UNIT-1

The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

❖ Definition
➢ Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism.
➢ It is a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural
world and human impacts on its integrity
➢ Applied science- it seeks practical answers to make human civilization
sustainable on earth’s finite resources
➢ Components are- biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology,
health, anthropology, economics, statistics, computers and philosophy.

❖ Scope
➢ Our surroundings were originally natural landscapes (a forest, a river, a
mountain, a desert, or a combination of these elements), Most of us live in those
landscapes modified by humans ( villages, towns or cities)
➢ Even those of us who live in cities get our food supply from surrounding villages
and these in turn are dependent on natural landscapes
■ such as forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as
water for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish
■ use water to- drink and other day-to-day activities
■ breathe air,
■ use resources from which- food is made
■ depend on the community of living plants and animals - form a web of life,
of which we are also a part
➢ Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without
protecting the earth’s environmental resources.
➢ Traditions
■ Most traditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother Nature’
■ Most traditional societies have learned that respecting nature is vital for
their livelihoods.
■ Led to many cultural practices that helped traditional societies protect
and preserve their natural resources
■ Respect for nature and all living creatures is not new to India. All our
traditions are based on these values. [Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed
that all forms of life are important for our well being in the Fourth Century
BC.]
➢ Modern societies (Over the past 200 years )
■ Began to believe that easy answers to the question of producing more
resources could be provided by technological innovations
● growing more food by using- fertilizers and pesticides
 ● developing better strains of domestic animals and crops, irrigating
farmland through- mega dams and developing industry
■ Led to rapid economic growth
■ But the ill effects of this type of development, led to environmental
degradation.
➢ The industrial development and intensive agriculture ( provides the goods for our
increasingly consumer oriented society) - uses up large amounts of natural
resources (such as water, minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc)
■ which will be exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these
without a thought for subsequent generations
➢ Renewable resources (such as timber and water) - can be used and regenerated
by natural processes such as regrowth or rainfall.
■ But these too will be depleted if we continue to use them faster than
nature can replace them.
■ For example, if the removal of timber and firewood from a forest is faster
than the regrowth and regeneration of trees, it cannot replenish the
supply.
■ Loss of forest cover not only depletes the forest of its resources, such as
timber and other non-wood products, but affects our water resources
because an intact natural forest acts like a sponge which holds water and
releases it slowly.
■ Deforestation leads to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once the
rains are over
➢ Our natural resources can be compared with money in a bank. If we use it
rapidly, the capital will be reduced to zero. On the other hand, if we use only the
interest, it can sustain us over the longer term.----------This is called sustainable
utilisation or development

❖ Importance
● As we keep increasing in numbers and the quantity of resources each of us uses also
increases, the earth’s resource base must inevitably shrink
● misuse of resources- we waste or pollute large amounts of nature’s clean water; we
create more and more material like plastic that we discard after a single use; and we
waste colossal amounts of food, which is discarded as garbage
● Manufacturing processes create solid waste- Increasing amounts of waste cannot be
managed by natural processes. These accumulate in our environment, leading to a
variety of diseases
○ Air pollution - respiratory diseases
○ water pollution-gastro-intestinal diseases
○ many pollutants- cause cancer
● We cannot expect Governments alone to manage the safeguarding of the environment
● Improving this situation will only happen if each of us begins to take actions in our daily
lives that will help preserve our environmental resources. It is a responsibility that each
of us must take on as one's own.
❖ Productive value of nature
➢ World’s species contain an incredible and uncountable number of complex
chemicals- the raw materials that are used for developing new medicines and
industrial products, storehouses which will be used to develop thousands of new
products in the future. The flowering plants and insects that form the most
species rich groups of living organisms are thus vital for the future development
of man
■ If we degrade their habitat- species will become extinct.
■ If one sees being sold or used- if we do not inform the authorities
■ If we do not inform the authorities- we become party to its extinction
➢ The urgent need to protect all living species is a concept that we need to
understand and act upon.
➢ Individually, we cannot directly prevent the extinction of a species- creating a
strong public opinion to protect the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in
which wild species live -important aspect of sustainable living
➢ There is a close link between agriculture and the forest, which illustrates its
productive value.
■ For crops to be successful- the flowers of fruit trees and vegetables must
be pollinated by insects, bats and birds.
■ Their life cycles however frequently require intact forests.
❖ Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature
➢ Enlivens our existence on earth
➢ Created by developing National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively
undisturbed areas
■ It is an incredible learning experience- It brings about an understanding
of the oneness of nature and the fact that we are entirely dependent upon
the intricate functioning of ecosystems.
➢ The beauty of nature encompasses every aspect of the living and non-living part
of our earth-
■ One can appreciate the magnificence of a mountain, the power of the
sea, the beauty of a forest, and the vast expanse of the desert.
■ It is these natural vistas and their incredible diversity of plant and animal
life that has led to the development of several philosophies of life
■ Also inspired artists to develop visual arts and writers and poets to create
their works that vitalize our lives
➢ A wilderness experience has exceptional recreational value- described as nature
tourism, or wildlife tourism, and is also one aspect of adventure tourism-
■ Facilities a pleasurable experience, create a deep respect and love for
nature, key tools in educating people about the fragility of the environment
and the need for sustainable lifestyles.
➢ In an urban setting, green spaces and gardens are vital to the psychological and
physical health of city dwellers
 ■ provides an aesthetic and visual appeal, ability to ensure that each
individual is able to access a certain amount of peace and tranquility.
■ mental planners must ensure that these facilities are created in growing
urban complexes.
■ Another imp conservation education- the need to set up well designed
and properly managed zoological parks and aquariums.
■ Young people who frequented zoos grow up to love wildlife and become
conservationists.
➢ At district and taluka levels-
■ In the absence of access to a Protected Area, a botanical garden or a
zoo,one concept that can be developed is to create small nature
awareness areas with interpretation facilities
■ These areas can be developed to mimic natural ecosystems- even if they
are relatively small
■ They can be developed in a small woodlot, a patch of grassland, a pond
ecosystem, or be situated along an undisturbed river or coastal area.
➢ This would bring home to the visitor the importance of protecting our dwindling
wilderness areas.
❖ The option values of nature:
➢ We must recognize that every activity that we do in our daily lives has an
adverse impact on nature’s integrity
➢ We as a generation will leave nothing for future generations if we - use up all our
resources, let species of plants and animals become extinct, pollute our air and
water, degrade land, and create enormous quantities of waste
➢ The present generation has developed its economies and lifestyles on
unsustainable patterns of life
➢ However, nature provides us with various options on how we utilize its goods
and services---- This is its option value
■ We can use up goods and services greedily and destroy its integrity and
long term values, or we can use its resources sustainably and reduce our
impacts on the environment
■ The option value allows us to use its resources sustainably and preserve
its goods and services for the future.

