Brief Contents

New to the Third Edition xvii

Preface xix
1 Introduction 1
2 Fundamentals of the Analysis of Algorithm Efficiency 41
3 Brute Force and Exhaustive Search 97
4 Decrease-and-Conquer 131
5 Divide-and-Conquer 169
6 Transform-and-Conquer 201
7 Space and Time Trade-Offs 253
8 Dynamic Programming 283
9 Greedy Technique 315
10 Iterative Improvement 345
11 Limitations of Algorithm Power 387
12 Coping with the Limitations of Algorithm Power 423

Epilogue 471
APPENDIX A
Useful Formulas for the Analysis of Algorithms 475
APPENDIX B
Short Tutorial on Recurrence Relations 479
References 493
Hints to Exercises 503
Index 547

v
 Contents

New to the Third Edition xvii

Preface xix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 What Is an Algorithm? 3
Exercises 1.1 7
1.2 Fundamentals of Algorithmic Problem Solving 9
Understanding the Problem 9
Ascertaining the Capabilities of the Computational Device 9
Choosing between Exact and Approximate Problem Solving 11
Algorithm Design Techniques 11
Designing an Algorithm and Data Structures 12
Methods of Specifying an Algorithm 12
Proving an Algorithm’s Correctness 13
Analyzing an Algorithm 14
Coding an Algorithm 15
Exercises 1.2 17
1.3 Important Problem Types 18
Sorting 19
Searching 20
String Processing 20
Graph Problems 21
Combinatorial Problems 21
Geometric Problems 22
Numerical Problems 22
Exercises 1.3 23

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viii Contents

1.4 Fundamental Data Structures 25

Linear Data Structures 25
Graphs 28
Trees 31
Sets and Dictionaries 35
Exercises 1.4 37
Summary 38

2 Fundamentals of the Analysis of Algorithm

Efficiency 41
2.1 The Analysis Framework 42
Measuring an Input’s Size 43
Units for Measuring Running Time 44
Orders of Growth 45
Worst-Case, Best-Case, and Average-Case Efficiencies 47
Recapitulation of the Analysis Framework 50
Exercises 2.1 50
2.2 Asymptotic Notations and Basic Efficiency Classes 52
Informal Introduction 52
O-notation 53
-notation 54
-notation 55
Useful Property Involving the Asymptotic Notations 55
Using Limits for Comparing Orders of Growth 56
Basic Efficiency Classes 58
Exercises 2.2 58
2.3 Mathematical Analysis of Nonrecursive Algorithms 61
Exercises 2.3 67
2.4 Mathematical Analysis of Recursive Algorithms 70
Exercises 2.4 76
2.5 Example: Computing the nth Fibonacci Number 80
Exercises 2.5 83
2.6 Empirical Analysis of Algorithms 84
Exercises 2.6 89
2.7 Algorithm Visualization 91
Summary 94
 Contents ix

3 Brute Force and Exhaustive Search 97

3.1 Selection Sort and Bubble Sort 98

Selection Sort 98
Bubble Sort 100
Exercises 3.1 102

3.2 Sequential Search and Brute-Force String Matching 104

Sequential Search 104
Brute-Force String Matching 105
Exercises 3.2 106

3.3 Closest-Pair and Convex-Hull Problems by Brute Force 108

Closest-Pair Problem 108
Convex-Hull Problem 109
Exercises 3.3 113

3.4 Exhaustive Search 115

Traveling Salesman Problem 116
Knapsack Problem 116
Assignment Problem 119
Exercises 3.4 120

3.5 Depth-First Search and Breadth-First Search 122

Depth-First Search 122
Breadth-First Search 125
Exercises 3.5 128
Summary 130

4 Decrease-and-Conquer 131

4.1 Insertion Sort 134

Exercises 4.1 136

4.2 Topological Sorting 138

Exercises 4.2 142

4.3 Algorithms for Generating Combinatorial Objects 144

Generating Permutations 144
Generating Subsets 146
Exercises 4.3 148
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4.4 Decrease-by-a-Constant-Factor Algorithms 150

Binary Search 150
Fake-Coin Problem 152
Russian Peasant Multiplication 153
Josephus Problem 154
Exercises 4.4 156

4.5 Variable-Size-Decrease Algorithms 157

Computing a Median and the Selection Problem 158
Interpolation Search 161
Searching and Insertion in a Binary Search Tree 163
The Game of Nim 164
Exercises 4.5 166
Summary 167

5 Divide-and-Conquer 169

5.1 Mergesort 172

Exercises 5.1 174

5.2 Quicksort 176

Exercises 5.2 181

5.3 Binary Tree Traversals and Related Properties 182

Exercises 5.3 185

5.4 Multiplication of Large Integers and

Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication 186
Multiplication of Large Integers 187
Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication 189
Exercises 5.4 191

