Fluid mechanics

(Compressible Flow)
Ki-Young Song, PhD
Compressible flow
• Flows that involve significant changes in density
• 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) must be treated as a variable
• Gases
• If the change in density is small, then it is treated as an
incompressible fluid
• Mach numbers greater than 0.3
Thermodynamic relations
• Perfect gas
• Individual molecules interact only via direct collisions
• Pressure, density, and temperature are related as
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇
• R: specific gas constant (Rair = 287 J/kg-K)
• 𝑅 = 𝑅0 /𝑁
• R0: universal gas constant (Rair = 8314 J/kg-K)
• N: molecular weight (Nair: 28.96)
• Specific volume per unit mass is defined as
1
𝑉≡
𝜌
• Thus,
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
Speed of Sound
• How do we hear sound?
• Sound wave:
• A pressure wave with small amplitude caused by a small disturbance
• Travel through a gas with the speed of sound, c
• The pressure wave creates a slight rise in local pressure
Speed of Sound
• Imagine a stationary gas and a sound wave approaches with c
• Then, behind the sound wave, the property of the flow changes
• And, behind the sound wave, the flow moves with a velocity

𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑣 𝜌
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝑃
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 𝑇
unsteady
Speed of Sound
• If we are moving with the sound wave to observe, considering as a
control volume,
• We will see approaching flow to CV with c in right hand side and
leaving flow from CV with c-dv in left hand side.

c
𝑐 − 𝑑𝑣 𝑐
𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑣 𝜌
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝑃
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 𝑇
CV
steady
Speed of Sound
• Applying conservation of mass in CV:
𝜌𝐴𝑐 = 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝐴(𝑐 − 𝑑𝑣)
𝜌𝑐 = 𝜌𝑐 − 𝜌𝑑𝑣 + 𝑐𝑑𝜌 − 𝑑𝜌𝑑𝑣
𝑐𝑑𝜌 − 𝜌𝑑𝑣 = 0 … (1)

𝑐 − 𝑑𝑣 𝑐
𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝜌
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝑃
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 𝑇
CV
steady
Speed of Sound
• Applying momentum equation in x-direction:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝜌𝑄 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑣2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 = 0
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌𝐴𝑐 𝑐 − 𝑐 − 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝑑𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐𝑑𝑣 … (2)

𝑐 − 𝑑𝑣 𝑐
𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝜌
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝑃
x
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 𝑇
CV
steady
 𝑐 − 𝑑𝑣 𝑐

Speed of Sound 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌
𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃
𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇
𝜌
𝑃
𝑇 x

CV
𝑐𝑑𝜌 − 𝜌𝑑𝑣 = 0 … (1) steady

𝑑𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐𝑑𝑣 … (2)
• (1) → (2):
𝑑𝑃
• 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝜌 → 𝑐 2 =
𝑑𝜌
• For isentropic flow (constant entropy and no heat transfer) of an ideal gas
𝑃
• 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (k: constant for material)
𝜌
𝑃 𝑃
• 𝑐2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑘𝜌𝑘−1 = 𝑘 𝑘𝜌𝑘−1 = 𝑘
𝜌 𝜌
• Thus,
𝑃
𝑐= 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇
𝜌
Speed of sound is proportional to temperature (in dry air at 20 °C, c ≈ 340 m / s)
Mach number
𝑣
𝑀=
𝑐
• v: local velocity
• c: local speed of sound
• M < 1: subsonic speed
• M = 1: sonic speed
• M > 1: supersonic speed
• faster than speed of sound
• observer is unaware of the source’s approach in the zone of silence (outside of Mach
cone)
• Mach angle
𝑐 𝑐 1
• sin 𝛼 = → 𝛼 = sin−1 = sin−1
𝑣 𝑣 𝑀
Exercise 9.1
• An electronic device is situated on the top of a hill and hears a
supersonic projectile that produces Mach waves after the projectile is
500 m past the device’s position. If it is known that the projectile flies
at 850 m/s, estimate how high it is above the device. Assume the
temperature of the height where the projectile flies is 15 °C.
Speed of Sound in ducts
• Consider a duct where the area varies
• Recall Euler equation:
𝑑𝑃
• 𝑣𝑑𝑣 + + 𝑔𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜌

• Continuity equation:
• 𝜌𝐴𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
• Differentiation:
• 𝜌𝐴𝑑𝑣 + 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝐴 + 𝐴𝑉𝑑𝜌 = 0
• Thus,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜌
• + + =0
𝑣 𝐴 𝜌
Speed of Sound in ducts
𝑑𝑃
• Applying 𝑐2 =
𝑑𝜌
• 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑃 𝑐 2 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑣𝑑𝑣
• 𝑣𝑑𝑣 + = 0 ⇒ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 + =0⇒ =−
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝑐2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝐴 𝑣𝐴
• + + =0⇒ =− + 2
𝑣 𝐴 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑐
𝑑𝐴 𝐴 𝑣2 𝐴 2−1
= − 1 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑐2 𝑣

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑣 2
= 𝑀 −1
𝐴 𝑣
 Speed of Sound in ducts
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑣 2
= 𝑀 −1
𝐴 𝑣
subsonic (M < 1) supersonic (M > 1)

M<1 M<1 M>1 M>1

↓ Area (A) ↑ ↓ Area (A) ↑

↑ Velocity (v) ↓ ↓ Velocity (v) ↑
𝑣 ↑ Mach (M) ↓ ↓ Mach (M) ↑
𝑀=
𝑐
But, (M > 1) is not possible
𝑐 = 𝑘𝑅𝑇 ↓ Temp.(T) ↑ ↑ Temp.(T) ↓

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 ↓ Pressure (P) ↑ ↑ Pressure (P) ↓

Speed of Sound in ducts
• Converging-diverging nozzle
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑣 2
= 𝑀 −1
𝐴 𝑣
throat of the nozzle

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
<0 >0
𝐴 𝐴

𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
> 0, 𝑀 < 1 > 0, 𝑀 > 1
𝑣 𝑣
Sound source and sound wave
• Suppose a sound source
• If the sound source is stationary, the sound wave forms as
• If the sound source is moving at 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 < 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 , the sound wave
forms as

𝜆 in front is
smaller than in
back

stationary sound source 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 < 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Sound source and sound wave
• If the sound source is moving at 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 , the sound wave
forms as
• If the sound source is moving at 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 > 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 , the sound wave
forms as Shock wave
Wave fronts pile up along the
side. The wave crests overlap
one another and form a large –
amplitude wave (shock wave)

Wave fronts
pile up directly
in front of the
source

𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 > 𝑣𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

 Shock waves

• Discontinuous wave
• Observed in supersonic flow
• Irreversible
• Internal or external
• Stationary or moving
• Normal shock wave / oblique shock wave
Shock waves
• Normal shock wave:
• Usually in a duct
• Perpendicular to the direction of the movement

• Oblique shock wave:

• On the leading edge of sharp edged corner
• On axisymmetric projectiles
• Steady and uniform plane flow exits before and after this wave