pts = 28 pt 2nd choice: 13 × 2 pts = 26 pts
3rd choice: 13 × 1 pt = 13 pts 3rd choice: 0 × 1 pt = 0 pt 3rd choice: 14 × 1 pt = 14 pts
Total 55 pts Total 67 pts Total 40 pts
In Pairwise Comparison method, A was declared winner because it has a majority of first
place votes but in Borda Count, B wins with 76 pts compared to A with 55 pts and C with 40 pts.

Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives

A candidate who wins an election should remain winner even if other candidates are
removed and the votes are recounted. An election violates the Irrelevant Alternatives
Criterion if a loser candidate drops out of the race and changes the winner of the election.

Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem

Arrow’s impossibility theorem states that a clear order of preferences cannot be
determined while observing the principles of fair voting procedures.

Plurality with Borda Pairwise

Criteria Plurality
Elimination Count Comparison
Majority Criterion 3 3 3

Monotonicity Criterion 3 3 3

Cordocet Criterion 3

Irrelevant Alternatives
Criterion

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 WEIGHTED VOTING SYSTEM
In a corporate election, vote of the shareholders are counted proportionally to the
amount of shares they own. An individual with one share gets the equivalent of one vote,
while someone with 50 shares gets the equivalent of 50 votes. This system is called weighted
voting, where voters do not have the same amount of power over the result of an election.
The individual or entity casting a vote is called a player in the election. Each player is
given a weight, which usually represents how many votes they get. In passing a motion (a
proposal that is made formally at a meeting, and needed to be decided using by an election),
a quota is set for its approval. Quota is the minimum weight of votes needed for the motion
to be approved. It must be at more than half the total number of votes. Likewise, quota can’t
be larger than the total number of votes.
A weighted voting system can be written in this form:
[q: w1, w2, w3, … , w n]
Where q is the quota, w1 is the weight for player 1, w2 is the weight for player 2… and n
is the number of voters.

EXAMPLE 9.9

In a small company, there are four shareholders. Mr. De Guzman has a 20% ownership stake
in the company, Ms. Gonzalvo has a 35% stake, Ms. Quilayan has a 25% stake, and Mr. Villanueva
has a 20% stake. They are trying to decide whether to construct a new office. The company
by-laws state that more than 50% of the ownership has to approve any decision like this. This
situation could be represented as:
[51: 35, 25, 20, 20]

This denotes the percentage ownership as votes, so Ms. Gonzalvo gets the equivalent
of 35 votes, having a 35% ownership stake. Since according to the company by-laws, more
than 50% is required to approve the decision, so the quota is 51, the smallest whole number
greater than 50.
What is the quota for the voting system [q: 3, 2, 1]? There are a total of 6 votes. If the
set quota is 3, and then player 1 votes for yes, and player 2 and player 3 votes for a No, both
would reach the quota. In that case, the election doesn’t lead to a decision.
Considering the voting system [20: 21, 10, 8]. Observe the player 1 can reach quota
without the vote of any other player. When this happens, we say that player 1 is a dictator.
Dictator is a player with a weight of vote is equal or greater than the quota. In this case, a
dictator can pass or block any motion.
Examine the voting system [10: 7, 4, 3]. Notice that no player is a dictator. However, the
quota can only be reached if player 1 is in support with player 1 or player 2. Combine votes
of player 2 and 3 cannot reach quota without player 1’s support. In this case, player 1 is said
to have veto power.
In the voting system [9: 7, 5, 1], when player 3 supports the vote of either player 2 or
player 3, its vote has no influence to reach the quota, player 3 is said to be a dummy. The only
way the quota can be met is with the support of both players 1 and 2.

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 EXAMPLE 9.10

In the voting system [13: 7, 6, 3, 2, 1] (a) Is there any dictators? (b) Does any one have veto
power? (c) Are there any dummies?
Solution:
(a) None of the player can reach the quota alone, so there are no dictators.
(b) Without player 1, the rest of the players’ weights reach only 12 which doesn’t reach quota,
so player 1 has veto power.
(c) Player 1 and 2 can reach quota without the support of other player, but player 2 has no veto
power. Players 3, 4 and 5 have no influence to the result, therefore they are dummies.

Coalition
A group of players voting the same way is called coalition. From example 2, {P1, P2} would
represent the coalition of players 1 and 2. This coalition has a combined weight of 7+6 = 13,
which meets the quota, so this would be a winning coalition. A winning coalition is a set of
voters in which the number of the combined votes is equal or greater than the quota. {P1, P3,
P4} is considered a losing coalition, with a combined weight less than the quota; 7+3+2 = 12.
A player is said to be critical voter, if that player leaves a winning coalition and turned into a
losing coalition. In the coalition {P1, P3, P4, P5}, every player is critical. The maximum number
of coalitions that can be formed in a system with n voters is 2n – 1.

EXAMPLE 9.11

Determine the winning coalitions and identify the critical voters in each winning coalition.
Consider the voting system of a corporation with 5 shareholders; A, B, C, D, and E with shares
42, 35, 27, 21 and 12, respectively:
[70: 42, 35, 27, 21, 12]
Solution:
Winning Coalitions Number of Votes Critical Voters
{A, B} 77 A,B
{A, B, C} 104 A,B
{A, B, D} 98 A,B
{A, B, E} 89 A,B
{A, B, C, D} 125 NONE
{A, B, C, E} 116 NONE
{A, B, C, D, E} 137 NONE
There are seven winning coalitions that can be formed, and most of the winning coalitions
are shareholders A and B are considered critical voters.

Banzhaf Power Index

In 1946, Linel Penrose originally created weighted-vote power index. It was reintroduced by
John Banzhaf in 1965 and named after him. This power index measures the power of the voter
in a weighted voting system. Banzhaf Power Index (BPI) is identified by dividing the number
of times a voter is a critical voter over number of times any voter is a critical voter. In equation:
No. of Times a Voter is a Critical Voter
BPI (v) =
No. of Times any Voter is a Critical Voter
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 EXAMPLE 9.12

Consider the voting system [70: 42, 35, 27, 21, 12]. Calculate the Banzhaf power index for
each voter. The winning coalitions and the critical players are shown in the table.
Winning Coalitions Number of Votes Critical Voters
{A, B} 77 A,B
{A, B, C} 104 A,B
{A, B, D} 98 A,B
{A, B, E} 89 A,B
{A, B, C, D} 125 NONE
{A, B, C, E} 116 NONE
{A, B, C, D, E} 137 NONE
Solution:
Voter A appears four times as a critical voter, and the number of times any voter is a critical
voter is 8.

BPI (A) = 4 = 0.5

8
Hence,

BPI (B) = 4 = 0.5

8
Voters C, D, and E had never been a critical voter.

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Show an apportionment method/s that proves that one of the paradox is occurred. State
which paradox is occurring in each of the following situations.
1. DepEd Cabanatuan wants to assign 30 new teaching assistants among five elementary
schools based on the current number of students in the schools.

North South East West Central

No. of students 1,375 2,297 1,408 1,340 1,380

2. After the DOtr launched P2P Bus service project, an additional of six bus routes (A, B,
C, D, E, and F) and 13 buses. The buses are apportioned among the routes based on the
average number of daily passengers per route, given in the following table.

A B C D E F
No. of passengers 3,430 5,473 6,795 4,584 5,865 3,768

3. Tessa apportions16 pieces of candy to her three children: Ara,Bill, and Candie. The
apportions based on the number of hours each child spends doing chores around the
house. Using a certain apportionment method, Tessa decides to give Ara 8 pieces of
candy, Bill 5 pieces, and Cindy 3 pieces. However, just before she hands out the candy,
she finds out that the neighbor’s daughter Dindin has been helping the children with
the chores and has worked the same number of hours as Candie, so she adds 3 pieces,
bringing the total candy to 19 pieces. Now, Ara ends up with 9 pieces, Bill with 4 pieces,
Cindy with 3 pieces, and Darla with 3 pieces.

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 4. The table below shows the number of sales associates and the average number of
customers per day at a company’s two department stores. The company is planning
to add a new sales associate to one of the stores. Use the apportionment principle to
determine which store should receive the new employee.

No. of Sales Associate Average No. of Customers

Department A 34 4,392
Department B 23 3,504

5. Under a certain apportionment method, State X receives 41 seats and State Y receives 29
seats. Ten years, later the population of State X has increased by 5% while the population
of State Y remains unchanged. The seats are reapportioned and now State X receives 40
seats and State Y receives 30 seats.

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 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

1. A restaurant conducted a survey among its customers to rank their entrée meal from
chicken (C), pork (P), beef (B), and vegetable (V). The number of votes for each was
shown in the table below.

Rank
Chicken (C) 1 3 4 4 4
Pork (P) 2 4 1 3 3
Beef (B) 3 2 3 2 1
Vegetable (V) 4 1 2 1 2
no. of votes 45 25 30 15 31

a. If the Plurality method is used, what dish is favorite?

b. If the Borda Count method is used, what dish wins?

c. If Plurality with Elimination is used, what dish is favorite?

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 2. In a class election, the students voted on who the class president is. The preference of the
result is shown below.

Number of Votes 19 14 12 7
1 choice
st
Jam Wendy Kenneth Lea
2 choice
nd
Kenneth Lea Lea Kenneth
3 choice
rd
Wendy Jam Jam Jam
4 choice
th
Lea Kenneth Wendy Wendy

a. If the Plurality method is used, who is the class president?

b. If the Borda Count method is used, who wins?

c. If Plurality with Elimination is used, who wins?

d. If Pairwise Comparison is used, who wins?

e. Create a bracket that would cause Jam to win.