❖ NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

➢ We feel that managing all this is something that the Government should do. But if
we go on endangering our environment, there is no way in which the Government
can perform all these clean-up functions.
➢ Prevention is better than cure-
■ . It is the prevention of environmental degradation in which we must all
take part that must become a part of all our lives.
■ economically more viable than cleaning up the environment once it is
damaged
➢ Individually we can play a major role in environment management.
 ■ We can reduce wasting natural resources
■ We can act as watchdogs that inform the Government about sources that
lead to pollution and degradation of our environment.
➢ This can only be made possible through mass public awareness
■ Such as newspapers, radio, television, strongly influence public opinion
■ If each of us feels strongly about the environment, the press and media
will add to our efforts.
➢ Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly
supported movement
■ Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly
supported movement
➢ { Suggested further activities for concerned students:
■ Join a group to study nature, such as WWFI or BNHS, or another
environmental group.
■ Begin reading newspaper articles and periodicals such as ‘Down to
Earth’, WWF-I newsletter, BNHS Hornbill, Sanctuary magazine, etc. that
will tell you more about our environment. There are also several
environmental websites
■ Lobby for conserving resources by taking up the cause of environmental
issues during discussions with friends and relatives. Practice and promote
issues such as saving paper, saving water, reducing use of plastics,
practicing the 3Rs principle of reduce, reuse, recycle, and proper waste
disposal.
■ Join local movements that support activities such as saving trees in your
area, go on nature treks, recycle waste, and buy environmentally friendly
products.
■ Practice and promote good civic sense such as no spitting or tobacco
chewing, no throwing garbage on the road, no smoking in public places,
no urinating or defecating in public places.
■ Take part in events organised on World Environment Day, Wildlife Week,
etc.
■ Visit a National Park or Sanctuary, or spend time in whatever nature you
have near your home. }
 UNIT - 2
Ecosystem :
● An ecosystem is a region with specific and recognisable landscape forms such as forest,
grassland, desert, wetland or coastal area.
● Ecosystem definition - a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical
environment.
● They are divided into terrestrial ecosystems on land and aquatic ecosystems in
water.
● All living organisms interact with each other and as well as utilise the resources.
● "It is the living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-living
components of the environment such as soil, air and water"

Ecosystem degradation :
● Ecosystems are frequently disturbed by human actions leading to species extinction.
● These are called keystone species.
● Forests are deforested for timber; Wetlands dried to create agricultural land; Pollution
from industry.

Resource utilisation :
● There has been repeated inequality in resource utilisation.
● Earlier, timber was utilised sustainably, which was a positive utilisation.
● The economically better off societies tended to use greater amounts contributing to
increasing levels of poor people.
● Hence, it is very essential to sustainably utilise our resources and prevent them from
extinction.

Structure and Functions of an Ecosystem :

● Structural aspects :
○ Inorganic aspects - C,N,CO2,H2O
○ Organic aspects - Protein, Carbohydrates, Lipids.
○ Climate - Temperature, Moisture, Light & Topography.
○ Producers - Plants
○ Macro-consumers - Phagotrophs - Animals
○ Micro-consumers - Saprotrophs - Fungi

● Functional aspects :
○ Energy cycles
○ Food chains
○ Diversity-interlinkages b/w organisms
○ Nutrient cycles
○ Evolution
 ● The non-living components - water, organic & inorganic substances, climatic conditions.
● The living components - animals, plants and microorganisms.

Producers, Consumers and Decomposers :

● Plants - producers
○ They manufacture their own food by energy from the sun.
● Herbivores - primary consumers
○ They consume the producers
○ E.g., deers, insects, rabbits, etc...
● Carnivores - secondary consumers
○ They feed on the herbivores
○ E.g., Lions, Foxes, Hyenas, etc...

● Detritivores - Decomposers
○ These organisms break down dead material into smaller particles for absorption
by plants.
○ Decomposition, hence is a vital process in
an ecosystem.

Because of human greed, species that are solely living in these ecosystems tend to become
extinct because of their rarity.

Energy Flow in the Ecosystem :

● Ecosystems have several interrelated mechanisms such as the water cycle, carbon
cycle, oxygen cycle, nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle.
● Water cycle :
○ Rain->water body & underground->plants
absorption->transpiration/evaporation-> atmosphere->clouds->rain
○ However, pollution has affected the rainfall pattern leading to drought in Africa
while floods in America.
● Carbon cycle :
○ Carbon is present in organic compounds.
○ It is the building block of life itself.
○ Present as CO2 in atmosphere
○ CO2->plants absorb -> carbohydrate -> animals eat plants -> CO2 released
into the atmosphere thru breathing.
○ It is also absorbed by plants through the excrement of animals.
● Oxygen cycle :
○ Oxygen -> plants and animals (respiration) ->plants release oxygen back into the
atmosphere through photosynthesis.
○ Deforestation affects the cycle and reduces the amount of oxygen available.
● Nitrogen cycle : (N)
 ○ Carnivores feces->Broken by ant/worm-> fungi/bacteria break it into
nutrients->absorption by plants->herbivores->carnivores.
○ Even dead bodies of animals are broken down by this process.
○ Nitrogen fixing bacteria and fungi are important for plants->herbivore->carnivore
● Energy cycle :
○ Sunlight->Plants->herbivores->carnivores
○ Energy is utilised for performing all activities by an organism.
○ Plants & Animals are linked together through food chains.
○ Each food chain is linked to 3-4 other food chains forming the food web.
○ Energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of the Food / Energy
pyramid.
○ Pyramid:
■ Large base - producers
■ Narrow middle section - herbivores / first order consumers.
■ Apex - carnivores / second order consumers
■ Man is in the apex.
○ Dead animals are decomposed through Decomposers and from there plants
absorb it.

