Types of chemical reactions and examples

Chemists have recognised and classified many types of chemical reactions. Knowing a particular reaction
type is often useful in writing chemical equations. Common types of reactions are

• synthesis,
• combustion of organic compounds,
• displacement,
• neutralisation,
• precipitation,
• decomposition
• oxidation–reduction (redox).

(a) Synthesis (or direct combination) reactions- occur when two or more substances react to form
one product.
Examples (involving exothermic reactions)
(i) reaction of some elements with oxygen (this also is oxidation-addition of oxygen)
Write a balanced equation for burning:
• aluminium in oxygen
aluminium + oxygen → aluminium oxide
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) →2Al2O3(s)

• phosphorus in oxygen
phosphorus + oxygen → phosphorus (V) oxide
4P(s) + 5O2(g) →P4O10(s)

• hydrogen in oxygen
hydrogen + oxygen → water
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
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(ii) reaction of some elements with halogens

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between

• aluminium and iodine powders

aluminium + iodine → aluminium iodide
2Al(s) + 3I2(s) → 2AlI3(s)

• sodium and chlorine

sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

• hydrogen and bromine

hydrogen + bromine → hydrogen bromide
H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g)

(iii) Photosynthesis – manufacture of food by green plants from carbon dioxide and water using
sunlight energy. This is an example of a photochemical reaction since it is light dependent.
It is an endothermic process. Chlorophyll in green leaves traps energy from the sun.

(b) Thermal decomposition reaction- breakdown of a substance by the action of heat-

-has only one reactant which breaks down to give two or more simpler products.

Examples
Thermal decomposition of:
(i) Group II carbonates: e.g. calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

white solid white solid colourless gas (turns lime
water milky)
Transition metal carbonates in which the metal ion has a +2 charge decompose in a similar way to Group
II carbonates e.g copper (II) carbonate → copper (II) oxide + carbon dioxide

CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)

green solid black solid

(ii) Group II nitrates: e.g. magnesium nitrate → magnesium oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen
2Mg (NO3)2 (s) → 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
white white brown colourless
solid solid gas gas (relights a glowing splint)

Transition metal nitrates in which the metal ion has a +2 charge decompose in a similar way to Group II
nitrates e.g copper (II) nitrate → copper (II) oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen

2Cu (NO3)2 (s) → 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

blue solid
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(iii) Group I nitrates: e.g. potassium nitrate → potassium nitrite + oxygen

2KNO3(s) → 2KNO2(l) + O2(g)
white solid yellow liquid
(iv) Group (II) hydroxides: e.g magnesium hydroxide → magnesium oxide + water
Mg (OH)2 (s) → MgO(s) + H2O(g)

Observation: if this decomposition reaction is carried out in a test tube, the water vapour condenses on
the walls of the test tube, at the top, forming water droplets.

Test for water:

1. Turns white anhydrous copper (II) sulfate (CuSO4) blue
CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O → CuSO4.5H2O(s)
white solid blue solid
(hydrated copper (II) sulfate)

2. Turns blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride (or cobalt chloride paper) pink.

Transition metal hydroxides in which the metal ion has a +2 charge decompose in a similar way to Group
II hydroxides e.g copper (II) hydroxide → copper (II) oxide + water
Cu (OH)2 (s) → CuO(s) + H2O(g)
blue solid

NB Group 1 carbonates (e.g sodium carbonate, Na2CO3) and hydroxides (eg potassium hydroxide, KOH)
are stable to heat so they do not undergo thermal decomposition.

(c) Neutralisation (or Acid–Base) Reactions

Neutralisation is the reaction of an acid with a base or alkali to give salt and water:
• acid + base → salt + water

Definitions: An acid is a proton donor. (A proton is the hydrogen ion, H+)

A base is a proton acceptor.
An alkali is a soluble base e.g sodium hydroxide.

Common acids (the cation in all acids is the hydrogen ion, H+)
Acid Name
HF Hydrofluoric acid
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HBr Hydrobromic acid
HNO2 Nitrous acid
HNO3 Nitric acid
H2SO3 Sulfurous acid
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
H3PO4 Phosphoric acid
CH3COOH Ethanoic acid

Common bases
Base Name
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
KOH Potassium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2 Magnesium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide
Fe(OH)3 Iron(III) hydroxide
CuO copper (II) oxide
 4

A salt is an ionic compound produced when an acid reacts with a base; it is formed when the hydrogen
ion, H+ of an acid is replaced by a metal ion (or ammonium ion, NH4+) from the base.