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 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

1. How many players are there in the weighted voting system [20:7, 5, 4, 4, 2, 2, 2, 1,1]?

2. What is the quota in the weighted voting system [20:7,5,4,4,2,2,2,1,1]?

3. What is the total number of votes in the weighted voting system [20:7, 5, 4, 4, 2, 2,
2, 1, 1]?

4. In the weighted voting system [10:11, 4, 2, 1, 1], specify the dictator(s) and the dummy
(or dummies).

5. In the weighted voting system [11:6, 4, 3, 2, 1], is there anyone who has a veto power? If
so, who is it and why is it?

6. Consider the weighted voting system [10:7, 6, 4].

a. What is the formula for finding the number of coalitions?

b. How many coalitions does this system have?

c. Calculate the Banzhaf Power Index for each player.

Coalition Weight of Coalition Win or Lose? Critical Player(s)

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 The players’ power indices are:
P1: P 2: P 3:

For each of the following weighted voting systems.

a. Identify which players are dummies, dictator, or veto power

b. What is the maximum and minimum the quota could be?

c. How many possible coalitions exist?

d. How many sequential coalitions exist?

e. Banzhaf Power.

A. [10; 7, 5, 4] B. [13; 11, 8, 1]

1. Dummy = 1. Dummy =
Dictator = Dictator =
Veto Power = Veto Power =
2. Min = 2. Min =
Max = Max =
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. Banzhaf: 5. Banzhaf:

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 LESSON
10 Logic

LOGIC is the science of formal reasoning and

systematic inference. It is the foundation of making Logic is the art of going wrong with
confidence.
arguments. It also requires the act of reasoning
in order to form thoughts and opinions, as well as Joseph Wood Krutch
classifications and judgments. Studying logic will
enhance our critical thinking skills. Being a critical
thinker is having a self-awareness of knowing between
rational thought based on careful consideration of
facts and a biased emotional responded. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students are
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY expected to:
• write statement in symbolic form
The Zebra Puzzle, also known as Einstein’s Riddle, and/or vice versa
is a kind of logic game where you have to use the clues • classify statements whether
and logic deduction to solve the problems. conjunction or disjunction,
negations, and conditional or
1. There are five houses. biconditional;
2. The English man lives in the red house. • construct truth tables given the
propositions;
3. The Swede has a dog. • discover statements whether a
tautology or a contradiction; and
4. The Dane drinks tea.
• illustrate different propositions
5. The green house is immediately to the left of the which are logically equivalent.
white house.
6. They drink coffee in the green house.
7. The man who smokes Pall Mall has birds.
8. In the yellow house they smoke Dunhill.
9. In the middle house they drink milk.
10. The Norwegian lives in the first house.
11. The man who smokes Blend lives in the house next
to the house with cats.
12. In a house next to the house where they have a
horse, they smoke Dunhill.
13. The man who smokes Blue Master drinks beer.
14. The German smokes Prince.
15. The Norwegian lives next to the blue house.
16. They drink water in a house next to the house
where they smoke Blend.
The question is, who owns the zebra?
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 DISCUSSION

Simple Statements
In language, there are four types of sentences; declarative, interrogative imperative, and
exclamative. In Logic, it only use statements that are in declarative form of sentence which is
called proposition. A statement is considered a proposition if it is answerable by true or false
but never will be both.
EXAMPLE 10.1

1. Ross is a Filipino
2. Close the door.
3. Is it raining?
4. n+3=5
In Example (10.1), the statement is in declarative sentence and it could be answered by true
or false, therefore it is a proposition. (2) “Close the door.” is in imperative form, so it is not a
proposition. Example (3) is a question, interrogative sentence is not a proposition. Mathematical
sentence having variable like in example (4) is not a proposition because it is a conditional true
or false, the answer depends on the value that will be given to the variable.

Proposition can be represented by any variable or lowercase letter such as p, q, or r.

EXAMPLE 10.2

p: Today is Tuesday
q: It is raining
r: I am wearing my sandals

Compound Statements
A compound statement is constructed from one or more smaller statements by the
application of a statement connective.

Statement Type of
Symbol Example Statement
Connective Statement
not Today is NOT Tuesday p negation
and Λ Today is Tuesday AND it is raining pΛq conjunction
or V It is raining OR I am wearing my sandals qVr disjunction
if.., then.. If it is raining, then I am wearing my sandals q r conditional
.. if and only if.. I am wearing my sandals if and only if it is raining r q biconditional

Logical Operations and Truth Value

The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F). The truth value
of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives. Truth table shows the truth value of a compound statement for all possible
truth values of its simple statements.

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 Negation
The negation of proposition is like identifying its complement. The common terms used
for negation are: not, it is not the case that, no, never, none, nowhere, no one, and no means.
From the example given, the negation the proposition p: Today is Tuesday can be written
in the formed of : Today is NOT Tuesday.
The truth table of negation:
p p
T F
F T
Negating the statement p, would be (p) or simply p.

Conjunction
Conjunction uses statement connective “AND”/“Λ” for compound statements. The
common terms used for conjunction are: but, still, while, yet, whereas, albeit, despite, although,
however, nonetheless, nevertheless, moreover, in spite of, and furthermore.
The Truth Table of Conjunction:

p q pΛq
Today is Tuesday It is raining Today is Tuesday AND it is raining
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

For the truth value of the statement under conjunction to be true, all propositions must
be true. If at least one of the proposition is false, under conjunction, the statement is false.
Noted that p Λ q is true only if both p and q are true.

Disjunction
Disjunction uses statement connective “OR”/“V” for compound statements. The common
terms used for disjunction are: or else, either …. or….
The Truth Table of Disjunction:

p q pVq
Today is Tuesday It is raining Today is Tuesday OR it is raining
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

For the truth-value of the statement under disjunction to be TRUE, at least one of the
proposition is TRUE.

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 Conditional Statement
Conditional statement uses connective “IF…,THEN…” / “” for compound statements.
Symbolically, q can be read as “q implies r”. The proposition q or the proposition with IF
statement is called the premise (antedecent) and the proposition r or the proposition with
THEN statement is called conclusion (consequent). The common terms used for premise and
conclusion are:
Premise Conclusion
for for the reason that the facts are therefore it follows that then

since in view of assuming that hence apparently thus

because as indicated by on the supposition so it is evident that In conclusion

that
in as much as as shown by consequently deduced that proves that

granted that for this reason implies that entails that

it must be indicates that

The Truth Table of Conditional Statement:

q r q r
It is raining I am wearing my sandals If it is raining, then I am wearing my sandals
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

As the Table shows, the only way to have a FALSE value under conditional statement is
when the conclusion is false having true premise.

Related Conditionals
If any conditional is given, another three related conditionals can be formed.
Conditional q→r If it is raining, then I am wearing my sandals.
Converse r→q If I am wearing my sandals, then it is raining.
Inverse q→ r If it is not raining, then I am not wearing my sandals.
Contrapositive r→ q If I am not wearing my sandals, then it is not raining.

q r q→r r→q q r q→ r r→ q
T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T
Observe that the truth value of conditional is equivalent to contrapositive likewise with
converse and inverse.

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 Biconditional Statement
Biconditional statement uses connectives “.. IF AND ONLY IF..” / “ for compound
statements. The common terms used for are: provided that and only provided that, when and
only when, just in case, granted that and only granted that.
The Truth Table of Conditional Statement:

r q q
I am wearing my sandals It is raining I am wearing my sandals if and only if it is raining
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
For the truth value of the statement under biconditional to be true, truth value of the
propositions must be the same.

Truth Value of Complex Statements

Find the truth-value for each proposition, given that p is True, q is True and r is False.
1. (p q) r = (T T) F = T F = False
2. p (q → r) = T (T → F) = T F = False
3. (p q) r = (T T) F = T F = True

Tautologies and Fallacies

There are three classes of compound statements:
1. Tautology – all truth value on the last entry of the truth table are all true.
p p pVp
T F T
F T T
2. Contradiction – all truth value on the last entry of the truth table are all false.

p p pΛp
T F F
F T F
3. Contingency – neither tautology nor contradiction.
p p p p
T F F
F T T

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 Arguments
An argument is a collection of propositions. All but the final
proposition are called premises and the final proposition is called
the conclusion. An argument is valid if the truth of all its premises
implies that the conclusion is true. In other words, an argument
form with premises p1, p2, pn, and conclusion q is valid if and only
if (p1 ∧ p2 ∧ · · · ∧ pn) → q is a tautology.
All dogs are animal
Beagle is a dog
Beagle is an animal
The Venn diagram shows the validity of the argument. It indicates that all premises are
true implies that the conclusion is true, therefore, the argument is valid.
There are other ways of checking the validity of an argument. One is by constructing
truth table and the other is by proving using the law of inference.
p
p q
q→r
r
1. Constructing truth-table: The give argument can be expressed as
[p ∧ (p q) (q → r)] → r

p q r p pVq q→r p Λ (p V q) Λ (q → r) [ p Λ (p V q) Λ (q → r)] r

T T T F T T F T
T T F F T F F T
T F T F T T F T
T F F F T T F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T T F F T
F F T T F T F T
F F F T F T F T
All entries in the last column are all true. Indicating a tautological statement, hence,
the argument is valid.
2. Rules of Inference/Law in Logic
Name Sequent Name Sequent

