Metals Processing

MSE 1101

• References
1. Callister & Rethwisch. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 9th Ed,
Ch011
 What is Forming Processes?
Forming is a mechanical process used in manufacturing industries wherein materials
(mostly metals) undergo plastic deformations and acquire required shapes and sizes by
application of suitable stresses such as compression, shear and tension.

In the forming process, no material is removed, it is completely displaced

and deformed into the required shape

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 Classification of Forming Processes
✔ Bulk Forming
1. Rolling Process ✔ Powder Metal Forming
2. Extrusion Process 1. Powder Forging
3. Forging Process 2. Powder Injection
4. Wire Drawing …. 3. Powder Extrusion Moulding...

✔ Sheet Forming
1. Bending
2. Deep Drawing
3. Shearing…

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 Classification of Forming Processes

pt. of Materials Science & Enineering Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
 Classification of Forming Processes
Considering the temperature, there are three types of Forming Process.
• Hot working process
• Cold working process

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 Hot Working process
Hot working of metals takes place above re-crystallization and below the melting
temperature. By hot working processes the metal are given desired shape by subjecting
then two forces which cause then to undergo plastic deformation at the temperature
above the re-crystallization range.

In metallurgy, recrystallization is a heat treatment process that replaces deformed grains

in a metal with new grains that are free of defects.

recrystallization is a process by which deformed grains are replaced by a new set of

defect-free grains that nucleate and grow until the original grains have been entirely
consumed.

The temperature at which this process is done called recrystallization Temperature.

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 Hot Working process

Hot working involves deformation above recrystallization

temperature, between 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm.

Pros of Hot Working

Decrease in yield strength, therefore it is easier to work and uses less energy or force
Increase in ductility
Elevated temperatures increase diffusion which can remove or reduce chemical in
homogeneities
Pores may reduce in size or close completely during deformation
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 Cons of Hot Working

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 Cold working
Cold working is the plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization
temperature. In most cases of manufacturing, such cold forming is done at room
temperature.

Sometimes, however, the working may be done at elevated temperatures (250-300C)

that will provide increased ductility and reduced strength, but will be below the
recrystallization temperature.

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 Why cold working?

✔ No heating required
✔ Better surface finish obtained
✔ Superior dimension control
✔ Better reproducibility and interchangeability of parts
✔ Improved strength properties
✔ Directional properties can be minimized

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 Why not cold working?
✔ Higher forces required for deformation
✔ Heavier and more powerful equipment required
✔ Less ductility available
✔ Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free
✔ Strain hardening occurs* (may require intermediate anneals)
✔ Imparted directional properties may be detrimental
✔ May produce undesirable residual stresses

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 Metal Forming

Metal
Forming
Techniques

Forming
Casting Miscellaneous
Operations

Powder
Forging Rolling Extrusion Drawing Sand Die Investment Welding
Metallurgy
Forming Operations
• The choice of metal forming methods depend on several factors; the most
important are the properties of the metal, the size and shape of the finished
piece, and, of course, cost.
• Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by
plastic deformation.
• Of course, the deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the
magnitude of which must exceed the yield strength of the material.
• Most metallic materials are amenable to these procedures being at least
moderately ductile and capable of some permanent deformation without
cracking or fracturing.
Forming Operations: Forging
• Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of a normally hot
metal; this may be accomplished by the application of successive blows or by
continuous squeezing.
• Forgings are classified as: • closed die or
• open die.