The cation part of the salt comes from the base; the anion from the acid.
eg MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) cation Mg2+ from MgO, anion Cl- from HCl

Since salts are prepared from acids, their identity depends on the parent acid.

Acid Group of salts Example

hydrochloric acid, HCl chlorides sodium chloride, NaCl, ammonium chloride, NH4Cl
hydrobromic acid, HBr bromides lithium bromide, LiBr
hydroiodic acid, HI iodides potassium iodide, KI
nitric acid, HNO3 nitrates aluminium nitrate, Al (NO3)3
sulfuric acid, H2SO4 sulfates ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
phosphoric acid, H3PO4 phosphates calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
carbonic acid, H2CO3 carbonates magnesium carbonate, MgCO3

Examples of neutralisation reactions

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between:

(i) hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

(ii) aqueous solutions of sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide

sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide → potassium sulfate + water
H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

(iii) aqueous nitric acid and magnesium oxide

nitric acid + magnesium oxide →magnesium nitrate + water
2HNO3 (aq) + MgO(s) → Mg (NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Ionic equations
Ionic equations provide useful summaries of the overall changes occurring in a chemical reaction. In an
ionic equation only the species taking part in the reaction are included. Ions which do not take part in the
reaction (i.e. they appear in exactly the same form on both sides of the equation) are called spectator
ions and these are not included in the net ionic equation.

Steps in converting a symbol equation into an ionic equation

(i) write the full equation with state symbols

(ii) rewrite the equation in terms of its ions with every soluble compound assigned the state
symbol (aq) written separately as ions. Solubility rules need to be applied here.
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Group I and ammonium salts are all soluble. Most hydroxides, oxides, phosphates,
chromates are insoluble.

Any substance with the state symbol (s) such as BaSO4(s), (l) such as water, H2O (l) and (g)
such as CO2(g) does not form ions in water hence should remain unchanged.

(iii) Identify and eliminate the spectator ions to write the net ionic equation.
(iv) An ionic equation should be balanced in terms of both the atoms and the charges.
Examples of ionic equations
(i) Neutralisation reaction of an acid by an alkali
Write the ionic equation for the neutralisation of hydrochloric acid with sodium hydroxide
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

H+(aq) + Cl -(aq) + Na+(aq)+ OH- (aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl -(aq) + H2O (l)

Na+(aq) and Cl -(aq) are spectator ions hence they are eliminated

So the net ionic equation is: H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)
This is the ionic equation for any neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali.
Quiz. Write the ionic equation for the reaction between solutions of sulfuric acid potassium hydroxide
(ii) reaction between an acid and a soluble carbonate
An acid reacts with a carbonate to produce a salt, carbon dioxide and water. This reaction is used as a
test for carbonate ions, 𝐶𝑂32− in qualitative analysis.
Observation: bubbles (of gas carbon dioxide gas) or effervescence
Test for carbon dioxide gas : turns lime water milky
eg Write the ionic equation for the reaction between aqueous solutions of sulfuric acid and sodium
carbonate
sulfuric acid + sodium carbonate → sodium sulfate + carbon dioxide + water
H2SO4 (aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2 H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2 Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → 2 Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
SO42-(aq) and Na+(aq) are spectator ions
So the net ionic equation is: 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O (l)
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(iii) reaction between an acid and an insoluble carbonate

eg Write the ionic equation for the reaction between aqueous nitric acid and calcium
carbonate
nitric acid + calcium carbonate → calcium nitrate + carbon dioxide + water
2HNO3 (aq) + CaCO3(s) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2H+(aq) + 2NO3--(aq) + CaCO3(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3--(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
NO3--(aq) is the spectator ion
So the net ionic equation is: 2H+(aq + CaCO3(s) → Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(iv) reaction between an acid and an insoluble base eg copper (II) oxide
copper (II) oxide + hydrochloric acid → copper (II) chloride + water
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2 (aq) + H2O(l)
black solid blue solution

CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) +2Cl -(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl -(aq) + H2O(l)

Cl -(aq) is the spectator ion so net ionic equation is: CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)