Modus Ponens {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land \neg q)\ Commutation pΛq≡qΛp

vdash \neg p}{\displaystyle ((p\to q)\
land p)\vdash q}pp q pVq≡qVp

p / q
Modus Tollens {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land \neg q)\ Association (p Λ q) Λ r ≡ p Λ ( q Λ r)
vdash \neg p}{\displaystyle ((p\to q)\
land p)\vdash q}pp q (p V q) V r ≡ p V ( q V r)

q / p

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 Name Sequent Name Sequent

Hypothetical p q Distribution p Λ (q V r) ≡ (p Λ q) V ( p Λ r)
Syllogism
q r / p r {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land p V (q Λ r) ≡ (p V q) Λ ( p V r)
(q\to r))\vdash (p\to r)}
Disjunctive {\displaystyle ((p\lor q)\land \neg p)\ Double Negation p≡p
Syllogism vdash q}p V q

p/ q
Constructive {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land (r\to s)\ Transposition p q ≡ p
Dilemma land (p\lor r))\vdash (q\lor s)} p q

r s

p V r / q V s
Destructive {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\land (r\to s)\ Material p q ≡ p V q
Dilemma land (p\lor r))\vdash (q\lor s)} p q Implication

r s

q V s / p V r {\displaystyle ((p\to q)\

land (r\to s)\land (\neg q\lor \neg s))\
vdash (\neg p\lor \neg r)}
Simplification p Λ q / p {\displaystyle (p\land q)\ De Morgan’s (p Λ q) (p V q)
vdash p}p p Theorem
(p V q) (p Λ q) {\displaystyle \
neg (p\lor q)\vdash (\neg p\land \
neg q)}
Conjunction p Importation p (q r) ≡ (p Λ q) r)

q / p Λ q {\displaystyle p,q\vdash (p\

land q)}pp
Addition p Material p ↔ q ≡ (p Λ q ) V (p Λ q)
Equivalence
q / p V q {\displaystyle p\vdash (p\
lor q)}

Statement Reason
1. p Premise
2. p q Premise
3. q→r Premise
4. q Disjunctive Syllogism (2, 1)
5. ∴r Modus Ponens (3, 4)
Therefore, the argument is valid.

Consider the following statements:

1. If it is Saturday today, then we go to the mall or park.
2. If it is holiday, we don’t go to the mall.
3. It is Saturday today, and it is holiday.
Prove that we go to the park or museum.

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 To formalize the proving, translate the following statements into propositional variables:
p: It is Saturday today.
q: We go to the mall.
r: We go to the park.
s: It is holiday.
t: We go to the museum.
Premise:
1. If it is Saturday today, then we go to the mall or park. p → (q r)
2. If it is holiday, we don’t go to the mall. s→¬q
3. It is Saturday today, and it is holiday. p s
Conclusion: We go to the park or museum. r t
Statements Reasons
1. p → (q V r) Premise
2. p s Premise
3. p Simplification (2)
4. q r Modus Ponens (1,3)

5. s→¬q Premise

6. s Simplification (2)

7. ¬q Modus Ponens (5,6)

8. r Destructive Syllogism (4,7)

9. ∴r t Addition (8)

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Determine if the statement is a proposition or not. Write P if the statement is proposition

on the space provides. If not, write NP.
1. Johnny is laughing.
2. Are you hungry?
3. 1 + 1 = 3
4. Get out of here!
5. Nueva Ecija is the capital of the Philippines
6. What a glorious day it is!
7. Hello!
8. Sheen is jolly.
9. Where are you?
10. Please pay attention.
11. All triangles have four sides.
12. The President is Rodrigo Duterte.
13. Suppose that x is an even number.
14. What are you thinking?
15. If it rains then there is moisture in the air.
16. All square are rectangle.
17. I wish to be a superstar.
18. Your wish is my command.
19. Peace be with you.

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 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

Using the variables provided, symbolize the following statements into symbols.
Determine the truth value, given that M,B,L are True and S,W are false.

M = I have missed the bus

B = The bus is late
L = I am late
S = I slept in
W = I will get to work on time

Statement Symbols Truth-Value

1. The bus is not late.

2. I am late and I have missed the bus.

3. The bus is not late but I am.

4. It’s not true that the bus and I are late.

5. The bus is not late and neither am I.

6. If the bus is not late then I have missed it.

7. If I hadn’t slept in, I would have not missed

the bus.
8. Either the bus is late or I am.

9. I am not late and I did not sleep in.

10. I am late if and only if I slept in.

11. Either the bus is late or I am.

12. If the bus is late or I am, it won’t get to

work on time.
13. If I slept in, then I’m late and I have missed
the bus.

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 ACTIVITY 3
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Construct a truth tables to decide whether the argument form is valid or invalid.
1. ¬ (p q) 4. p q
p . p→r
∴¬q q ¬r
∴q
2. p q
p → q. 5. ¬p Λ q
∴p q r→p
¬r → s
3. p→r s→t
q→¬r ∴t
∴ ¬p r

B. Prove the validity of the following arguments using the rules of inference/law of logic.
Supply the missing reasons.
Statements Reason
1. ¬p q
2. ¬ p
3. r → p
4. ¬ r
5. ¬r → s
6. s
7. s → t
8. ∴ t

C. Solving a Murder Case. The following is a murder case solved by Sherlock Holmes, in “A
Study in Scarlet” (a detective mystery novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle).
Quote from: “A Study in Scarlet”
“And now we come to the great question as to the reason why. Robbery has not been
the object of the murder, for nothing was taken. Was it politics, then, or was it a woman?
That is the question which confronted me. I was inclined from the first to the latter
supposition. Political assassins are only too glad to do their work and fly. This murder
had, on the contrary, been done most deliberately, and the perpetrator has left his tracks
all over the room, showing he had been there all the time.”
From these, Sherlock Holmes concluded: “It was a woman”.
Show that Sherlock Holmes is correct.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 232 08.10.2018 2:19:11 PM
 LESSON
11 Mathematics of Graphs

There are many connections we experience in

our daily lives. Perhaps the one that we can relate the Eventually everything connects - people,
ideas, objects. The quality of the
most is our Facebook connections. How many friends
connections is the key to quality per se.
do we have? How many mutual friends do we have
Charles Eames
with another Facebook user? Still there are many
connections we can think of and these are illustrated
and analyzed by a branch of mathematics called graph
theory.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
PRE-DISCUSSION ACTIVITY At the end of the lesson, students are
expected to:
4/9 CONNECT • construct graphs from a given
situation;
Connect all nine dots using only four lines without • identify whether or not two
lifting the pencil from the paper. graphs are equivalent;
• tell whether or not a given graph
is eulerian and find an euler
circuit; and
• apply dirac’s theorem to
decide whether or not a given
graph is hamiltonian and find a
hamiltonian circuit.

DISCUSSION
Graphs and Euler Circuits
A graph is a set of points called vertices and line
segments or curves called edges that connect vertices.
Graphs can be used to represent many different
situations. The two graphs in Figure 11.1 uses the
same graphs that are used in different contexts.

Figure 11.1
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 Each vertex in Figure 11.1(a) represents a person in a Facebook connection and each
edge indicates that the persons are friends in Facebook. From this graph, we can say that
PJ has the most number of friends in Facebook. Figure 1(b) shows cities that are connected
by available flight schedules. It can be noted that the only way to reach Cauayan City in this
situation is through Manila.
Graphs may be constructed using a tabular representation as a guide. As shown in
examples.

EXAMPLE 11.1
The following table lists five students at a college. An “X” indicates that the two students
belong to the same student organization in the current semester.

Charice Jason Judith Jaymar Jade

Charice X X
Jason X X X
Judith X X
Jaymar X X
Jade X
Draw a graph that represents this information where each vertex represents a student
and an edge connects two vertices if the corresponding students belong to the same student
organization.
Use the graph to answer the following questions. Which student is involved in most
organizations? Which student has only one membership in common with others? How many
organizations does Judith have in common with others?
Solution:

a. Draw five vertices to represent the five students and connect the vertices with the edges
according to the table.

Figure 11.2
b. The vertex corresponding to Jason is connected to more edges than the others. This
means that he has the most number of memberships to organizations in common with
other students. Jade has only one membership in common with others. Judith has two
organizations in common with others.

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 There are many types of graphs based on how the edges are connected. If vertices are
not connected by edges (there is no edge connecting the vertices), the graph is said to be a
null graph. Graphs may also contain two or more edges that connect the same vertices called
multiple edges or an edge that loops to the same vertex. In this case, the graph is said to be non-
simple. In the absence of loops and multiple edges, the graph is simple. Connected graphs are
those which any vertex can be reached from any vertex by tracing along edges. (Essentially,
the graph consists of only one piece). A connected graph where all possible edges are drawn
between vertices with no multiple edges is called a complete graph. Examples of graphs are
shown Figure 3.

Figure 11.3

Figure 11.3(e) shows a graph where vertices are split into two sets such that no two
vertices within the same set are adjacent. It is called a bipartite graph or a bigraph. Figure
11.3(f) is a connected graph in which any two vertices are connected by exactly one path.
This graph is called a tree. Because of its property, it contains no cycle and any edge you take
out, the graph becomes disconnected.
In a graph, edges may be straight or curved, and the lengths and positions are not
important. Even the exact placement of the vertices is not important. The graph simply
illustrates connections between vertices.
The three graphs shown in Figure 4 are considered equivalent graphs because the edges
form the same connections of vertices in each graph.