● Ecological Succession :
○ A process by which ecosystems tend to change over time.
○ Example: a forrest is cleared, plants and animals habit the area first, through an
orderly process of community development. The area will gradually be converted
into a grassland, a shrubland and finally a woodland and a forest if permitted
to do so without human interference.
● Food Chains and Ecological Pyramids
○ Transfer of energy from sun => plants => herbivores => carnivores there is a loss
of energy in heat which forms the pyramid
 ● The food chain
○ Energy must pass from one living thing to another, plants to animas to other
animals this causes a link between the animas which can be visualized as a
chain
○ In a Ecosystem there is a very large number of links which forms a web called
the Food Web
○ The herbivorous animals that eat plants are at the second trophic level and
called primary consumers.
○ The predators that feed on them form the third trophic level and are known as
secondary consumers.
● Types of Ecosystems

●
○

Check this and also this

 Important questions in Unit 2

1. Stages of ecological succession [20m]

Ans:
❖ Ecological succession
➢ A process through which ecosystems tend to change over a period of time.
➢ It can be related to seasonal environmental changes - creates changes in the
ecosystem
➢ It refers to a more or less predictable and orderly set of changes that happen in
the composition or structure of an ecosystem.
➢ A gradual process of change and development
➢ Eg: An opened up area will gradually be converted into a grassland, a shrubland
and finally a woodland and a forest
❖ Stages of ecological succession
❖ Succession may be initiated either by formation of new habitat (landslide or lava flow) or
disturbance of already existing habitat (fires, land clearance)
➢ Developmental stages in the ecosystem consist of a
■ Pioneer stage
● The pioneer community refers to the first group of organisms in an
area
■ Series of changes known as serel stages and
■ Climax stage.
➢ Primary
■ Process by which an area, void of life and barren, becomes populated by
simple, hardy species known as pioneers
■ The pioneer species gradually spread throughout the barren landscape
preparing it for larger more complex organisms.
■ Once the landscape begins to accept more complex life, succession
continues until a climax or general equilibrium is reached
■ Eg: Habitat created when granites are removed from a quarry - the place
left behind becomes a new habitat
■ A long process - can take thousands of ears
➢ Secondary
■ It is similar to primary succession - pioneer species populate and prepare
an area or landscape for more complex life.
■ Occurs much more rapidly - in a single century or less.
■ Occurs after a habitat has been established, but it is then disturbed or
changed in some fashion and a new community moves in.
■ The recently occupied landscape is dramatically changed by disaster or
environmental invasion.
 ■ Eg: A forest fire happens - burns and changes a portion of the habitat that
has been growing on the rock face
➢ Climax
■ Last stage of an ecosystem
■ It is when the ecosystem has become balanced - means that there is a
balance between the life that is produced, and the life that is consumed
■ During the other stages, the balance of energy is not in place
■ There is little risk of an interfering event to change the environment.
■ Eg: Rainforests and deserts - qualify as being in the climax stage.
■ However, due to human actions any ecosystem that is in the climax stage
is at the risk of being destroyed and going backward in the stages.
➢ Each stage of ecological succession can take 100s to 1,000s of years
➢ Example of successive changes occur in a pond ecosystem:
■ fluctuates from a dry terrestrial habitat → early colonisation stage by small
aquatic species → mature aquatic ecosystem → back to dry stage in
summer where its aquatic life remains dormant.

2. Explain the effects of modern agriculture on food resources in India [10m]

❖ India’s main food source: agriculture, animal husbandry and fishing
❖ Modern agriculture - unsustainable and pollute the environment with excessive use of
fertilisers and pesticides
❖ Sustainable agriculture - that which conserves land, water and plant and animal genetic
resources, does not degrade the environment and is economically viable and socially
acceptable
❖ Integrated crop management
➢ farmer uses traditional varieties and grows several different crops - instead of
single crop in large forms (if affected by pests, everything dies - no income) -
uses alternatives to pesticides
➢ Risk of failure falls
❖ India has been able to produce enough food by cultivating land through irrigation
❖ Modern technologies used to achieve this are now being questioned:
➢ Fertile soils are exploited faster
➢ Forests, grasslands and wetlands have been converted to agricultural use,
➢ Fish resources are depleting rapidly
➢ There are still problems with availability of food for certain communities i.e. tribal
❖ These days, as people tend to eat non-veg more - demand for feed for livestock based
on agriculture increases - uses more land per unit of food produced - the world’s poor do
not get enough to eat.
❖ Women and girls receive less food than men
❖ In India there is a shortage of cultivable productive land - farm sizes are small - can’t
support a family
❖ Poor environmental agricultural practices such as slash and burn or shifting cultivation
degrade forests.
❖ Land degradation: main factors - loss of nutrients and over use of agricultural chemicals.
 ❖ Factors that lead to poor agricultural output
➢ Water is scarce
➢ Salinization and waterlogging
➢ Loss of genetic diversity in crop plants
➢ Rice, wheat and corn are the staple foods