(v) reaction between an acid and a reactive metal eg magnesium

Reactive metals react with acids to form salt and hydrogen gas.
Observation: bubbles (of gas hydrogen gas) or effervescence, the metal dissolves
Test for gas : use a lighted splint; hydrogen burns with a pop sound
magnesium + sulfuric acid →magnesium sulfate + hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + H2(g)
SO42-(aq) is the spectator ion so net ionic equation is Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
(d) Precipitation reactions
Definition: A precipitate is the solid product formed when two solutions are mixed together and they
react to produce a precipitate.
A precipitation reaction is one in which a solid is formed from a reaction between two solutions
(or when a gas is bubbled in a solution to produce a solid).
To precipitate an insoluble salt, you must mix a solution that contains its positive ions with one
that contains its negative ions.

Precipitation reactions are useful in qualitative analysis to identify cations and anions present in
solutions.
Some uses of precipitation
Precipitation has some important uses in industry. For example:
• It is used to make coloured pigments for paint.
• It is used in some places to remove harmful substances dissolved in water, when cleaning up waste
water.
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• It is used in making film, for photography. For this, solutions of silver nitrate and potassium bromide
are mixed with gelatine. A precipitate of tiny crystals of insoluble silver bromide forms. The mixture is
then coated onto clear film, giving photographic film.
Later, when light strikes the film, the silver bromide will break down:

Examples of precipitation reactions

(i) Formation of barium sulfate from aqueous solutions of barium nitrate and potassium sulfate
K2SO4 (aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Ionic equation is : Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)
Barium sulfate is a white precipitate. This reaction is used as a test for sulfate ions in qualitative analysis.
(ii) Formation of silver halides (silver chloride, AgCl; silver bromide, AgBr; silver iodide, AgI)
Silver nitrate, AgNO3, is the only soluble salt of silver. In qualitative analysis it is used to confirm
the presence of halide ions. It forms a precipitate when mixed with any soluble salt containing
a halide ion. This reaction is used in qualitative analysis to test for the presence of halide ions.
Test: Add dilute nitric acid, followed by aqueous silver nitrate. If a precipitate is formed, a halide ion is
present. The colour of the precipitate depends on the halide ion present.
Examples
(i) Formation of AgCl(s) from aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and sodium chloride

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

white precipitate
(ii) Formation of AgBr(s) from aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and sodium bromide

Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s)

cream precipitate
(iii) Formation of AgI(s) from aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and potassium iodide

Ag+(aq) + l-(aq) → AgI(s)

yellow precipitate

• It is used in qualitative analysis, for instance alkalis are used to confirm presence of cations.
Example
To test for iron (II), Fe2+, or iron (III), Fe3+ ions, add either aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous
ammonia.
Observations
• with iron (II), Fe2+, green precipitate, insoluble in excess. If left in air for some time, the green
precipitate turns brown, as iron (II) is oxidised to iron (III).

ionic equation: Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)

pale green solution green precipitate

• with iron (III), Fe3+, a red-brown precipitate, insoluble in excess.

ionic equation: Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH-(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
pale yellow solution red-brown precipitate
NB for other examples see Notes for use in Qualitative Analysis.
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Notes for use in qualitative analysis

Tests for anions

anion test test result

2−
carbonate, CO3 add dilute acid, then test for carbon effervescence, carbon dioxide
dioxide gas produced
chloride, Cl − acidify with dilute nitric acid, then white ppt.
[in solution] add aqueous silver nitrate
bromide, Br− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then cream ppt.
[in solution] add aqueous silver nitrate
iodide, I− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then yellow ppt.
[in solution] add aqueous silver nitrate
nitrate, NO3− add aqueous sodium hydroxide, ammonia produced
[in solution] then aluminium foil; warm carefully
sulfate, SO42− acidify with dilute nitric acid, then white ppt.
[in solution] add aqueous barium nitrate
sulfite, SO32− add a small volume of acidified the acidified aqueous potassium
aqueous potassium manganate(VII) manganate(VII) changes from
purple to colourless

Tests for aqueous cations

cation effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide effect of aqueous ammonia