Figure 11.4

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 If we prepare the table for the graphs in Figure 4, all will have the same representation
as shown in the table 11.2
Table 11.2

A B C D E
A X
B X X X
C X
D X
E X

Euler Circuits
The Königsberg bridges problem is a popular recreational puzzle during the 18 th century.
The geographical map is presented in Figure 5.

Figure 11.5

In Figure 11.5, seven bridges crossed the river and connected four different land areas.
The problem is to find a way on how people can take a stroll that would lead them across
each bridge and return to the starting point without traversing the same bridge twice.
To solve the Königsberg bridges problem, we can represent the land areas and bridges
with a graph. Let each land area be a vertex and let bridge be an edge. We place an edge
between two vertices if there is a bridge connecting the corresponding land areas. The
geographical situation then becomes the graph shown in Figure 11.6.

Figure 11.6
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 Based on the graph in Figure 11.6, the original problem can be stated as follows: Can we
start at any vertex, move through each edge once, and return to the starting vertex?
Euler proved this task was impossible. To further understand how this was impossible,
we need to familiarize with some terminology. A path in a graph can be thought of as a
movement from one vertex to another by traversing edges. One path in the graph would be
A-B-C-D.
If a path ends at the same vertex at which it started is called a closed path or circuit. For the
graph in Figure11.7, the path A-D-G-E-B-A is a circuit because it begins and ends at the same
vertex. The path A-D-F-G-H is not a circuit since it does not begin and end at the same vertex.

Figure 11.7

If a circuit uses every edge, but never uses the same edge twice, then it is called an Euler
circuit. The path C-B-A-D-F-G-H-E-G-D-B-E-C in Figure 11.7 is an Euler circuit. It begins and
ends at the same vertex and uses each edge exactly once. The path A-D-G-E-B-A is not an
Euler circuit. The path begins and ends at the same vertex but it does not use edges DF, FG,
GH, HE, EC, and CB. If a path begins and ends at the same vertex but uses at least an edge
twice, then it is not an Euler circuit.
All of these relate to the Konigsberg bridges problem in the following way: Finding a
path that crosses each bridge exactly once and returns to the starting point is equivalent to
finding an Euler circuit for the graph in Figure11.6.
Euler proved that the graph in Figure11.6 could not have an Euler circuit. He examined
the number of edges that met at each vertex. The number of edges that meet at a vertex
is called the degree of a vertex. He made the observation that every time you approached
a vertex you would need to leave that vertex in order to complete the desired path. If
you traveled through that vertex again, you would again need an approaching edge and a
departing edge. This means that for an Euler circuit to exist, the degree of every vertex must
be an even number. Also, he was able to show that any graph whose every vertex has an even
degree must have an Euler circuit. Such graphs are called Eulerian.

Eulerian Graph Theorem

A connected graph is Eulerian if and only if every vertex of the graph is of even degree.

By Eulerian Graph Theorem, it is now clear that the graph of the Königsberg problem is
not Eulerian. It is because not every vertex is of even degree. Therefore, it is not possible to
begin and end at the same location near the river and cross each bridge exactly once.

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 The Eulerian Graph Theorem guarantees that when all vertices of a graph have even
degree, an Euler circuit exists, but it does not tell us how to find one. Because we deal with
graphs which are relatively small, we will rely on trial and error in finding Euler circuits.
EXAMPLE 11.2
Determine whether the graph shown in Figure 11.8 is Eulerian. If it is, find an Euler circuit.
If it is not, explain how you know.

Figure 11.8
Solution
Each vertex has a degree 4, so by Eulerian Graph Theorem, the graph is Eulerian. There
are many possible Euler circuits. By trial and error, one Euler circuit is A-B-D-E-C-A-D-C-B-E-A.

Euler Paths
Perhaps the Kӧnigsberg bridges problem would have a solution if we did not have to
return to the starting point. In this case, what we are looking for is a path that uses every
edge once and only once. We call such path an Euler path.

Euler Path Theorem

A connected graph contains an Euler path if and only if the graph has two vertices of odd
degree with all other vertices of even degree. Furthermore, every Euler path must start at one
of the vertices of odd degree and end at the other.

EXAMPLE 11.3
An application of Euler Paths
The floor plan of a gallery is given in Figure11.9.Draw a graph that represents the floor plan,
where vertices correspond to rooms and edges correspond to doorways. Is it possible to take a
stroll that passes through every doorway without going through the same doorway twice? If so,
does it matter whether we return to the starting point?

Figure 11.9

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 Solution
We can represent the floor plan by a graph if we let a vertex represent each room. Draw
an edge between two vertices if there is a doorway between the two rooms, as shown in Figure
11.10.

Figure 11.10

The graph in Figure 11.10 is equivalent to our floor plan. If we would like to tour the gallery
and pass through every doorway once, we must find a path in our graph that uses every edge
once. Thus we are looking for a Euler path. In the graph, two vertices are of odd degree and the
rest of the vertices are of even degree. So we know that an Euler path exists, but not an Euler
circuit. Therefore, we cannot pass through each doorway once and only once if we want to
return to the starting point, but we can do it if we end up somewhere else. Furthermore, we
know we must start at a vertex of odd degree- either room C or room E. By trial and error, one
such path is E-D-A-B-C-G-F-E-A-E-B-F-C.

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bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 240 08.10.2018 2:19:12 PM
 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. Determine the chromatic number of each graph.

1. 5.

2. 6.

3. 7.

4. 8.

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 242
Graphs
B. Answer the following questions for each graph.

bkMW (Gonzalvo).indb 242

A B C D

Questions

1. How many edges does this graph have?

2. What is the order of the graph (number of

vertices)?

3. How many components does the graph have?

4. Is the graph connected?

5. Is the graph simple? (no loops or multiple edges) Is

the graph a tree? (no circuits)

6. Find the degree of vertex A.

7. Find the degree of vertex B.

8. Find the degree of vertex E.

08.10.2018 2:19:12 PM
 C. Mrs. De Guzman, the new principal at Mabuhay High School, wants to make a good
impression by offering a lot of new exciting classes for her students. The principal plans
to use her knowledge of graph theory to determine when each class will be offered. Since
she is trying to make her students happy, Mrs. De Guzman does not want to offer two
different classes at the same time if there are students wanting to take both. She decides
to construct a graph in the following way: Each class is represented by a vertex and if
there is a student interested in two classes, those two vertices are connected by an edge.
Suppose there are five classes (A, B, C, D, and E) and only five students wishing to
take the following classes:
1. Jackson wants to take Classes A and E.
2. Lerry want to take Classes B, C, and E.
3. Jaime wants to take Classes A and D.
4. Jeff wants to take Classes B and C.
5. Nikki wants to take Classes D and E.
Construct the graph for the principal, and find the chromatic number of the graph,
and color the graph using the least number of colors.

D. Assign three channels to each of five mobile telephone stations, using the smallest
number of different channels possible, if Station 1 interferes with Stations 2, 4, and 5;
Station 2 interferes with Stations 1, 3, and 5; Station 3 interferes with Stations 2 and 4;
Station 4 interferes with Stations 1, 3, and 5; and Station 5 interferes with Stations 1, 2,
and 4.
Construct the graph and find the chromatic number of the graph, and color the graph
using the least number of colors.

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 E. Highlight an Euler circuit in the graph below.

F. For each of the graphs below, write the degree of each vertex next to each vertex. Tell
whether each graph has an Euler circuit, Euler path or neither.
A B C

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 LESSON
12 Mathematical System

ANALOGUE CLOCKS display a 12-hour format. It

is designed for a quick reading of the time as opposed In the arithmetic of love, one plus one
equals everything, and two minus one
to its more recent digital counterpart. The time is read
equals nothing.
in a manner that makes a reference to the 12 o’clock
Mignon McLaughlin
time – A.M. (ante meridiem) which is before 12 noon,
and P.M. (post meridiem) which is after 12 noon. Once
12 o’clock is reached, the cycle begins again with 1.
To determine the time three hours after midnight,
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
we begin counting by 1 as the first hour, 2 as the
At the end of the lesson, students are
second, and 3 as the third. We then write it as 3 a.m.
expected to:
To know the time five hours after 3 am, we just add 3
• understand the basics of modular
and 5 to get 8 am. But if we pass the 12 o’clock time, arithmetic;
our counting will begin at 1. So if we want to find the • recognize that mathematical
time six hours after 8 am, we count the hours to reach system are tools which can be
12 i.e. four hours, then add another two hours to get used in real-world;
the time being asked – two pm. Or if we want to find • solve arithmetic operations using
the time seven hours after 10pm, two hours to reach modular arithmetic rules;
12, then another 5 to reach 5am. • perform an operation of a
symmetry group; and
If we use the symbol + to denote addition on a 12- • perform operation in a
hour clock, we can write the examples above as permutation group.
8 + 6 = 2 and 10 + 7 = 5
Subtraction on a 12-hour clock works the same way.
If we want to find the time four hours before 1 a.m., we
first count the first hour to 12, then to remaining three
hours to get 9 p.m. Or if we want to know the time 11
hours before 4 p.m., we count the first four hours to 12,
then subtract the remaining seven hours to get 5 a.m.
In symbols, we could express these examples as
1 – 4 = 9 and 4 – 11 = 5
The same can be also applied to a 12-month year,
assigning a number to each month. Suppose we want
to know the month 15 months after June. We count
six months to December, begin with January to count
another six months to June, then we count three months
after, which is September. In symbols we write this as
6 + 15 = 9, with 9 representing September. How about
10 months before February? We count backwards one
month to January, then the remaining nine months to
April. In symbols 2 – 10 = 4, with 4 representing the
month April.