3. Explain energy as a source [10m]

Ans:
❖ Energy - capacity to work
❖ May be directly used or may require a process of transformation
❖ Needed for household use, agriculture, production of industrial goods and for running
transport.
❖ Chemical fertiliser - require large amounts of energy for manufacture
❖ Energy use creates heat and contributes to atmospheric temperature.
❖ Release carbon dioxide - lead to global warming
❖ A large amount of electrical energy is being wasted
❖ 3 main types of energy:
➢ Non-renewable
■ Coal, oil and natural gas formed from ancient prehistoric forests - known
as ”fossils” because they are formed after plant life is fossilised
■ When these fuels are burnt - produce waste products released into the
atmosphere as gases - cause air pollution - lung problems, acid rain
■ Acts like greenhouse - lead to global warming
➢ Renewable
■ Resources that are constantly replaced and are usually less polluting.
■ Eg: hydropower, solar, wind, and geothermal
■ Will improve the efficiency and cost of energy systems.
➢ Nuclear
■ The energy in the nucleus of an atom
■ When the nucleus is split, some mass is converted into energy
■ The nuclear reactors use Uranium 235 to produce electricity.
■ Uranium is made into rods which are fitted into a nuclear reactor.
■ The control rods absorb neutrons - adjusts the fission which releases
energy due to the chain reaction in a reactor unit.
■ The heat energy produced in the reaction is used to heat water and
produce steam, which drives turbines that produce electricity.
❖ Inaccurate classification as several of the renewable sources, if not used ‘sustainably’,
can be depleted more quickly than they can be renewed

4. Natural resources available in India and its conservation [20m]

Ans:
❖ Natural resources include abiotic and biotic resources
❖ Abiotic - non-living parts of nature such as air, water, soil, minerals, solar energy
❖ Biotic - living parts of nature such as plants, animals
❖ Natural resources can be renewable or non- renewable
➢ Non-renewable resources:
■ Minerals that have been formed over millions of years
■ Once used, becomes waste arterial unless recycled
■ Include fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas
➢ Renewable resources
■ Renewable but with certain limits
■ Include fresh water, forests, fish.etc
❖ India overuses its resources due to greater human population
❖ The various resources and its conservation are explained below:
➢ Forest resources
 ■ Problems:
● Use and over exploitation - Happened a lot during British times
● Deforestation - due to logging and mining, building dams, timber
extraction
■ Conservation:
● National forest policy - promotes Joint Forest Management
● Formation of Village Forest committees
● Rotational grazing schemes - helps in forest regeneration
➢ Water resources
■ The water cycle maintains hydrological systems (rivers, lakes) and
support aquatic ecosystems
■ Needed for daily needs - drinking water, washing, cooking, watering
plants, irrigating
■ Fresh water - limited
■ There are conflicts over water consumption
■ Problems:
● Overutilization and pollution of surface and groundwater
◆ Use more water mater than needed
◆ Waste water during bath
◆ Use more water to grow crops
◆ Agriculture pollutes surface water - excessive use of
pesticides and fertilisers
◆ Industries focus on short term economic gains than long
term ecological benefits
■ Conservation:
● Use of drip irrigation systems
● Using biomass as fertiliser and non toxic pesticides
● Integrated pest management
● Producing “green products”
● Public awareness on eco-friendly products
● “Save water campaigns”
● Building reservoirs, protect wetlands, treating municipal waste.etc
➢ Mineral resources
■ Mineral - naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition
and physical properties
■ Ore - mineral or combination of minerals from which useful substances
can be extracted to manufacture a product
■ Formed in Earth’s crust over millions of years
■ Eg: iron, aluminium, zinc, coal, salt, clay
■ Extracted by mining
● Hazardous
● Inadequate ventilation
● Dangerous - use of explosives
● Lung disease
 ● Radiation - in uranium mines
● Depletes land availability
● Pollutes land, air and water by industrial wastes
■ Conservation:
● International agreement and laws toward the prevention of
activities and events that may adversely affect environment
➢ Food resources
■ India’s main food source: agriculture, animal husbandry and fishing
■ Modern agriculture - unsustainable and pollute the environment with
excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides
■ Fish - includes marine and fresh water fish
■ Risk of overfishing
■ There is loss of genetic variability in crops
■ Conservation:
● Conserve wild relatives of crop plants in National Parks and
Wildlife Sanctuaries
● Seed banks, tissue culture facilities
● A second green revolution is needed - provide food for al,
equitable distribution of food - reduce use of fertiliser and pesticide
● Soil conservation measures
● Appropriate farming techniques
● Sustainable methods of food production
➢ Energy resources
■ Energy - capacity to work
■ May be directly used or may require a process of transformation
■ Needed for household use, agriculture, production of industrial goods and
for running transport.
■ Chemical fertiliser - require large amounts of energy for manufacture
■ Energy use creates heat and contributes to atmospheric temperature.
■ Release carbon dioxide - lead to global warming
■ Conservation:
● Should have policy to reduce energy needs and use cleaner
energy production techniques
● Shift to alternative sources and renewable sources
● Reduce dependency for imported oil
● Enhance fuel wood plantations
● Joint Forestry Management
● Small hydro generation units - environment friendly
● Use resources more efficiently
➢ Land resources:
■ If utilised carefully, can be considered as a renewable resource
■ If depleted, lands become unproductive - wasteland is formed
■ Land is converted into non renewable resource when toxic and industrial
wastes are dumped on it
 ■ Land degradation/ soil erosion
■ Purpose of land - building homes, cultivating food.etc
■ Conservation:
● Afforestation
● Proper management of grazing and wetlands
● Control mining
● Proper waste disposal treatments