3+
aluminium, Al white ppt., soluble in excess, giving white ppt., insoluble in excess
a colourless solution
ammonium, NH4+ ammonia produced on warming –
2+
calcium, Ca white ppt., insoluble in excess no ppt. or very slight white ppt.
3+
chromium(III), Cr green ppt., soluble in excess grey-green ppt., insoluble in excess
copper(II), Cu2+ light blue ppt., insoluble in excess light blue ppt., soluble in excess,
giving a dark blue solution
iron(II), Fe2+ green ppt., insoluble in excess, green ppt., insoluble in excess,
ppt. turns brown near surface on ppt. turns brown near surface on
standing standing
iron(III), Fe3+ red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess red-brown ppt., insoluble in excess
2+
zinc, Zn white ppt., soluble in excess, giving white ppt., soluble in excess, giving
a colourless solution a colourless solution
 9

Tests for gases

gas test and test result

ammonia, NH3 turns damp red litmus paper blue
carbon dioxide, CO2 turns limewater milky
chlorine, Cl 2 bleaches damp litmus paper
hydrogen, H2 ‘pops’ with a lighted splint
oxygen, O2 relights a glowing splint
sulfur dioxide, SO2 turns acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) from purple to colourless

Flame tests for metal ions

metal ion flame colour

lithium, Li+ red
sodium, Na+ yellow
potassium, K+ lilac
calcium, Ca2+ orange-red
2+
barium, Ba light green
2+
copper(II), Cu blue-green
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Chemical calculations

*Recall work on Relative atomic mass

Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element on
a scale where the carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 units.
average mass of one atom of the element
Mathematically Ar = 1
× 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛−12 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒
12

The relative atomic masses are already stated in the Periodic Table for each element. Ar is not the same
as mass number; if they have the same numerical value, its coincidence.

All relative masses (relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass, relative formula mass) have no units.

Relative atomic masses for naturally occurring elements are based on the relative abundances of their
isotopes.
Relative abundance is the percentage or proportion of the isotope found in the naturally occurring
element. Thus the relative atomic mass of an element is an average mass which takes account of the
relative abundance of all the isotopes of the element. It is possible to calculate relative atomic masses
from the relative abundances of the isotopes.

Example
Given that chlorine consists of two isotopes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37 in the relative abundances of
75% and 25% respectively, calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar of chlorine.
75 25
Ans: Ar of Cl =  35 +  37 = 26.25 + 9.25 = 35.5
100 100

2. Part of the definition of relative atomic mass is ‘the average mass of naturally occurring atoms
of an element’. Some relative atomic masses are not whole numbers.
Element Y has only two different types of atom, 69Y and 71Y.
The ratio of atoms present in element Y is shown.
69Y : 71Y = 3 : 2

(a) Calculate the relative atomic mass of element Y to one decimal place.
(b) Identify element Y. (Ans: Ar = 69.8; Y = Ga)
3. Potassium consists of two isotopes, 39K and 41K. The relative atomic mass of potassium is 39.1.
Calculate the relative abundance of each isotope. (Ans: relative abundance 39K = 95%; 41K = 5%)

*Relative molecular mass and Relative formula mass (Mr )

Using Ar, we can calculate relative masses of molecules and ionic compounds.

Relative molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule.
NB relative molecular mass applies to covalent compounds only.

e.g Find the relative molecular mass of (i) H2O (ii) H2SO4
Ans : From the Periodic Table, Ar of hydrogen = 1, Ar of oxygen = 16, Ar of sulfur =32
(i) Mr of H2O = 2(1) + 16 = 18
(ii) Mr of H2SO4 = 2(1) + 32 + 4(16) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98

Relative formula mass– is the same as relative molecular mass but applies to ionic compounds only
since ionic compounds do not exist as molecules.
Relative formula mass is total Ar of all atoms in one formula unit of an ionic compound.
 11

e.g. Calculate relative formula mass of MgSO4

Ans: Mr of MgSO4 = 24.3 + 32 + 4(16) = 120
The mole concept and the Avogadro constant
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains 6.02 × 1023 particles.
The Avogadro constant is the number of particles contained in one mole of a substance. Its value is
6.02 × 1023 particles per mol and its symbol is L. The mole is the SI unit of the amount of substance.
The mole is the counting unit for particles in Chemistry (just like dozen is a counting unit in Mathematics –
if you have 3 dozen books, the actual number of books = 3x12=36 and if you have 2½ dozen loaves of
5
bread the number of loaves = × 12 = 30 loaves)
2

Mole is abbreviated to mol.