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 How about a seven-month week? If we also associate a number to everyday of the week,
with 1 assigned as Monday, and we want to find five days after Friday, we have 5 + 5 = 3,
which represents Wednesday. Or if we want to find 10 days before Tuesday, 2 -10 = 6, which
is Saturday.

DISCUSSION

Modular Arithmetic
Repeating cycles are represented mathematically by using modular arithmetic, also
known as arithmetic modulo n.
Definition: Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, where n is a natural
number, if is an integer. We write this as a ≡ b mod n. The number n is called the modulus.
The statement a ≡ b mod n is called a congruence.
EXAMPLE 12.1
Determine whether the congruence is true.

a. 29 ≡ 5 mod 4

b. 34 ≡ 2 mod 3

c. 45 ≡ 6 mod 13
Solution:
29 – 5 24
a. = = 6. Because 6 is an integer, 29 ≡ 5 mod 4 is a true congruence.
4 4

34 – 2 32 32
b. = . Because is not an integer, 34 ≡ 2 mod 3 is not a true congruence.
3 3 3

45 – 6 39
c. = = 3. Because 3 is an integer, 45 ≡ 6 mod 13 is a true congruence.
13 13

An alternate method in determining congruence is by dividing a by the modulus and

comparing the result when dividing b also by the modulus. If they have the same remainder,
then the statement is a true congruence. In example 12.1a above, both 29 and 5 yields a remainder
45 4 4
of 1 so it is a true congruence. Example 12.1c also shows and 6 having 6 as a remainder
13 13
thereby showing that the statement is also a true congruence.

Arithmetic Operations Modulo n

In Example 12.1a we both 29 and 5 have a remainder of 1 when divided by the modulus
so that 29 ≡ 5 mod 4. Other numbers are also congruent to 5 mod 4 – 33, 37, 41, etc. but only
one is less than the modulus – the number 1. Because 1 ≡ 5 mod 4 and 1 is less than the
modulus, we can write 5 mod 4 = 1. In general, m mod n becomes the remainder when m is
divided by n.
Arithmetic modulo n (where n is a natural number) requires us to evaluate a modular
expression after using the standard rules of arithmetic. So we perform the arithmetic
operation first and then divide by the modulus. The answer is the remainder. The result of
an arithmetic operation mod n is always a whole number which is less than n.

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 Addition Modulo n
EXAMPLE 12.2
Evaluate the following.
a. (11 + 13) mod 20
b. (24 + 30) mod 7
c. (53 + 27) mod 9
Solution:
a. Add 11 and 13 to produce 24. To evaluate 24 mod 20, divide 24 by the modulus 20. The
answer is the remainder.
(11 + 13) mod 20 = 4.
b. Adding 24 and 30 yields 54. 54 divided by 7 is 7 remainder 5. The answer is 5.
(24 + 30) mod 7 = 5
c. 53 + 27 = 80. 80 divided by 9 is 8 remainder 8. The answer is 8.
(53 + 27) mod 9 = 8

In modular arithmetic, adding the modulus to a number does not change the equivalent
value of the number.
11 ≡ 5 mod 6
17 ≡ 5 mod 6 (Add 6 to 11)
23 ≡ 5 mod 6 (Add 6 to 17)
29 ≡ 5 mod 6 (Add 6 to 23)
35 ≡ 5 mod 6 (Add 6 to 29)

Subtraction modulo n
Suppose we want to find x so that -13 ≡ x mod 5. Using the definition of modulo n, we
need to find x so that -13 – x is an integer. To do this, we rewrite the expression and try values
5
of x starting from 0 to the modulus until we arrive at a value which is an integer.
-13 – x 13 + x
=-
5 5
13 + 0 -13
When x = 0, - = , not an integer
5 5
13 + 1 -14
When x = 1, - = , not an integer
5 5
13 + 2 -15
When x = 2, - = = -3, an integer
5 5
So -13 ≡ 3 mod 5

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 EXAMPLE 12.3
Evaluate the following.
a. (64 – 36) mod 8
b. (15 – 47) mod 9
c. (28 – 63) mod 11
Solution:
a. 64 – 36 = 28. Since the result is positive, just divide the difference by the modulus, 8.
The answer is the remainder.
28 divided by 8 equals 3 remainder 2.
(64 – 36) mod 8 = 2
b. 15 – 47 = -32. Since the result is a negative number, we must find x so that -32 ≡ x mod
-32 – x
9. Thus, we must find x so that the value of 9 is an integer. Evaluating further, we
32 + x 32 + x
have - 9 . Substituting values less than the modulus, we find that when x = 4, - 9
-36
= 9 = -4.

(15 – 47) mod 9 = 4

c. 28 – 63 = -35. The result is a negative number so we find x in the congruence
statement -35 ≡ x mod 11. Thus, we must find x so that the value of (-32 – x) is
11
an integer. Extracting the negative sign, we have - 35 + x . The value of x that will
11
make the expression an integer is 9 so that - 35 + x = -4.
11
(28 – 63) mod 11 = 9

EXAMPLE 12.4
a. Disregarding A.M. or P.M., if it is 3 o’clock now, what time is it 43 hours ago?
b. If today is Thursday, what day of the week will it be 87 days ago?
c. If the month now is September, what month will it be 19 months ago?
Solution:
a. The time can be determined by calculating (3 – 43) mod 12. Because 3 – 43 yields a negative
number, -40, we will find a whole number x less than the modulus 12 so that -40 ≡ x mod
-40 – x -48
12. Evaluating further we’ll have 12 , then - 40 + x . At x = 8, - 40 + x = 12 = -4, an integer.
12 12
Since x = 8, then it is 8 o’clock 43 hours ago.
b. We can determine the day by calculating (4 – 87) mod 7. Since 4 – 87 = -83, a negative
-83 – x
number, we must find x in -83 ≡ x mod 7. By evaluating 7 , we will have - 83 + x . At x =
83 + 1 7
1, - = -12, an integer. Since x = 1, then it is Monday 87 days ago.
7
-10 – x
c. Similar to example 4a, we will calculate (9 - 19) mod 12. 9 – 19 = -10. 12 evaluated will
-12
be - 10 + x . At x = 2, - 10 + 2 = 12 = -1, an integer. Since x = 1, then 19 months ago, it was
12 12
January.

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 Multiplication Modulo n
Multiplication modulo n is done by getting the product and dividing it by the modulus.

EXAMPLE 12.5
Evaluate the following.
a. (12 ∙ 25) mod 7
b. (23 ∙ 14) mod 11
c. (15 ∙ 23) mod 13
Solution:
a. Find the product of 12 and 25 and divide the product by the modulus. The answer is
the remainder.
300
12 ∙ 25 = 300. 7
= 42 remainder 6. The answer is 6.
(12 ∙ 25) mod 7 = 6.
b. Find the product of 23 and 14 and divide the product by the modulus. The answer is
the remainder.
322
23 ∙ 14 = 322 . 11
= 29 remainder 3. The answer is 3.
(23 ∙ 14) mod 11 = 3.
c. Find the product of 15 and 23 and divide the product by the modulus. The answer is
the remainder.
345
15 ∙ 23 = 345 . 13
= 26 remainder 7. The answer is 7.
(15 ∙ 23) mod 13 = 7

Solving Congruence Equations

To solve congruence equations, one must find all whole number values of the variable
that would result to a true congruence.
To solve the congruence equation 2x + 7 ≡ 4 mod 5, we substitute values of x where the
resulting equation will be a true congruence.
2(0) + 7 ≠ 4 mod 5
2(1) + 7 ≡ 4 mod 5 1 is a solution
2(2) + 7 ≠ 4 mod 5
2(3) + 7 ≠ 4 mod 5
2(4) + 7 ≠ 4 mod 5
2(5) + 7 ≠ 4 mod 5
2(6) + 7 ≡ 4 mod 5 6 is a solution
2(7) + 7 ≠ 4 mod 5
2(8) + 7 ≠ 4 mod 5
2(9) + 7 ≠ 4 mod 5

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 If we continue substituting values, we will see that 11 and 16 are also solutions, and that
1, 6, 11, and 16 are all congruent to 1 mod 5. We can generalize this by saying that by adding
the modulus to the original solution, we can obtain the succeeding solutions of the equation;
in this case 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, and so on.
When solving congruence equation, it would be helpful if we check only the whole
numbers less than the modulus. Like the example 2x + 7 ≡ 4 mod 5, by checking only the
numbers 0,1,2,3, and 4, we could obtain the solution to the equation. Once a solution is found,
just keep adding the modulus to get the succeeding solutions.

EXAMPLE 12.6
Solve the following congruence equations.
a. 4x + 2 ≡ 3 mod 9
b. 3x + 1 ≡ 5 mod 11
c. 5x + 3 ≡ 7 mod 10
Solution:
a. 4(0) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(1) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(2) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(3) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(4) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(5) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(6) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
4(7) + 2 ≡ 3 mod 9 7 is a solution
4(8) + 2 ≠ 3 mod 9
Knowing that 7 is a solution, we can list the succeeding solutions by adding the
modulus so that the solutions are: 7, 16, 25, 34, and so on.

b. 3(0) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(1) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(2) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(3) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(4) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(5) + 1 ≡ 5 mod 11 5 is a solution
3(6) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(7) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(8) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(9) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
3(10) + 1 ≠ 5 mod 11
Knowing that 5 is a solution, we can list the succeeding solutions by adding the
modulus so that the solutions are: 5, 16, 27, 38, and so on.

