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Predicate Logic and Quantified Statements:

1. a) r: Raptor
B (x, y) : x is better than y
The logical expression is, ∀x [~ (x = r) ⇒ B(r, x)]
Predicate: B(r, x)
Values: (x, y)
Domain: all teams [for both x and y]

b) L (x, y) : x likes y
s: Shark
d: Dolphin
The logical expression is, ∀x [L (x, y) v L (x, d)]
Predicate: L (x, y)
Values: (x, y)
Domain of x: all students
Domain of y: all animals

c) P(x): x passed the final exam

The logical expression is, ∃y [~P(y) ∧ ∀z (~P(z) ⇒ (z = y) ∧ ∀x (~(x = y) ⇒ P(x))]
Predicate: P(x)
Values: (x, y, z)
Domain of x, y, z: all students

d) B (x, o): x is bigger than o

The logical expression is, ∃x B (x, o) ∧ ∀z (B (z, o) ⇒ (z = x))
Predicate: B (x, o)
Values: x
Domain of x: all numbers

e) U(x): x lives underwater

The logical expression is, ∀x ~ U(x)
Predicate: U(x)
Values: x
Domain: All person

2. ¬{∃x∀y(P(x, y) ⇐⇒ P(y, x))} = ¬{∃x[∀y(P(x, y) ⇐⇒ P(y, x))]}

= ∀x, ¬[∀y(P(x, y) ⇐⇒ P(y, x))]

= ∀x, ∃y¬(P(x, y) ⇐⇒ P(y, x))

= ∀x, ∃y¬[(P(x, y) ⇒ P(y, x)) ∧ (P(y, x) ⇒ P(x, y))]

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= ∀x, ∃y¬[(¬P(x, y) v P(y, x)) ∧ (¬P(y, x) v P(x, y))]

= ∀x, ∃y[(P(x, y) ∧ ¬P(y, x)) ∧ (P(y, x) ∧ ¬P(x, y))]

3. Statements a. and c. can conclude for us that James loves lobster (because James is from Nova
Scotia).
Because the one who loves lobster cannot climb a mountain (from statement b), James cannot
climb a mountain.
Thus we can conclude that James doesn’t have the ability to climb a mountain.

4. Existential Quantification ∃x(A(x)) : means there exists an element x in the domain (if only
one then also true).

Universal Quantification ∀x(A(x)) : means A(x) is true for all values of x in the domain (True for all).

1. A > ∀x(x 3 = -1) is false because it is true for only x = 1, not for other numbers.

2. ∃x (x5<x) is true because 0.055 < 0.5 is true. {0.055 = 0.0000003125 which is less than 0.5}

3. ∀x((-x2) = x2) is true because (-x2) = x2 is true for all real values of x

4.∃x(2x <= x) is true because 2 * 0 <=​0 is true.​​

5. a) It is of form "p→ q" or "if p then q"

∀x(S(x) → ¬ W(x))

b) But is used as and (∧) in propositional logic

∃x(¬ W(x) ∧ B(x))

c) it can be re-written as : ( ∀x W(x) ) ∨ (∃x(B(x) ∧ ¬S(x)))

( ∀x W(x) ) : every dog wag its tail

(∃x(B(x) ∧ ¬S(x))) : there exists a dogs that barks but does not scratches the furniture.

In other words : Either every dog wags its tail or there exists a dog that barks but does not scratch
the furniture.
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6. Let h : Harry Potter, r : Ron Weasley

a) ∃x , Because there exists x in the domain

b) ∀xT (x, h), For each x, T (x, h) is true
c) ¬∃xH (x), It’s false that there exists x, such that H(x) is true
d) ∀x[T (x, r) → ¬T (x, h)], For each x if T (x,r) is true then T (x, h) is false
e) ∃x∃y[H(x) ∧ R(y) ∧ T (x, y)], There exists x and y such that H(x), R(y), and T (x, y)
are all true
f) ∃x∃y∃z[(x≠y) ∧ H(x) ∧ H(y) ∧ R(z) ∧ T (x, z) ∧ T (y, z)], There exists x, y, z
such that x & y are different, H(x), H(y), R(z), T (x, z), T (y, z) are all true

Logical Reasoning and Proofs:

7. Let n be even

Then n = 2k, k∈Z

n^3 + 5 = (2k)^3 + 5

= 8k^3 + 5

= (8k^3 + 4) + 1

= 2(4k^3 + 2) + 1

= 2t + 1, where t = 4k^3 +2, ∈Z

Therefore n^3 + 5 is of the form of 2t + 1, t∈Z, and n^3 + 5 is odd whenever n is even

Hence by the above statements the proof is completed.

8. Let’s assume that there is no region that will have at least 1990 voters. A region has at most 1989
voters. Let’s say each region has 1989 voters.

Number of regions = 12

Therefore number of voters = 1989 * 12 = 23,868 voters

Total green voters casting the ballot = 23,877

Therefore 23,877 - 23,868 = 9 voters left

These 9 voters belong to one of the 12 regions. This contradicts our assumption that no region has 1990
voters or more. Hence our assumption is wrong. Therefore at least one region will have 1990 voters.
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9. Let a|b and b|c

a|b - therefore b = a * m (1)

Now b|c - therefore c = b * n (2)

From (1) and (2)

c = (a * m) * n

c = a * (mn)

Since m and n are both integers mn is also an integer.