Mathematical relationship between number of moles (n), The Avogadro constant(L) and number of
particles(N)
Number of particles in a substance = number of mol  The Avogadro constant

N = n × L

e.g Calculate the number of moles of a substance containing 1.204  1024 particles
𝑁 1.204  1024
Ans: n = = = 2.0 mol
𝐿 6.02  1023

Molar mass (Mr) is the mass, in grams, of one mole of a substance. Its unit is g/mol.
For substances consisting of atoms, it is the Ar of the element. e.g molar mass of C = 12 g/mol
For substances consisting of molecules, it is the same as relative molecular mass,
e.g molar mass of H2O = 2(1) + 16 = 18 g/mol
For substances consisting of ions, it is the same as relative formular mass.
e.g. molar mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 g / mol

Mathematical relationship between number of mol (n), molar mass (Mr) and mass of a substance
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
number of mol of a substance =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
n=
𝑀𝑟
This equation can be rearranged to find the mass or molar mass.
 12

Calculations Using Molar Mass

Examples
1. Calculate the % water of crystallisation in copper (II) sulfate -5- water.
Ans: Formula of copper (II) sulfate -5- water is CuSO4.5H2O
Mr of CuSO4.5H2O = 64 + 32 + 4(16) + 5(18) = 250
90
% water of crystallization =  100 = 36.1%
250
2. Calculate the percentage composition by mass of Fe2O3.
Ans: Mr of Fe2O3 = 2(56) + 3(16) = 160
112
% of iron =  100 = 70%
160

% of oxygen = 100 - 70 = 30 %
3. A 0.276g sample of a carbonate, X2CO3, contains 0.002 mol.
(a) Calculate the molar mass of the carbonate
(b) Determine the relative atomic mass and hence the identity of X
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟔𝒈
Ans (a) Mr = = = 138 g/mol
𝒏 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟐𝒎𝒐𝒍

(b) 2X + 12 + 3(16) = 138

2X = 78
X = 39
Ar of X = 39, hence X = K
Moles and solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent. Simple solutions usually consist
of one substance, the solute, dissolved in another substance, the solvent. The solutions used in the
laboratory are usually liquids, and the solvent is often water (water is a universal solvent). These are
called aqueous solutions.
Concentrations of solutions are expressed in terms of the amount of solute dissolved in a given volume
of solution. Common units of concentration are g/dm3 and 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3

Usually, concentration is expressed in 𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝒅𝒎𝟑 .

(1dm3 =1000cm3 (= 1L =1000ml))
To convert the two different units of concentration,

Mathematical relationship between number of mol (n), concentration(c) and volume (V)
number of mol of solute in a solution = volume in dm3  concentration in 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3
n = V c where c = concentration in 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3
v = volume in dm3
This equation can be rearranged to find the concentration or volume of solution.
𝑽 𝒄
If volume is in cm3 first change it to dm3, so n =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
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Examples
1. Calculate the concentration of a solution that contains 2.5 g of NaOH in 500cm3 of solution in:
(a) g / dm3 (b) mol / dm3
2.5𝑔 3
Ans: (a) concentration = 3 = 5.0 𝑔 / 𝑑𝑚
0.5𝑑𝑚

(b) Mr of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40g/mol

2.5
n NaOH in 500 cm3 = = 0.0625 mol
40

𝑛 0.0625 𝑚𝑜𝑙
concentration = = = 0.125 mol / dm3
𝑉 0.5𝑑𝑚3

2. How many moles are present in 25cm3 of 2.0 mol/dm3 HCl solution?
𝑉 𝑐 25 2
Ans: nHCl = = = 0.05 mol
1000 1000

3. Calculate the volume, in cm3, of a 2 mol/dm3 solution that contains 0.5 mol of solute.
𝑛 0.5
Ans Volume = = = 0.25 dm3
𝑐 2
= 0.25 x 1000 cm3
= 250cm3

Moles and gases

A mole of any gas has the same volume under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
At room temperature and pressure, r.t.p (1 atm, 25oC) molar volume of gas, Vm = 24dm3(=24000cm3)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3
at r.t.p n=
24 𝑑𝑚3

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚3

OR n=
24000𝑐𝑚3

e.g How many moles of methane (CH4) gas are present in a volume of 240cm3 at r.t.p? What is
the mass of this volume of gas?
240
Ans: n CH4 = = 0.01 mol
24000