5. Structure of ecosystem [10m]

Ans:
❖ Ecosystem - it is the structural and functional unit where living organisms interact with
each other and the surrounding environment
❖ The basic components:
➢ Abiotic components
■ Non living components of an ecosystem
■ (Write everything in the image)
➢ Biotic components
■ Refer to all life in an ecosystem
■ Based on nutrition it can be classified into
● Autotrophs - all green plants that get energy from sunlight and
make their own food
● Heterotrophs - non-green plants and animals which take food from
autotrophs
■ The biotic components of an ecosystem are:
● Producers - these are autotrophic components
● Consumers - these are heterotrophic components; they consume
food made by producers - types of consumers:
◆ Primary - herbivorous animals dependent on
producers/green plants for food eg: insects, rodents, cows
◆ Secondary - carnivores and omnivores; consume other
herbivores and plants for food eg: sparrow, crow, dogs,
cats
◆ Tertiary - top carnivores that prey upon other carnivores,
omnivores and herbivores eg: lions, tigers, hawk
● Decomposers
◆ Organisms that feed on dead organisms, plants and
animals and decomposes into simpler compounds eg:
microorganisms, fungi, bacteria
➢ These components are interrelated
➢ The structure of an ecosystem is related to species diversity
➢ The more complex the structure, the greater the diversity
/

UNIT-3
Biodiversity

Definition:
‘Biological diversity’ or biodiversity is that part of nature which includes the differences in genes
among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species
at different scales in space, locally, in a region, in the country and the world, and various types
of ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic, within a defined area.

Gene pool- (2m)

If the number of breeding individuals is reduced, the dissimilarity of genetic makeup is reduced
and in-breeding occurs. Eventually this can lead to the extinction of the species. The diversity in
wild species forms the ‘gene pool’ from which our crops and domestic animals have been
developed over thousands of years

Green house contributor (2)

 Loss of forest cover, coupled with the increasing release of carbon dioxide and other gases
through industrialization contributes to the ‘greenhouse effect’. Global warming is melting ice
caps, resulting in a rise in the sea level which will submerge the low lying areas in the world.

Biological prospecting (2)

A variety of industries such as pharmaceuticals are highly dependent on identifying compounds
of great economic value from the wide variety of wild species of plants located in undisturbed
natural forests. This is called biological prospecting.

INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION

● Geological events in the landmass of India have provided conditions for high levels of
biological diversity
● Around 70 million years ago, there was a split in the single giant continent which led to
the formation of northern and southern continents: India a part of Gondwanaland - the
southern landmass, together with Africa, Australia and the Antarctic.
● Later tectonic movements shifted India northward across the equator to join the Northern
Eurasian continent
● As the intervening shallow Tethis Sea closed down, plants and animals that had evolved
both in Europe and in the Far East migrated into India before the Himalayas had formed.
● A final influx came from Africa with Ethiopian species, which were adapted to the
Savannas and semi-arid regions.
● India’s special geographical position between three distinctive centres of biological
evolution and radiation of species is responsible for our rich and varied biodiversity
● , India stands among the top 10 or 15 countries for its great variety of plants and
animals, many of which are not found elsewhere.
○ India has 350 different mammals- rated eight highest in the world
○ 453 species of reptiles- fifth in the world
○ 45,000 plant species (of which most are angiosperms)- fifteenth in the world
○ High species diversity of ferns (1022 species) and orchids (1082 species)
○ has 50,000 known species of insects, including 13,000 butterflies and moths.
○ It is estimated that the number of unknown species could be several times higher.
● It is estimated that 18% of Indian plants are endemic to the country and found nowhere
else in the world.
○ Among the plant species the flowering plants have a much higher degree of
endemism (a third of these are not found elsewhere in the world.)
○ Among amphibians found in India, 62% are unique to this country.
○ Among lizards, of the 153 species recorded, 50% are endemic.
○ High endemism has also been recorded for various groups of insects, marine
worms, centipedes, mayflies and freshwater sponges.
● There is also a great diversity of cultivated crops and breeds of domestic livestock.
○ This is a result of several thousand years during which civilizations have grown
and flourished in the Indian subcontinent.
○ The traditional cultivars included 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice and a number
of cereals, vegetables and fruit.
 ○ The highest diversity of cultivars is concentrated in the high rainfall areas of the
Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Northern Himalayas and the North-Eastern hills.
○ Gene-banks have collected over 34,000 cereals and 22,000 pulses grown in
India.
○ India has 27 indigenous breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds of goats
and 8 breeds of buffaloes