Let k be any real integer, k = mn

Therefore c = a * k

Hence by the above definition we can write a|c. Therefore proved, if a|c and b|c then a|c.

10. Given Information:

n∈Z

Prove: “if 3n + 2 is even then n is even” - using contrapositive.

Proof:

Let say p = 3n + 2 is even and q = n is even

The given statements is p -> q

Finding contrapositive of p -> q:

Contrapositive of p -> q = ~q -> ~p

~p = 3n + 2 is odd

~q = n is odd

n is odd then n = 2m + 1 where m is integer.

3n + 2 = 3(2m + 1) + 2

3n + 2 = 6m + 3 + 2
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3n + 2 = 6m + 5

6m will always be even for any value of m, 5 is an odd number, therefore the addition of an even and odd
number will always be odd.

Hence 3n + 2 = 6m + 5 => odd

Hence by the above statements we have completed the proof.

11. The given statement :

“Every positive integer greater than 7 can be written as the sum of the squares of three ( not necessarily
unique) integers.”

Counterexample :

15 cannot be written as the sum of the squares of 3 integers. As squares less than 15 are 0, 1, 4, and 9.
None of these squares can sum up to and result in 15.

No number set of {8k + 7, k is an integer} can be written as the sum of 3 perfect squares. The sum of 3
perfect squares is never congruent to 7(mod8). A natural number can be represented as the sum of 3
perfect squares of integers if and only if that number is not in the form 4^a(8b + 7) where a and b are non
negative integers.

12. Let p = (2n + 1), q = (2k + 1), n and k are integers

pq = (2n + 1) * (2k + 1) = 4nk + 2n + 2k + 1 = 2 * (2nk + n + k) + 1 = 2m + 1, m = 2nk + n + k, is an

integer. Since 2m + 1 is odd, pq is also odd.

13. For every real number x, |8| + x ≥ 6

We have 8 ≥ 6, therefore for any real number x, 8 - x ≥ 6 - x. Also we have |a| ≥ a for all a∈R

Therefore |8 - x| ≥ 8 - x. As |8 - x| ≥ 8 - x and 8 - x ≥ 6 - x ⇒ |8 - x| ≥ 6 - x

But |a - b| = |b - a| ⇒ |8 - x| = |x - 8|.

Therefore |8 - x| ≥ 6 - x becomes |x - 8| ≥ 6 - x ⇒ |x - 8| + x ≥ 6, for all x∈R.

Hence by the above statements we have completed the proof.

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14. Let there be three real numbers x, y, z, and the average of the three numbers is:

A = (x + y + z)/3, suppose that the A < x & A < y & A < z or

(x + y + z)/3 < x & (x + y + z)/3 < y & (x + y + z)/3 < z ⇒ (x + y + z) < 3x & (x + y + z) < 3y

& (x + y + z) < 3z. Now adding these (3):

3 (x + y + z) < 3 (x + y + z) ⇒ (x + y + z) < (x + y + z)

3A < 3A & A < A, which is not possible

Therefore our assumption is contradicted.

Hence the average of (3) real numbers is greater than or equal to at least one of the numbers.

Functions:
15. Since n >= a. We need to find the nearest integer greater than a, Hence n >= ceiling(a).

Since n <= b. We need to find the nearest integer less than b, Hence n <= floor(b).

floor(b) - ceiling(a) +1

Example #1 : if a = 5.4 and b = 8.6

integers which satisfy our condition are: 6,7,8 (3 integers)

According to our result : floor(8.6) - ceiling(5.4) + 1 = 8 - 6 + 1 = 3.

Example #2: If a = 6 and b = 10.7

Integers which satisfy our condition are: 6,7,8,9,10 (5 Integers)

According to our result: floor(10.7) - ceiling(6) + 1 = 10 - 6 + 1 = 5.

Therefore there are (floor(b) - ceiling(a) +1) such integers between a and b where a < b such that a <= n
<= b.

16. a) Function f(x) = 1/x^2, not a function because f(0) is not defined. Hence it is not a function from R
to R

b) Function f(x) = √x, not a function sincer a negative square root is not defined for x, Hence it is not a
function from R to R.

c)
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17. Define function f as every other Thursday before and including pay day. This maps two Thursdays on
to every month for the year.

Domain = 2nd Thursday of January

= 4th Thursday of January

Codomain = January, February, March -- December every month in a year.

Therefore the above statements show that it is a two-to-one function. Hence it is proved.

18. As x and y are both negative integers. The Domain is (- ∞, -1). That means the domain is from
negative infinity to -1.

As we know, the sum of 2 negative numbers is always negative, and the function f → x + y.

Where x and y are both negative numbers, so the range of the function is (- ∞, -2), because the greatest
negative number is -1. So if x and y are both -1 then their sum is:

x + y = -1 + (-1) = -1 -1 = -2. It is not mentioned that x and y are distinct. So this case is also possible
where x and y are both -1. So the sum of two negative numbers is not greater than -2. Therefore:

Domain = (- ∞, -1) ; that means all negative numbers.

Range = (- ∞, -2) ; that means all negative numbers except -1.

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Works Cited

Rosen, K. H. (2019). Discrete mathematics and its applications. McGraw-Hill.