Mr of CH4 = 12 + 4(1) = 16g/mol

mass = n × Mr = 0.01 × 16 = 0.16g
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Empirical formulae and Molecular formulae

The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of the different elements in a
molecule or compound.
The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula, for example the empirical formula of
aluminium oxide is Al2O3.
The molecular formula shows the actual number of each type of atom in a molecule.
The molecular formula is a simple multiple of the empirical formula.
Calculation of empirical and molecular formulae
The empirical formula of a compound can be determined if the percent composition of the compound is
known. To find the molecular formula of a compound, both the empirical formula and the relative
molecular mass or molar mass (in g mol–1) of the compound must be known.
Example
1. (a) Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing 85.72% carbon and 14.28% hydrogen.
(b) The molar mass of the compound is 56 g mol–1, calculate the molecular formula of the compound.
Ans: (a) C H
% composition by mass 85.72 14.28
Ar 12 1
85.72 14.28
Molar ratio :
12 1
= 7.14 : 14.28
7.14 14.28
Divide each number by the smallest = :
7.14 7.14
= 1 : 2

the empirical formula of the compound is CH2

(b) Let molecular formula of the compound be (CH2)n
(12 + 2)n = 56
14n = 56
n = 4
 molecular formula of the compound is C4H8
2. A hydrocarbon consists of 82.76% carbon and 17.24% hydrogen. Its relative molecular mass is 58.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
(b) Calculate the molecular formula of the compound.
Ans: (a) C H
% composition by mass 82.76 17.24
Ar 12 1
82.76 17.24
Molar ratio :
12 1
= 6.90 : 17.24
6.90 17.24
Divide each number by the smallest = :
6.90 6.90
= 2(1 : 2.5)
= 2 : 5

the empirical formula of the compound is C2H5

(b) Let molecular formula of the compound be (C2H5)n
(24 + 5)n = 58
29n = 58
n = 2
 molecular formula of the compound is C4H10
 15

3. Isoprene is a hydrocarbon containing 88.24% carbon.

(a) Calculate its empirical formula. (Ans:C5H8)
(b) Determine its molecular formula given that its relative molecular mass is 68.

Empirical formula and formula of an ionic compound

For an ionic compound, empirical formula is the same as its formula.
Examples
1. An oxide of aluminium contains 52.94% aluminium. Find its formula
Ans Al O
% composition by mass 52.94 47.06
Ar 27 16
52.94 47.06
Molar ratio :
27 16
= 1.96 : 2.94
= 2 : 3
Formula is Al2O3

2. Nickel (II) iodide crystals are hydrated. A sample of hydrated nickel (II) iodide crystals has the
following composition by mass: Ni, 14.01%; I, 60.33%; H, 2.85%; O, 22.81%.
Calculate the empirical formula of the hydrated nickel (II) iodide crystals.

Ans Ni I H O

14.01 60.33 2.85 22.81

14.01 60.33 2.85 22.81
59 127 1 16

0.237 0.475 2.85 1.43

0.237 0.237 0.237 0.237

1 : 2 : 12 : 6
empirical formula is NiI2H12O6
3. Magnetite is an iron ore. A sample of magnetite contains 50.4g of iron and 19.2g of oxygen.
Calculate the empirical formula of magnetite. (Ans: F3O4)
Calculating percentage composition of a compound
The percentage composition of a compound tells you how much of each element it contains, as a
percentage of the total mass. This is how to work it out:
1 Write down the formula of the compound.
2 Using Ar values, work out its molecular or formula mass (Mr).
3 Write the mass of the element as a fraction of the Mr.
4 Multiply the fraction by 100, to give a percentage
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 × 𝐴𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
% composition of an element in a compound = x 100%
𝑀𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
e.g. Calculate the percentages of each element in iron (III) sulfate.
Ans Formula of iron (III) sulfate is Fe2(SO4)3
Fe2(SO4)3 has:
Total mass
2 Fe atoms 2(56) = 112
3 S atoms 3(32) = 96
12 O atoms 12(16) = 192
Mr = 400
112 96 192
% of Fe = x 100 = 28%; % of S = x 100 = 24%; % of O = x 100 = 48%
400 400 400
 16

Calculating the mass of an element in a sample (or given mass) of a compound

Since the composition of a compound is fixed, knowing the percentage composition of an element in a
compound enables one to calculate the mass of an element in a sample of a compound

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 × 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝐴𝑟

Mass of an element in a sample of a compound = x mass of
𝑀𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
Sample
e.g Calculate the mass of copper in 3.20 g of CuSO4
Ans Mr of CuSO4 = 64 + 32 + 4(16) = 160
64
Mass of Cu = x 3.2 = 1.28g
160

Percentage purity
A pure substance has nothing else mixed with it. But substances often contain unwanted substances, or
impurities. Purity is usually given as a percentage. For an impure sample of a compound:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
Percentage purity = x 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

e.g A 6.0g impure sample of calcium carbonate contains sodium chloride as an impurity. When excess
hydrochloric acid was added to the sample, 1200cm3 of carbon dioxide gas were produced at r.t.p.
Calculate the percentage purity of the calcium carbonate sample
Ans The equation for the reaction is CaCO3 + 2HCl ⎯→ CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
⎯
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 1200𝑐𝑚3
nCO2 produced = = = 0.05mol
24000𝑐𝑚3 24000𝑐𝑚3
From the equation, mole ratio nCO2 : n CaCO3
1 : 1
So n CaCO3 = nCO2 = 0.05mol
Mr of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + 3(16) = 100
Hence mass of CaCO3 = n x Mr = 0.05 x 100 = 5.0g
5
Percentage purity = x 100 = 83.3 %
6

Limiting reactant (or reagent) is a reactant that is consumed completely (or entirely used up) in a
chemical reaction i.e it is finished first. In contrast the excess reactant is not completely consumed in a
chemical reaction i.e some of it always remains unreacted.

The amount of product formed depends on the amount of the limiting reactant available.

The exact amount of reactant which will be needed to react with another reactant can be calculated
from the reaction stoichiometry. The limiting reactant depends on the mole ratio, NOT on the
masses of the reactants present.

Calculations based on the limiting reactant

e.g 3.25g of zinc is reacted with 50.0 cm3 of 1.5 mol / dm3 HCl (aq):
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⎯ ⎯→ ZnCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
(a) Calculate (i) the moles of zinc
(ii) the moles of HCl
(b) (i) Determine the limiting reactant
(ii) Which substance is present in excess and by how much?

(c) Calculate (i) the volume of hydrogen gas produced

(ii) the mass of zinc chloride produced
 17

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 3.25
Ans (a) (i) n Zn = = = 0.05mol
𝑀𝑟 65

50
(ii) n HCl = v x c = x 1.5 = 0.075mol
1000

(b) (i) From the balanced equation, mole ratio n HCl : n Zn

2 : 1
0.075 : x
0.075
n Zn = X = = 0.0375 mol
2

therefore HCl is the limiting reactant since it is used up

(ii) Zn is the excess reactant and is in excess by 0.05 – 0.0375 = 0.0125 mol
(c) (i) The amount of product depends on the amount of the limiting reactant
From the balanced equation, mole ratio n HCl : n H2
2 : 1
0.075 : x
0.075
n H2 = X = = 0.0375 mol
2

volume of H2 produced = n x 24 = 0.0375 x 24 = 0.9 dm3

(ii) Mr of ZnCl2 = 65 + 2(35.5) = 136
n ZnCl2 = n H2 = 0.0375 mol
mass of ZnCl2 = n x Mr = 0.0375 x 136 = 5.1g
Percentage yield
The yield is the amount of product you obtain from a reaction.
It is important to distinguish between the actual yield and the theoretical yield.
• actual yield (or the experimental yield): the amount of product obtained from a chemical reaction,
which is often less than the theoretical yield (or predicted /calculated yield)

• theoretical yield (or predicted / calculated yield): the maximum amount of product possible from
the given quantities of reactants.
• percent yield is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the actual yield of a chemical reaction to the
theoretical yield.