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
● Due to ‘unsustainable’ resource-use- once productive forests and grasslands have been
turned into deserts and wasteland have increased all over the world.
○ Mangroves have been cleared for fuelwood and prawn farming, which has led to
a decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish.
○ Wetlands have been drained to increase agricultural land.
○ Destruction of the remaining large areas of wilderness habitats ( especially in the
super diverse tropical forests and coral reefs)- is the most important threat
worldwide to biodiversity.
● Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately 10
million species by the year 2050.
○ At the present rate of extinction about 25% of the worlds’ species will undergo
extinction fairly rapidly
○ May occur at the rate of 10 to 20 thousand species per year (a thousand to ten
thousand times faster than the expected natural rate)
○ Human actions could well exterminate 25% of the world’s species within the next
twenty or thirty years.
● Much of this mega extinction spasm is related to human population growth,
industrialization and changes in land-use patterns
○ A major part - will occur in ‘biorich’ areas such as tropical forests, wetlands, and
coral reefs
○ rapid human population growth and short term economic development- major
contributors to rapid global destruction of biodiversity.
● Island flora and fauna having high endemism- most seriously affected by human activity-
○ led to extinction of many island plants and animals (the dodo is a famous
example)
● Habitat loss also results from man’s introduction of species from one area into another,
disturbing the balance in existing communities.
○ Purposely or accidentally introduced organisms (Eupatorium, Lantana, Hyacinth,
Congress grass or Parthenium) have led to the extinction of many local species
● Loss of species occurs due destruction of natural ecosystems for
○ conversion to agriculture or industry
○ over-extraction of their resources
○ through pollution of air, water and soil.
● Forests and grasslands are continuously being changed to agricultural land
 ○ natural wetland systems drained - to establish croplands (resulting in loss of
aquatic species)
○ Grasslands are either changed to other forms of use or degraded by overgrazing.
○ natural forests - deforested for timber and replanted using teak, sal or other
single species for their timber value.
● Increasing human population on the fringes of our Protected Areas degrade forest
ecosystems.
○ Repeated fires started by local grazers to increase grass growth ultimately
reduces regeneration and lowers the diversity of plant species.
● Introduction of exotic weeds which are not a part of the natural vegetation
○ Common examples in India are lantana bushes, Eupatorium shrubs and
‘congress’ grass.
○ These weeds spread at the expense of the diverse range of indigenous
undergrowth species
○ The impact on the diversity of insect, bird and other wildlife species is quite
obvious
● Cultivation by slash and burn in the Himalayas, and ‘rab’ by lopping of tree branches are
unsustainable and are leading to a loss of forest biodiversity
● Overharvesting of fish, especially by trawling is leading to serious depletion of fish
stocks.
○ Turtles are being massacred off the coast of Orissa.
○ The rare whale shark, a highly endangered species, is being killed off the coast
of Gujarat.
● Poaching: Specific threats to certain animals are related to large economic benefits.
○ Skin and bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos and the
perfume from the must deer are extensively used abroad.
○ Bears are killed for their gall bladders.
○ Corals and shells are also collected for export or sold on the beaches of Chennai
and Kanyakumari.
○ A variety of wild plants with real or at times dubious medicinal value are being
over harvested.--- The commonly collected plants include Rauvolfia, Nux Vomica,
Datura, etc. Collection of garden plants includes orchids, ferns and moss.

UNIT - 4
Pollution:
❖ It is the effect of undesirable changes in the surroundings that have harmful effects in
plants, animals and human beings.
❖ Occurs when short term economic gains are made at the cost of long term ecological
benefits
❖ Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in greater than natural
abundance produced due to human activity, which have detrimental effects on human
health.
❖ The nature and concentration of pollutants determine the severity of detrimental effects
on human health
❖ Classification of pollutants:
➢ Degradable or non-persistent pollutants
■ These can be rapidly broken down by natural processes
■ Eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables
➢ Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants
■ Pollutants that remain in the environment for many years in an unchanged
condition and take decades or longer to degrade
■ Eg: plastics
➢ Non-degradable pollutants
■ These cannot be degraded by natural processes
■ They’re difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate
■ Eg: toxic elements like lead or mercury

Causes, effects and control measures of pollution:

❖ Air pollution
➢ It occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air
in quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment
➢ Could be due to natural causes (volcanoes, forest fires) - remains in the
atmosphere for a short time and does not lead to permanent atmospheric change
➢ Types and sources:
■ Primary pollutants
● Pollutants emitted directly from identifiable sources; can be
produced by natural causes and human activities
● 5 primary pollutants: carbon oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen
oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds, suspended
particulate matter
■ Secondary pollutants
● Pollutants produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical
reactions take place among the primary pollutants
● Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid
■ Carbon monoxide
● A colourless, odourless and toxic gas produced when organic
materials such as natural gas, coal or wood are incompletely burnt
● Largest source: vehicle exhaust
 ● Not a persistent pollutant
● Natural processes can convert this into other compounds that are
not harmful
■ Sulfur oxides
● Produced when sulfur containing fossil fuels are burnt
■ Nitrogen oxides
● Found in vehicle exhausts
● They’re involved in the production of secondary air pollutants like
ozone
■ Hydrocarbons
● Group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms
● Either evaporate from fuel supplies or remnants of fuel that did not
burn completely
● Not an issue until they form secondary pollutants
■ Particulates
● Small pieces of solid material dispersed into the atmosphere
● Repeated exposure to this can affect lungs
● Types: aerosol, mist, dust, smoke, fume, plume, fog, smog
■ Lead
● Major air pollutant emitted by vehicles
➢ When pollutants enter the troposphere, it is diluted by the large volume of air to
acceptable levels - the rate of dispersion varies wrt topography and
meteorological conditions
➢ Effects:
■ It can lead to diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic
bronchitis.etc
■ Exposure to carbon monoxide for hours can cause collapse, coma, or
even death
■ Sulfur dioxide causes respiratory problems
■ Nitrogen oxide irritate lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis
■ Suspended particles aggravate asthma and bronchitis
■ Toxic particulates can cause more productive problems or cancer
■ Inhaling ozone leads to coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and
irritation of the eye, nose and throat
■ Damages leaves of plants
■ Interferes with photosynthesis, plant growth, nutrient uptake and causes
leaves to turn yellow/brown
■ Breaks down exterior paint on cars and houses
■ CFCs lead to ozone depletion - causes sunburn, cataract, affects plant
growth, damages paint and fabrics
➢ Control measures:
■ Can be controlled by 2 approaches: preventive techniques and effluent
control
■ Having proper equipment eg: devices for removing pollutants
 ■ Industries should be placed in such a way that is reduces pollution
❖ Water pollution
➢ When the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result
of man’s activities such that it becomes unfit for any purpose it is said to be
polluted
➢ Causes and effects:
■ Disease-causing agents (pathogens)
● Include bacteria, viruses, parasitic worms that enter water from
domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes.
● Large amounts of human waste in water, increases the number of
these bacteria which cause gastrointestinal diseases.
■ Oxygen depleting wastes
● Organic wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen
requiring) bacteria.
● Degrades water quality
● Aquatic animals that need oxygen die.
■ Inorganic plant nutrients
● These are water soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause
excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants -
“eutrophication”
● May clog water pipes - change taste and odour of water
■ Water soluble inorganic chemicals
● These are acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as
mercury and lead
● Unfit to drink, harm aquatic life, reduce crop yields
■ Organic chemicals
● Include oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents,
detergent and many other chemicals.
● Harmful to aquatic life and human health.
■ Sediment of suspended matter
● Insoluble particles of soil and other solids that become suspended
in water.
● Interferes with penetration of light - affects photosynthesis of
aquatic plants
■ Water soluble radioactive isotopes
● Isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer and genetic damage.
■ Hot water
● Released by industries
● Decreases the solubility of oxygen and changes the breeding
cycles of various aquatic organisms
■ Oil
● Pollutes groundwater and causes environmental damage
➢ Control measures:
■ Setting up treatment plans and treating waste through these
 ■ Treated water can be reused for gardening
❖ Soil pollution
➢ Soil pollution refers to anything that causes contamination of soil and degrades
the soil quality.
➢ Causes of soil degradation:
■ Erosion
● It is the movement of surface litter and topsoil from one place to
another.
● A natural process accelerated by human activities - farming,
construction, deforestation.etc
● Loss of topsoil - less fertile soil, reduces water holding capacity
● Contributes to water pollution - clogs lake, aquatic loss
● Soil conservation measures:
◆ Area treatment which involves treating the land
◆ Drainage line treatment which involves treating the natural
water courses (nalas)
◆ Continuous contour trenches - enhance infiltration of water,
reduce the runoff and check soil erosion.
◆ Gradonies - used to convert wastelands into agricultural
lands
■ Excessive use of fertilisers:
● Fertilizers replace lost nutrients
● Pesticides are also used to ensure a good yield
● Categories of pesticides:
◆ Insecticides
◆ Fungicides
◆ Rodenticides
◆ Herbicides
● Problems with pesticide use:
◆ Kill living things and humans
◆ May be persistent or non-persistent
◆ Interferes with the production of eggshells in birds and
makes them fragile
◆ Kills beneficial species along with pests
◆ Can cause cancer in ppl
● Control measures:
◆ Alternative agriculture - non traditional agriculture
◆ Sustainable agriculture - producing adequate food while
maintaining ecosystem
◆ Introduction of organic matter
◆ Crop rotation - enhances soil fertility, reduces erosion
◆ Organic farming - has both pros and cons
◆ Integrated pest management
■ Excess salts and water
 ● Irrigation water - contains dissolved salts - accumulation of these
salts is known as “salinization” - stunts plants growth, lower yields,
kill crops
● Irrigation water also causes water logging - occurs when large
amounts of water is used to leach the salts deeper into the soil -
plant roots die
❖ Marine pollution
➢ It is the introduction of substances to the marine environment directly or indirectly
by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards to human health, obstruction
of marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water.
➢ Causes:
■ Discharging wastes into sea
■ Pesticides and fertilisers from agriculture - washed off by rain and end up
in sea
■ Petroleum and oil washed off the road - into seas
■ Ship accidents and spillages - toxic substances damages marine
environment
■ Offshore oil exploration and extraction
➢ Pollution due to organic wastes
■ Waste affects the quality of water
■ Organic waste - uses oxygen in water - breaks down into inorganic
compounds - oxygen falls - life disappears - makes water foul smelling
■ Control measures:
● Sewage treatment plants
● There are various stages of treatment: primary, secondary or
advanced
● Primary - uses physical processes to remove pollutants that settle,
float or are too large to pass through screening devices
● Secondary - aim is to remove most of BOD (Biological Oxygen
Demand)
● Advanced - a series of chemical and physical process that remove
specific pollutants left in the water after primary and secondary
treatment
➢ Pollution due to oil
■ Sources through which oil can reach the sea:
● Tanker operations
● Tanker accidents:
● Offshore oil production - oil extracted from seabed contains water.
The water and oil are separated but some oil still remains in the
water
■ Control measures:
● Chemical dispersants - breaks down the oil
● Slick-lickers - continuous belt that is dipped in the oil slick and
passed through rollers to extract the oil
 ➢ Effects:
■ Causes eutrophication
■ Can cause red tides - discoloured area due to high intensity
phytoplankton blooms
■ Kills marine species
■ Oil slick forms - damages marine life; affect flowering of plants; affects
fish and shellfish production
❖ Thermal pollution
➢ It refers to the discharge of warm water into a river
➢ Occurs when an industry removes water from a source, uses it for cooling
purposes and returns the heated water back to its source
➢ Power plants heat water to convert into steam, to drive the turbines that generate
electricity - this heated water is discharged back into the water body
➢ Effects:
■ Decreases the solubility of oxygen and increases metabolism of fish
■ Changes ecological balance of river
■ Warm water - promotes growth of certain fish - sudden plant shutdowns
can result in death of fish
■ Only species that can live in warm water survive
➢ Control measures
■ Pass heated water through a cooling pond/cooling tower after it leaves
the condenser
■ Method one:
● Construct a large shallow pond
● Hot water is pumped into one end of the pond and cooler water is
removed from the other end
● Heat gets dissipated from the pond to the atmosphere
■ Method two:
● Use a cooling tower
● These take up less area than ponds
● Most heat transfer occurs through evaporation
● Warm water coming from the power plant condenser is sprayed
down over vertical sheets
● Water flows down the sheets and spreads over a large area -
increases evaporation and remove heat
● Large fans draw in cool air into the tower - accelerates
evaporation - further cools water
● Cooled water recycled back into power plant condensers to cool
heat source
■ Cons for both the methods: large amounts of water are lost by
evaporation
❖ Steps in nuclear waste management
➢ Nuclear waste must be processed to make it safe for disposal
 ➢ This includes collecting and sorting wastes, reducing its volume, and its
conditioning so that it is safe to dispose
➢ The steps to manage nuclear waste are detailed as follows:
■ Characterisation
● It refers to the determination of the physical, radiological, chemical
and biological properties of radioactive waste
● This is done to identify the appropriate safety requirements and
treatment options
● X-ray and ther methods are used to look for hazardous materials
■ Pretreatment
● These prepare the waste for processing and may include:
◆ Sorting and segregating wastes
◆ Size reduction
◆ Shredding
● Decontamination techniques are used to reduce the volume of
waste - reduces disposal cost
■ Treatment
● It focuses on reducing the volume of waste by separating out the
radioactive component from the bulk waste, changing the
composition of the waste in the process.
● There are variety of waste treatments - 2 common techniques:
incineration of solid waste and evaporation of liquid waste
■ Conditioning
● It puts the waste in a safe, stable and manageable form for
transport, storage and disposal
● Common form of conditioned waste - solidified waste in cement
● These techniques are designed to slow the release of
radionuclides from the disposed waste into the environment
■ Storage
● Storage of waste must be safe, retrievable and secure
● The storage requirements depend on the type of waste
● It may be short term or long term
■ Disposal
● The appropriate disposal option and the extent of isolation and
containment needed depend on the properties of waste and the
length of time the waste remains radioactive