• For closed die, a force is brought to bear on two

or more die halves having the finished shape such
that the metal is deformed in the cavity between them.
• For open die, two dies having simple geometric shapes (e.g., parallel flat,
semicircular) are employed, normally on large workpieces.
• Forged articles have outstanding grain structures and the best combination of
mechanical properties.
Rolling
• Rolling, the most widely used Wrenches, automotive
crankshafts, and piston
deformation process, consists of passing connecting rods are
a piece of metal between two rolls; a formed by the technique
reduction in thickness results from of forging.
compressive stresses exerted by the rolls.
• Rolling may be used in the production of
sheet, strip, and foil with a high-quality
surface finish.
• Circular shapes as well as railroad rails are
fabricated using grooved rolls.
Extrusion and Drawing
• For extrusion, a bar of metal is forced • Drawing is the pulling of a metal
through a die orifice by a compressive piece through a die by means of a
force that is applied to a ram; the tensile force that is applied on the exit
extruded piece that emerges has the side.
desired shape and a reduced • A reduction in cross section results,
cross-sectional area. with a corresponding increase in
• Extrusion products include rods and length. The total drawing operation
tubing. may consist of a number of dies in a
series sequence.
Casting
• Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is
poured into a mold cavity having the desired shape; upon solidification,
the metal assumes the shape of the mold but experiences some
shrinkage.
• Casting techniques are employed when the finished shape is so large
or complicated that any other method would be impractical.
• In comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most
economical.
• A number of different casting techniques are commonly employed,
including sand, die, investment, lost foam, and continuous casting.
Sand Casting
• With sand casting, probably the most
common method, ordinary sand is used as
the mold material. A two-piece mold is
formed by packing sand around a pattern
that has the shape of the intended casting.
• Furthermore, a gating system is usually
incorporated into the mold to expedite the
flow of molten metal into the cavity.
• Sand-cast parts include automotive cylinder
blocks, fire hydrants, and large pipe fittings.
Die Casting
• In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure and at a
relatively high velocity and allowed to solidify with the pressure maintained.
• A two piece permanent steel mold or die is employed; when clamped together,
the two pieces form the desired shape.
• When the metal has solidified completely,
the die pieces are opened and the cast piece is ejected.
• Rapid casting rates are possible, making this an inexpensive
method; furthermore, a single set of dies may be used for
thousands of castings.
• This technique is useful only for alloys of
Zn, Al & Mg which have low melting
temperatures.
Investment Casting
• For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is
made from a wax or plastic that has a low melting temperature.
• Around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry usually of plaster of paris.
This sets up to form a solid mold or investment.
• The mold is then heated, such that the pattern melts and is burned
out, leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired shape.
• This technique is employed when high dimensional accuracy,
reproduction of fine detail, and an excellent finish are required—for
example, in jewelry.
Investment Casting
Lost Foam Casting
• A variation of investment casting is lost foam (or expendable pattern) casting.
• Here the expendable pattern is a foam that can be formed from polystyrene.
• Sand is then packed around the pattern to form the mold. As the molten
metal is poured into the mold, it replaces the pattern, which vaporizes.
• The compacted sand remains in place, and, upon solidification, the metal
takes the shape of the mold.
• With lost foam casting, complex geometries and tight tolerances are
possible.
• Furthermore, in comparison to sand casting, lost foam is a simpler, quicker,
and less expensive process, and there are fewer environmental wastes.
Continuous Casting
• In this technique, the refined and molten metal is poured
directly into a bottomless mold that may have either a
rectangular or circular cross section.
• Solidification occurs in a water-cooled die having the desired
cross-sectional geometry. At first, only partial solidification
takes place. It completes subsequently after leaving the mold.
• The chemical composition and mechanical properties are more
uniform throughout the cross sections for continuous castings
than for ingot-cast products. Furthermore, continuous casting
is highly automated and more efficient.
Powder Metallurgy
• Powder metallurgy technique involves the compaction of powdered metal,
followed by heating to produce a more dense piece.
• Powder metallurgy makes it possible to produce a virtually nonporous piece
having properties almost equivalent to the fully dense parent material.
• This method is especially suitable for metals having low ductilities, because only
small plastic deformation of the powder particles is necessary.
• Metals with high melting temperatures are difficult to melt and cast, and
fabrication is expedited using P/M.
• Furthermore, parts that require very close dimensional tolerances (e.g., bushings
and gears) may be economically produced using this technique.
Welding
• Welding is a fabrication process that joins
materials, usually metals.
• This is often done by melting the workpieces
and adding a filler material to form a pool of
molten material (the weld pool) that cools to
become a strong joint, to produce the weld.
• This is in contrast with soldering and brazing,
which involve melting a lower-melting-point
material between the workpieces to form a
bond between them, without melting the
workpieces.
Welding
• Two or more metal parts are joined to form a single piece when one
part fabrication is expensive or inconvenient.
• Both similar and dissimilar metals may be welded.
• The joining bond is metallurgical [involving some diffusion] rather
than mechanical as with bolting.
• During welding the workpieces to be joined and the filler material are
heated to a sufficiently high temperature to cause both to melt upon
solidification, the filler material forms a fusion joint between the
workpieces
Welding
• After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the
weld area. The weld itself is called the fusion zone—more specifically,
it is where the filler metal was laid during the welding process.
• The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal
used, and its compatibility with the base materials. It is surrounded
by the heat affected zone, the area that had its microstructure and
properties altered by the weld.
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