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 c. 5(0) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(1) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(2) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(3) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(4) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(5) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(6) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(7) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(8) + 3 ≠ 7 mod 10
5(9) + 3 ≠s 7 mod 10
Not all congruence equations has a solution, like this example. Because there is
no whole number value of x less than the modulus that would satisfy the equation, this
equation has no solution

Additive Inverse
If the sum of two numbers is zero, then by definition the two numbers are called additive
inverses of each other. If we have 5 and add -5 to this number, we will obtain 0. So 5 is an
additive inverse of -5 and vice versa.
This can also be applied to modular arithmetic. For example, (4 + 6) = 0 mod 10. Thus,
in mod 10 arithmetic, 4 is the additive inverse of 6 and 6 is the additive inverse of 4. We only
consider whole numbers smaller than the modulus; in this case, 10. Note that 4 + 6 = 10; that
is, the number added to its additive inverse equals the modulus.

EXAMPLE 12.7
Find the additive inverse of the following.
a. 8 in mod 14 arithmetic
b. 11 in mod 21 arithmetic
c. 4 in mod 13 arithmetic
Solution:
a. Since 8 needs 6 more to get 14, 6 is the additive inverse of 8 in mod 14 arithmetic.
b. 11 + 10 = 21, so 10 is the additive inverse of 11 in mod 21 arithmetic.
c. 4 needs 9 get 13, so 9 is the additive inverse of 4 in mod 13 arithmetic.

Multiplicative Inverse
We can recall that when the product of two numbers is 1, then they are called
multiplicative inverses of each other. For example, if we multiply 1/3 by 3, we get 3/3 or 1, so
that 1/3 is a multiplicative inverse of 3 and vice versa. If we apply this to modular arithmetic,
we only use natural numbers. For example, in mod 9 arithmetic, 7 is a multiplicative inverse
of 4 (and 4 is a multiplicative inverse of 7) because (7 · 4) ≡ 1 mod 9. We note that we only
use numbers which are less than the modulus. To find the multiplicative inverse of a mod m,
solve the modular equation ax ≡ 1 mod m.

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 EXAMPLE 12.8
Find the multiplicative inverse of the following:
a. 2 in mod 9 arithmetic
b. 5 in mod 11 arithmetic
c. 3 in mod 10 arithmetic
Solution:
a. To find the multiplicative inverse of 2, solve 2x ≡ 1 mod 9 by substituting values of x
which are less than the modulus
2(0) ≠ 1 mod 9
2(1) ≠ 1 mod 9
2(2) ≠ 1 mod 9
2(3) ≠ 1 mod 9
2(4) ≠ 1 mod 9
2(5) ≡ 1 mod 9 5 is a solution
2(6) ≠ 1 mod 9
2(7) ≠ 1 mod 9
2(8) ≠ 1 mod 9
The multiplicative inverse of 2 in mod 9 arithmetic is 5.

b. To find the multiplicative inverse of 5, solve 5x ≡ 1 mod 11 by substituting values of x

which are less than the modulus.
5(0) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(1) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(2) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(3) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(4) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(5) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(6) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(7) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(8) ≠ 1 mod 11
5(9) ≡ 1 mod 11 9 is a solution
5(10) ≠ 1 mod 11
The multiplicative inverse of 5 in mod 11 arithmetic is 9.

c. To find the multiplicative inverse of 3, solve 3x ≡ 1 mod 10 by substituting values of x

which are less than the modulus.
3(0) ≠ 1 mod 10
3(1) ≠ 1 mod 10
3(2) ≠ 1 mod 10
3(3) ≠ 1 mod 10

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 3(4) ≠ 1 mod 10
3(5) ≠ 1 mod 10
3(6) ≠ 1 mod 10
3(7) ≡ 1 mod 10 7 is a solution
3(8) ≠ 1 mod 10
3(9) ≠ 1 mod 10
The multiplicative inverse of 3 in mod 10 arithmetic is 7.

GROUP THEORY
An algebraic system is defined as a set of elements with one or more operations for
combining the elements. Consider the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and addition modulo 6. The set of
elements is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and the operation is addition modulo 6. This is an example of an
algebraic system called a group.
A group is a set of elements, with one operation, that satisfies the following four
properties:
1. The set is closed with respect to the operation.
2. The operation satisfies the associative property.
3. There is an identity element.
4. Each element has an inverse.

The first characteristic mentioned above is closure. Closure means that if any two elements
are combined using the operation, the result must be an element of the set. In the example
above, the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with addition modulo 6 as the operation is closed. If we add two
numbers on this set, modulo 6, the result is always a number of the set. For instance, (2 + 3)
mod 6 = 5 and (3 + 4) mod 6 = 1.
Consider the whole numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...} with multiplication as the operation. If we
multiply any two whole numbers, the result is a whole number. For example, 7 · 8 = 56. Thus
the set of whole numbers is closed under multiplication. However, the set of whole numbers
is not closed with respect to division. For example,88 divided by 8 = 11 (a whole number),
but 3 divided by 4 is 0.75, which is not a whole number. This means that the set of whole
numbers is not closed with respect to division.
The second requirement of a group is that the operation must satisfy the associative
property. Associative property of addition can be stated by a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c. Addition
modulo 6 is an associative operation. If we use * to represent addition modulo 6, then
1 * (4 * 3) = 1 * 7 mod 6
=1*1
=2
and
(1 * 4) * 3 = 5 * 3 mod 6
= 8 mod 6
=2
Thus, 1 * (4 * 3) = (1 * 4) * 3

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 The third requirement is the identity element. An identity element is an element that
returns to a second element upon combining the two. For example, if 0 is added to a number,
say 5, it returns 5 as the answer, 0 + 5 = 5. The number is called an additive identity. Similarly,
if we multiply any number (except zero) by 1, we get the same number as a result. The
multiplier 1 is called a multiplicative identity. For the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with addition modulo
6 as the operation, the identity element is 0.
The fourth requirement is that each element should have an inverse. The numbers 2 and -2
are called additive inverses because the two results in the additive identity 0. The numbers
4
/5 and 5/4 are multiplicative inverses, also known as reciprocals, and will result to the
multiplicative identity when multiplied. For the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with addition modulo 6
as operation we have
(0 + 0) mod 6 = 0 (2 + 4) mod 6 = 0
(1 + 5) mod 6 = 0 (3 + 3) mod 6 = 0
The equations above show that 0 is the inverse of itself, 1 and 5 are inverses, 2 and 4 are
inverses, and 3 is also an inverse of itself. Therefore, every element of this set has an inverse.

Verify the Properties of a Group

EXAMPLE 12.9
a. Show that the integers with addition as the operation form a group.
b. Show if positive even integers with multiplication as the operation form a group.
c. Does the set {1,2,3} with operation multiplication modulo 4 form a group?
Solution:
a. closure: 1 + 3 = 4, 4 is an integer
associative: 3 + (4 + 5) = (3 + 4) + 5
3 + 9 = 7 + 5
12 = 12
identity: 3 + 0 = 3, 5 · 1 = 5
inverse: 3 + -3 = 0
Because each of the four conditions is satisfied, the integers with addition as operation
form a group.
b. closure: 2 · 5 = 10, 10 is a positive even integer
associative: 2 · (4 · 6) = (2 · 4) · 6
2 · 24 = 8 · 6
48 = 48
identity: The identity element is 1, which in NOT a positive even integer.
Inverse: The multiplicative inverse is not an element of positive even integers.
Because only 2 of the four conditions are satisfied, positive even integers with
multiplication as operation does not form a group.

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 c. closure: (2 · 3) mod 4 = 2, 2 belongs to the set.
associative: 1 · (2 · 3) mod 4 = (1 · 2) mod 4 · 3
1 · (6 mod 4) = (2 mod 4) · 3
1 · 2 = 2 · 3
2≠6
Since the group is not associative, the set does not form a group.

Commutative property for an operation states that the order in which two elements
are combined does not affect the result. For example, 6 + 3 = 3 + 6. Groups that satisfy the
commutative property are called Commutative groups or Abelian groups. The Nonabelian
group is a group that does not satisfy the commutative property. The next type of groups are
classified under nonabelian group.

Symmetry Groups
Symmetry groups are groups based on regular polygons. A regular polygon is a polygon all
of whose sides have the same length and all whose angles have the same measure. Examples
of which are equilateral triangles and squares.
Consider an equilateral triangle, with vertices numbered 1 – 3 starting from the bottom
left clockwise to bottom right. There are several different ways in which we can arrange the
numbered vertices in the triangle. For example, if we pick up this triangle and replace it the
way we found it, we call this position I. It represents no change in position.

If we rotate this triangle 120º clockwise, vertex 1 will be placed at the top, vertex 2 to
the bottom right, and vertex 3 to the bottom left. We call the 120º rotation of the triangle
R120.

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 Now return the triangle to its original position, where the vertices clockwise from left
to right reads 1, 2, and 3. If we rotate this triangle 120º to the right, and another 120º to
the right again, the resulting triangle will have the vertices in 2-3-1 position. We call the
notation of this triangle, which is turned 240º clockwise, R 240.