In experiments, percentage yield is always lower than 100%, i.e actual yield is always less than the
theoretical yield for several reasons:

• sometimes reactants combine to form products other than the ones desired, due to presence of
impurities.
• some reactions are so slow that a fraction of the reactants remain unreacted even after long
reaction times.
• other reactions are reversible i.e do not go to completion no matter how long they are allowed to
run, yielding a mixture of reactants and products whose composition does not change with time.
• If you have to filter the experiment then you never quite get everything through (you either lose
some of the liquid or some of the solid)

For these and other reasons, it is useful to distinguish between the theoretical yield and the actual yield of
a chemical reaction and to calculate the percent yield:

actual yield
Percent yield = × 100%
theoretical yield
 18

e.g Copper(II) carbonate is broken down by heating to form copper(II) oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
The equation for the reaction is shown.
CuCO3 ⎯ ⎯→ CuO + CO2
31.0 g of copper (II) carbonate are heated until all of the contents of the test-tube have turned
from green to black. The yield of copper (II) oxide formed is 17.5 g.
Calculate the percentage yield?
Ans work out the theoretical yield:
CuCO3 ⎯ ⎯→ CuO + CO2
Mr 64 + 12 +3(16) 64 + 16
= 124 80
>124g of CuCO3 yields 80g of CuO

31
Therefore 31 g of CuCO3 shoul yield x 80 = 20.0g of CuO
124

actual yield 17.5

Percent yield = × 100% = × 100% = 87.5%
theoretical yield 20

Using the balanced equation in chemical calculations

Stoichiometry gives the relationship between the amounts of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction, making use of mole ratios between species participating in a chemical reaction.

From the balanced equation for a reaction you can tell:

• how many moles of each substance take part
• how many grams of each substance take part.
If you know the actual amounts of two substances that react, you can:

• predict other amounts that will react

• say how much product will form.

You just need to remember these two laws of chemistry:

1 Elements always react in the same ratio, to form a given compound.
2 The total mass does not change, during a chemical reaction.
So total mass of reactants = total mass of products.
The balanced equation can thus be used to calculate:
• the amounts of reactants and products in a chemical; reaction
• the concentrations of solutions in titrations

In a titration, one solution of known concentration is slowly added to the other of unknown
concentration in the presence of an indicator. The indicator changes colour when the reaction is
complete. So you know how much reactant is needed for a complete reaction. volumes are measured
using a pipette and a burette.
Steps in a titration eg acid – base titration of sodium hydroxide solution with aqueous hydrochloric
acid using phenolphthalein indicator
 19

Once volumes have been measured in a titration, calculations on moles and concentrations can be
performed.

Steps for calculations based on titrations

• establish the balanced equation for the reaction
• for the solution whose concentration is known (the standard solution) and volume is given,
calculate its number of moles using n = v x c
• for the solution whose concentration is to be determined, use the mole ratios in the balanced
equation to find its number of moles. This number of moles is in the given volume of the
solution.
𝑛
• use c = to calculate the concentration
𝑣
NB all titration problems follow the same procedure
Example
30.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol /dm3 NaOH(aq) were neutralised by 25.0cm3 of H2SO4(aq) in a titration.
Calculate the concentration of H2SO4(aq) in (a) mol / dm3
(b) g / dm3

The equation is: 2NaOH + H2SO4 ⎯

⎯→ Na2SO4 +2H2O
30
(a) n NaOH used = v x c = x 1 = 0.03 mol
1000
 20

from the balanced equation, mole ratio n H2SO4 : n NaOH

1 : 2
x : 0.03

0.03
n H2SO4 = x = = 0.015 mol
2
𝑛 0.015𝑚𝑜𝑙
concentration of H2SO4 = = = 0.6 mol / dm3
𝑣 0.025 𝑑𝑚3

(b) Mr of H2SO4 = 2(1) + 32 + 4(16) = 98

Concentration in g / dm3 = n x Mr = 0.6 x 98 = 58.8 g / dm3

Try to solve the following problem on your own.

Dilute hydrochloric acid, HCl (aq), reacts with aqueous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3(aq).
The chemical equation for the reaction is: 2HCl + Na2CO3 -----> 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

(a) A 25.0 cm3 portion of Na2CO3(aq) was placed in a conical flask with a few drops of a suitable
indicator. It was titrated against HCl (aq) of concentration 0.180 mol /dm3.

20.0 cm3 of HCl (aq) was required to reach the end-point.

Calculate the concentration of the Na2CO3(aq), in mol / dm3, using the following steps.

● Calculate the number of moles of HCl used in the titration.

● Calculate the number of moles of Na2CO3 contained in the 25.0 cm3 portion of Na2CO3(aq).
● Calculate the concentration of the Na2CO3(aq) in mol / dm3.

[3]

(b) In another experiment, the volume of carbon dioxide, CO2, produced was 48.0 cm3, measured
at room temperature and pressure.

How many moles of CO2 is this?

[1]