5.5 The Closest-Pair and Convex-Hull Problems

by Divide-and-Conquer 192
The Closest-Pair Problem 192
Convex-Hull Problem 195
Exercises 5.5 197
Summary 198
 Contents xi

6 Transform-and-Conquer 201
6.1 Presorting 202
Exercises 6.1 205
6.2 Gaussian Elimination 208
LU Decomposition 212
Computing a Matrix Inverse 214
Computing a Determinant 215
Exercises 6.2 216
6.3 Balanced Search Trees 218
AVL Trees 218
2-3 Trees 223
Exercises 6.3 225
6.4 Heaps and Heapsort 226
Notion of the Heap 227
Heapsort 231
Exercises 6.4 233
6.5 Horner’s Rule and Binary Exponentiation 234
Horner’s Rule 234
Binary Exponentiation 236
Exercises 6.5 239
6.6 Problem Reduction 240
Computing the Least Common Multiple 241
Counting Paths in a Graph 242
Reduction of Optimization Problems 243
Linear Programming 244
Reduction to Graph Problems 246
Exercises 6.6 248
Summary 250

7 Space and Time Trade-Offs 253

7.1 Sorting by Counting 254
Exercises 7.1 257
7.2 Input Enhancement in String Matching 258
Horspool’s Algorithm 259
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Boyer-Moore Algorithm 263

Exercises 7.2 267

7.3 Hashing 269

Open Hashing (Separate Chaining) 270
Closed Hashing (Open Addressing) 272
Exercises 7.3 274

7.4 B-Trees 276

Exercises 7.4 279
Summary 280

8 Dynamic Programming 283

8.1 Three Basic Examples 285

Exercises 8.1 290

8.2 The Knapsack Problem and Memory Functions 292

Memory Functions 294
Exercises 8.2 296

8.3 Optimal Binary Search Trees 297

Exercises 8.3 303

8.4 Warshall’s and Floyd’s Algorithms 304

Warshall’s Algorithm 304
Floyd’s Algorithm for the All-Pairs Shortest-Paths Problem 308
Exercises 8.4 311
Summary 312

9 Greedy Technique 315

9.1 Prim’s Algorithm 318

Exercises 9.1 322

9.2 Kruskal’s Algorithm 325

Disjoint Subsets and Union-Find Algorithms 327
Exercises 9.2 331

9.3 Dijkstra’s Algorithm 333

Exercises 9.3 337
 Contents xiii

9.4 Huffman Trees and Codes 338

Exercises 9.4 342
Summary 344

10 Iterative Improvement 345

10.1 The Simplex Method 346

Geometric Interpretation of Linear Programming 347
An Outline of the Simplex Method 351
Further Notes on the Simplex Method 357
Exercises 10.1 359

10.2 The Maximum-Flow Problem 361

Exercises 10.2 371

10.3 Maximum Matching in Bipartite Graphs 372

Exercises 10.3 378

10.4 The Stable Marriage Problem 380

Exercises 10.4 383
Summary 384

11 Limitations of Algorithm Power 387

11.1 Lower-Bound Arguments 388

Trivial Lower Bounds 389
Information-Theoretic Arguments 390
Adversary Arguments 390
Problem Reduction 391
Exercises 11.1 393

11.2 Decision Trees 394

Decision Trees for Sorting 395
Decision Trees for Searching a Sorted Array 397
Exercises 11.2 399

11.3 P , NP , and NP-Complete Problems 401

P and NP Problems 402
NP -Complete Problems 406
Exercises 11.3 409
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11.4 Challenges of Numerical Algorithms 412

Exercises 11.4 419
Summary 420

12 Coping with the Limitations of Algorithm Power 423

12.1 Backtracking 424
n-Queens Problem 425
Hamiltonian Circuit Problem 426
Subset-Sum Problem 427
General Remarks 428
Exercises 12.1 430
12.2 Branch-and-Bound 432
Assignment Problem 433
Knapsack Problem 436
Traveling Salesman Problem 438
Exercises 12.2 440
12.3 Approximation Algorithms for NP -Hard Problems 441
Approximation Algorithms for the Traveling Salesman Problem 443
Approximation Algorithms for the Knapsack Problem 453
Exercises 12.3 457
12.4 Algorithms for Solving Nonlinear Equations 459
Bisection Method 460
Method of False Position 464
Newton’s Method 464
Exercises 12.4 467
Summary 468

Epilogue 471

APPENDIX A
Useful Formulas for the Analysis of Algorithms 475
Properties of Logarithms 475
Combinatorics 475
Important Summation Formulas 476
Sum Manipulation Rules 476
 Contents xv

Approximation of a Sum by a Definite Integral 477

Floor and Ceiling Formulas 477
Miscellaneous 477

APPENDIX B
Short Tutorial on Recurrence Relations 479
Sequences and Recurrence Relations 479
Methods for Solving Recurrence Relations 480
Common Recurrence Types in Algorithm Analysis 485

References 493

Hints to Exercises 503

Index 547