Aside from rotating the triangle clockwise 120º and 240º, we can also rotate the triangle
by the line of symmetry along the vertices. Because there are three vertices, there are three
possible results:
2 3 2 1

1 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
I RI Rt Rr

The six possible positions of the vertices in the previous examples are the only
possibilities: I(without any rotation), R120, R 240, R l, Rt , and R r. These positions are shown
below:
2 1 3

1 3 3 2 2 1
I R120 R240

3 2 1

1 2 3 1 2 3
RI Rt Rr

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 EXAMPLE 12.10
a. Find R360.
b. If we rotate Rt 120º clockwise, what do we call this new position?
c. Find the result of a counter-clockwise R240
Solution:
a. Since the vertices returns to their original positions after the rotation, R360 = I.
b. Since the new position will be 1-3-2, the new position is called Rl.
c. A counter-clockwise R240 will have a 3-1-2 position of the vertices. So a counter-clockwise
R240 is equivalent to an R120.

Perform an Operation of a Symmetry Group

A group must have an operation which combines two elements of a group to form a third
element which is also a member of the group. The operation we will use will be called “followed
by” and will be symbolized by ∆. We will see in the following examples of how this works.

EXAMPLE 12.11
a. Find Rl∆Rr
b. Find R240∆Rl
c. Find Rl20∆Rt
Solution:
a. Rotate the original triangle, I, about the line of symmetry through the bottom left vertex,
then without returning to the original position, rotate about the line of symmetry through
the bottom right vertex.

2 3 1

followed by

Rr

1 3 1 2 3 2
I RI R120
Rl∆Rr= R120
b. Rotate the original triangle clockwise twice, followed by rotation about the line of
symmetry through the bottom left vertex.

2 3 1

followed by

RI

1 3 2 1 2 3
I R240 Rr

R240∆Rl = Rr

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 c. Rotate the original triangle clockwise once, followed by rotation about the line of
symmetry through the top vertex.

2 1 1

followed by

Rt

1 3 3 2 2 3
I R120 Rr

Rl20∆Rt = Rr

Symbolic Notation
We can observe that the set is closed under the operation ∆. To show that the set is
associative, we will prove that x ∆ (y ∆ z) is equivalent to (x ∆ y) ∆ z, where x, y, and z are
elements of the group. For example,
Rt ∆ (R l ∆ R r) = Rt ∆ R120 = R l and (Rt ∆ R l) ∆ R r = R120 ∆ R r = R l

Since Rt ∆ (R l ∆ R r) = (Rt ∆ R l) ∆ R r, then the set is associative.

The same is true and can be proven with the remaining combinations.
The identity element I can be called “no rotation”. To see that each element has an inverse,
there should be an element which when combined by the operation results to the identity
element. We can verify this through the following:
R120 ∆ R 240 = I Rl ∆ Rl = I Rt ∆ Rt = I Rr ∆ Rr = I

Since every element has an inverse, i.e., can be rotated that results to I, then the four
conditions of a group was satisfied.
In determining the outcome of the “followed by” operation on two elements of the group,
we drew triangles and rotated them depending on the type of rotation. This can also be
represented as symbolic notation to describe the operation on the geometric object.
For example, if we want to determine the outcome of R120, we know that the vertex 1 goes
to the position of 2, 2 goes to the position of 3 and 3 goes to the position of 1. Using symbolic
notation,
1 2 3
R120 =
2 3 1
Similarly, for R r, vertex 1 goes to position 2, and vertex 2 to position 1, while 3 does not
move, being the axis of rotation. Using symbolic notation,
1 2 3
R120 =
2 1 3
The remaining four elements can be written as
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
I= R 240 = R1 = and Rt =
1 2 3 3 1 2 1 3 2 3 2 1

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 EXAMPLE 12.12
Use symbolic notation to find the following
a. Rl∆Rr c. Rl20∆Rt
b. R240∆Rl
Solution:
a. Following the movement of each vertex, 1 → 1 → 2, thus 1 → 2
2 → 3 → 3, thus 2 → 3
3 → 2 → 1, thus 3 → 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
Rl∆Rr = ∆ (2 which is currently on position 3 will be the
1 3 2 2 1 3 “axis of rotation”)
1 2 3
= = R120
2 3 1

b. Following the movement of each vertex, 1 → 3 → 2, thus 1 → 2
2 → 1 → 1, thus 2 → 1
3 → 2 → 3, thus 3 → 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
R240 ∆Rl = ∆ (2 which is currently on position 1 will be the
3 1 2 1 3 2 “axis of rotation”)
1 2 3
= = Rr
2 1 3
R240∆Rl = Rt
c. Following the movement of each vertex, 1 → 2 → 2, thus 1 → 2
2 → 3 → 1, thus 2 → 1
3 → 1 → 3, thus 3 → 3
1 2 3 1 2 3
Rl20∆Rt = ∆ (1 which is currently on position 2 will be the
2 3 1 3 2 1 “axis of rotation”)
1 2 3
= = Rr
2 1 3
Rl20∆Rt = Rr
We can verify the resulting outcomes with Example12.12 above.

Permutation Groups
The triangular symmetry group discussed previously is a special kind of permutation
group. A permutation is a rearrangement of objects. For example, if we have an arrangement of
objects [♣ ♦ ♠], then one permutation of these objects is the rearrangement [♦ ♠ ♣]. If
we consider each permutation as an element of a set, then the set of all possible permutations
forms a group. The elements of the set are not the numbers or objects themselves but the
permutations of the objects that are possible.

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 If we have the numbers 1, 2, and 3, we can represent these three numbers using the
symbolic method we used on triangular symmetry. If we rearrange the numbers 1 2 3 to 3
1 2, we write it as
1 2 3
3 1 2

which means that 1 is replaced by 3, 2 by 1 and 3 by 2.

There are only 6 distinct permutations of number 1 2 and 3. We list and label them
below. The identity element is named I.
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
I= B= D=
1 2 3 3 1 2 3 2 1
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
A= C= E=
2 3 1 1 3 2 2 1 3

The operation for the group is “followed by” denoted by the symbol ∆. We can verify that
the six permutations along with this operation form a group.

Perform an Operation in a Permutation Group

EXAMPLE 12.13
Find the following using the permutation group above.
a. A∆D b. D∆E c. B∆C
Solution:
1 2 3 1 2 3
a. A∆D= ∆ 3 2 1
2 3 1
1 is replaced by 2, then remains as 2 in the second permutation. 2 is replaced by
3, then replaced by 1. Combined, 2 is replaced by 1. 3 is replaced by 1, then returns to
3 in the second permutation. The result of the operation is

1 2 3
A∆D= 2 1 3

so A ∆ D = E

1 2 3 1 2 3
b. D∆E= 3 2 1 ∆ 2 1 3

1 is replaced by 3, and remains as 3 in he second permutation. 2 remains as 2 and

replaced by 1, and 3 is replaced by 1, then 1 replaced by 2.

1 2 3
D∆E= 3 1 2

D∆E=B

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 1 2 3 1 2 3
c. B∆C= 3 1 2 ∆ 1 3 2

1 is replaced by 3 which is then replaced by 2. Combining the two actions, 1 is

replaced by 2. Similarly, 2 is replaced by 1, which remains 1 in the second permutation,
and 3 is replaced by 2 which goes back to 3. The result of the operation is

1 2 3
B∆C= 2 1 3

so that B ∆ C = E

Inverse Element of a Permutation Group

EXAMPLE 12.14
One of the requirements of a group is that each element should have an inverse. Find the
inverse of the following elements from the permutation group defined previously.
a. D b. E c. B
Solution
1 2 3
a. D= 3 2 1

In D, 1 is replaced by 3, 2 remains as 2, and 3 is replaced by 1. The inverse is the

reverse of these replacements. So 3 is replaced by 1, 2 remains as 2 and 1 replaced by
3. The inverse is element
1 2 3
3 2 1 =D

We can conclude that D is the inverse of itself.

1 2 3
b. E= 2 1 3

In E, 1 is replaced by 2, 2 replaced by 1, and 3 remains as 3. The inverse is the

reverse of these replacements. So 2 is replaced by 1, 1 replaced by 2 and 3 remains as
3. The inverse is element
1 2 3
2 1 3 =E
We can conclude that E is the inverse of itself.
1 2 3
c. B= 3 1 2

In B, 1 is replaced by 3, 2 replaced by 1, and 3 replaced by 2. The inverse is the

reverse of these replacements. So 3 is replaced by 1, 1 replaced by 2 and 2 is replaced
by 3. The inverse is element
1 2 3
2 1 3 =A
We can conclude that A is the inverse of B.

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 ACTIVITY 1
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A. For items 1-10, evaluate using a 12-hour clock.

1. 8+6 6. 6 – 10
2. 7+8 7. 2–6
3. 9+5 8. 1–5
4. 3 + 11 9. 3–8
5. 4 + 13 10. 5 – 10

B. For items 11-15, evaluate using seven-day week.

11. 5 + 8 14. 2 – 5
12. 6 + 9 15. 3 – 11
13. 4 + 10

C. For items 16-25, determine whether the congruence is true or false

16. 11 ≡ 15 mod 4 21. 88 ≡ 5 mod 9
17. 72 ≡ 30 mod 5 22. 16 ≡ 6 mod 10
18. 25 ≡ 85 mod 12 23. 24 ≡ 4 mod 6
19. 5 ≡ 20 mod 4 24. 13 ≡ 4 mod 9
20. 120 ≡ 40 mod 8 25. 28 ≡ 7 mod 3

D. For items 26-40, perform modular arithmetic.

26. (12 + 8) mod 5 34. (24 - 41) mod 8
27. (62 + 21) mod 2 35. (19 - 6) mod 5
28. (5 + 22) mod 8 36. (9 · 15) mod 8
29. (42 + 35) mod 3 37. (5 · 12) mod 4
30. (37 + 45) mod 12 38. (26 · 11) mod 15
31. (48 -21) mod 6 39. (14 · 18) mod 5
32. (8 - 15) mod 12 40. (6 · 8) mod 9
33. (60 - 32) mod 9

E. For items 41 -50, find all whole number solutions of the congruence equation.
41. x ≡ 10 mod 5 46. (2x + 2) ≡ 6 mod 4
42. x ≡ 10 mod 3 47. (5x + 4) ≡ 2 mod 8
43. 2x ≡ 12 mod 5 48. (4x + 3) ≡ 3 mod 4
44. 3x ≡ 8 mod 11 49. (4x + 6) ≡ 5 mod 8
45. (3x + 12) ≡ 7 mod 10 50. (3x + 1) ≡ 4 mod 9

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 F.
1. Disregarding A.M. or P.M., if it is now 9 o’clock,
a. What time will it be 45 hours from now?
b. What time was it 34 hours ago?
2. Disregarding A.M. or P.M., if it is now 4 o’clock,
a. What time will it be 57 hours from now?
b. What time was it 41 hours ago?
3. If today is Tuesday,
a. What day of the week is it 45 days from now?
b. What day of the wee was it 23 days ago?
4. If today is Saturday,
a. What day of the week is it 100 days from now?
b. What day of the week was it 78 days ago?

G. For items 5-10, find the additive and multiplicative inverse, if it exists, of the given
number.
5. 3 in modulo 8 arithmetic
6. 4 in modulo 5 arithmetic
7. 4 in modulo 9 arithmetic
8. 6 in modulo 15 arithmetic
9. 7 in modulo 10 arithmetic
10. 11 in modulo 16 arithmetic

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 ACTIVITY 2
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A.
1. Is the set of all even integers closed with respect to
a. addition? b. multiplication?
2. Is the set of all odd integers closed with respect to
a. addition? b. multiplication?
3. Is the set of all negative real numbers closed with respect to
a. addition? c. subtraction?
b. multiplication? d. division?
4. Is the set {-1, 0, 1} closed with respect to
a. addition? b. multiplication?
5. Is the set {0, 2, 4, 6, 8} closed with respect to
a. addition modulo 4? b. multiplication modulo 6?

B. For numbers 6-20 determine whether the set forms a group with respect to the given
operation. Assume that the operation is associative. If the set does not form a group,
determine which properties fail.
6. The even integers; addition
7. The even integers; multiplication
8. The real numbers; addition
9. The real numbers; division
10. The real numbers; multiplication
11. The positive real numbers; division
12. The real numbers except 0; multiplication
13. The rational numbers; addition
14. The rational numbers; subtraction
15. Positive rational numbers; multiplication
16. {1, 2, 3, 4}; multiplication modulo 5
17. {1, 2, 3; multiplication modulo 4
18. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}; addition modulo 6
19. {-1, 1}; division
20. {-1, 1}; multiplication

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 C. For numbers 21-25, refer to the triangular symmetry group.
21. Find R120∆R r 24. Find R r∆R l
22. Find R 240∆Rt 25. Find R l ∆Rt
23. Find Rt ∆R120
D. For numbers 26 to 35, refer to the figure below.

E. Use the operation “followed by”, represented by ∆ to find the following:

26. R h ∆R 270
27. R90∆Rv
28. R180∆R r
29. R l ∆R90
30. R l ∆R h
31. Use symbolic notation to find R h ∆R90
32. Use symbolic notation to find R180∆R r
33. Use symbolic notation to find R h ∆Rv
34. Use symbolic notation to find Rv∆R l
35. List each of the eight elements of the group in symbolic notation.
1 2 3 4
The identity element is I =
2 1 3 4

F. For numbers 36-40, find the group of permutations of the numbers 1 2 3.

36. B∆D 39. E∆A
37. E∆D 40. E∆B
38. C∆B

G. For numbers 41-45, find the inverse of the following based on the permutation group
1 2 3.
41. A 44. D
42. B 45. E
43. C

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 H. For numbers 46-55, list all permutations of the numbers 1 2 3 4 and name each
permutation. Use symbolic notation such as I = 12 21 33 44
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
46. Find ∆
4 2 1 3 2 4 1 3

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
47. Find ∆
3 1 2 4 3 4 1 2

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
48. Find ∆
2 4 3 1 4 1 3 2

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
49. Find ∆
4 1 2 3 1 3 2 4

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
50. Find ∆
3 1 4 2 4 3 2 1

1 2 3 4
51. Find the inverse of
3 2 1 4

1 2 3 4
52. Find the inverse of
4 2 1 3

1 2 3 4
53. Find the inverse of
2 3 1 4

1 2 3 4
54. Find the inverse of
1 3 4 2

1 2 3 4
55. Find the inverse of
2 4 3 1

I. For numbers 56-60, given the set of numbers {2k} where k is any integer, form a group
with multiplication as the operation.
56. Which element of the group is the identity element?
57. Verify that the group is closed under multiplication.
58. Which element is the inverse of 28?
1
59. Which element is the inverse of 32 ?
60. In general, what is the inverse of 2k?

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 ACTIVITY 3 TRY THIS!
Name: Section:
Date Accomplished: Time Started: Time Finished:

A.
1. Show that positive real numbers with addition as the operation form a group.
2. Show that negative integers with addition as the operation form a group.
3. Show that complex numbers with multiplication as the operation form a group.
4. Show that fractions with division as the operation form a group.
5. Show that odd integers with multiplication as the operation form a group.
6. Does the set {1, 2, 3, 4} with addition operation modulo 5 form a group?
7. Does the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} with operation multiplication modulo 6 form a group?
8. Does the set {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} with addition operation modulo 11 form a group?
9. Does the set {1, 3, 6, 10, ...} with multiplication operation modulo 12 form a group?
10. Does the set {-8, -6, -4, -2, 0} with addition operation modulo 7 form a group?
B.
1. Find the result of a counter-clockwise R120.
2. If we rotate R r 120º clockwise, what do we call this new position?
3. If we rotate Rt 240º counter-clockwise, what do we call this new position?
4. If we rotate R l 120º counter-clockwise, what do we call this new position?
5. Is there a difference between a clockwise and counter clockwise R 360?

C. Find the following:

1. Find R l20∆R r 4. Find R r∆R l
2. Find Rt ∆R r 5. Find R l20∆R 240
3. Find R l ∆R 240

D. Use symbolic notation to find the outcome of the following:

1. R l ∆R 240 4. Rt ∆R r
2. R r∆R l 5. R l ∆R120
3. R l20∆R l

E. Compute the following, where each letter is an element of the permutation group above.
1. E∆D 3. B∆D 5. D∆B
2. A∆C 4. A∆E

F. Find the inverse of the following.

1. I
2. A

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 The Authors
Ms. Marion Faye Q. Ariola is an Assistant Professor at Isabela
State University assigned at the Mathematics and Physical
Sciences Department of its College of Arts and Sciences. She holds
a BS Mathematics degree from Mindanao State University in
General Santos City, an MS Major in Mathematics Education
degree from Isabela State University in Echague, Isabela, and an
MS Mathematics degree from University of the Philippines in
Diliman. She is a Licensed Professional Teacher with 17 years of
mathematics teaching experience. Her first teaching experience
was at New Era University in General Santos City where she
taught in its High School Department for eight years. Upon her entry at Isabela State
University, she taught General Education courses in mathematics. At present, she handles
courses in university’s BS Mathematics program. Her field of specialization is Algebra and
has completed a research on 3-uniform tilings.
Xyrus Ulysses M. Villanueva is a Mathematics Education
graduate of the University of the Philippines-Diliman, a Master of
Arts in Education, Major in Mathematics graduate of Manuel V.
Gallego Foundation Colleges, Inc. and as of this writing a Ph. D. in
Mathematics Education student of the Nueva Ecija University of
Science and Technology. A former Business Calculus Instructor of
Araullo University – PhinMa College of Arts and Sciences and
currently an Economics, Statistics, and Mathematics Instructor of
the College of Education of NEUST, he also plays and composes
music for a variety of local and international ethnic and modern
musical instruments, as well as vocal solos for piano and guitar. His musical notations and
transcriptions on the book series “SAYAW: Dances of the Philippine Islands” are used as
reference of folk dance instructors around the country.
Robert Jan R. Bayan is currently teaching at Cavite State
University – Carmona Campus under the Department of Arts and
Sciences. He finished his degree of Bachelor of Secondary
Education major in Mathematics in 2010 at the De La Salle
University – Dasmariñas and degree of Master of Arts in
Mathematics at the De La Salle University – Dasmariñas in 2015.
He completed the CHED’s 2nd Generation Faculty Training for
Teaching the New General Education Core Courses in Mathematics
in the Modern World at Cavite State University – Indang Campus
for Region IV.
Romellen T. Gonzalvo is a faculty at Nueva Ecija University
of Science and Technology. She is a licensed Mathematics teacher
holder, graduated her bachelor’s degree at De La Salle University
-Dasmariñas, Master ‘s degree at College of Immaculate Conception
and currently pursuing doctoral degree at Wesleyan University-
Philippines. She published a book in contemporary mathematics
last 2012. She completed various training including the CHED’s
2nd Generation Faculty Training for Teaching the New General
Education Core Courses in Mathematics in the Modern World at
Pampanga State Agricultural University for Region III.

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