Solid waste management: causes, effects and control measures of urban

❖ In India, roads are littered with plastic bags and garbage and waste is burnt.
❖ Hence, there is a need for disposal of waste to be part of an integrated waste
management plan
❖ Characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW)
➢ MSW refers to the non-hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that
requires routine collection and transport to a processing or disposal site
 ➢ Sources of MSW:
■ Private homes
■ Institutions
■ Industrial facilities
➢ Contains a variety of materials:
■ Food wastes - “wet garbage”
■ Paper, plastic, glass bottles, tetra packs, metal items - “dry garbage”
❖ Control measures of urban and industrial wastes
➢ Integrated waste management strategy includes:
■ Source reduction
■ Recycling
■ Disposal
➢ Source reduction - can be done by
■ Using less material when making a product
■ Reuse products on site
■ Reduce use of unnecessary items while shopping
■ Minimal packaging
■ Avoid disposable items
➢ Recycling
■ Refers to reusing some components of waste that may have some
economic value
■ Benefits: conservation of resources, reduces energy use during
manufacture, reduces pollution
■ Recyclable materials: aluminium, steel, paper, glass.etc
■ Helps saves forest
■ Problems with recycling: technical or economical
■ Plastics are difficult to recycle as it’s made up of different types of polymer
resins - separation of plastics is necessary
➢ Disposal
■ Done commonly through a landfill or incineration
■ Characteristics of landfill that differentiates it from an open dump
● It is placed in a carefully prepared site
● Waste material is spread out and compacted with heavy machines
● Waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil
■ Problem - groundwater pollution - pollutants seep into the soil
■ It’s difficult to find suitable landfilling sites - Also, ppl don't wanna live near
them
➢ Incineration
■ Process of burning MSW in a properly designed furnace under suitable
temperature and operating conditions
■ Problems: air quality problems, toxicity, disposal of ash
■ Hence, air pollution control equipment, skilled employees and supervision
are needed
➢ Vermi-composting
 ■ Process in which earthworms convert organic waste into manure i.e.
compost made using earthworms
■ Dead, dry leaves decompose - broken down by worms - broken down by
bacteria - forms compost
❖ Hazardous wastes
➢ Generated by chemical manufacturing companies, paper mills and other
industries
➢ These are wastes that harms humans or environment
➢ They cause death or a serious illness, potential hazard to health/environment
when improperly disposed
➢ Characteristics of hazardous wastes:
■ Toxicity
■ Reactivity
■ Ignitability
■ Corrosivity
➢ Other characteristics include: infectious or radioactive
➢ Toxic waste
■ Substances that are poisonous even in small amounts
■ Might have immediate or long term effects
■ Certain stuff - causes cancer, others - cause biological changes
➢ Reactive waste
■ Tend to react vigorously with air or water, unable to shock/heat, generate
toxic gases/ explode
■ Eg: gunpowder
➢ Ignitable waste
■ Burn at relatively low temperatures and are capable of spontaneous
combustion during storage, transport or disposal
■ Eg: gasoline, alcohol
➢ Corrosive waste
■ Destroy materials and living tissue by chemical reaction
■ Eg: acids
➢ Infectious wastes
■ Human tissue from surgery, used bandages.etc
➢ Radioactive waste:
■ Output from nuclear power plants
➢ Environmental problems and health risks
■ Groundwater is contaminated
■ Pesticides form residue in the soil - washed into streams - ingestion,
inhalation and skin contact can lead to poisoning
■ Alternative to excessive use of pesticides: IPM - Integrated Pest
Management - uses a wide variety of plants and insects to create a more
natural process
■ Lead - affects red blood cells, damage nerve tissue - results in brain
disease
 ■ Mercury - cumulative poison and can cause brain damage
■ PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) - cause kidneys and liver damage,
reproductive failure in animals
■ Vinyl chloride - deafness, vision problems, circulation disorders, bone
deformities, birth defects
■ Reducing wastes and use of plastics, encourage recycling, use durable
products - ways to reduce exposure to these chemicals
➢ Most common methods for disposing hazardous waste - land disposal &
incineration
➢ Industries need to generate less hazardous waste
➢ Technologies are available for minimising, recycling and treating waste
➢ Informed public can contribute

Role of an individual in prevention of pollution

❖ Concepts that help individuals contribute toward a better quality of environment and life:
➢ Respect all forms of life
➢ Ppl must know
■ Where the things they consume come from
■ About the place where they live
■ How they’re connected to other living things
■ Their purpose and responsibility as humans
➢ Plant trees - it reduces air pollution
➢ Reduce use of wood and paper products - it reduces pollution and saves more
trees
➢ Reuse envelopes
➢ Do not buy furniture made of tropical hardwoods like teak or mahogany - they are
forest based
➢ Join an afforestation program
➢ Use pesticides only when absolutely necessary in small amounts
➢ Support organic farming - automatically reduces use of pesticides
➢ Reduce fossil fuel use by walking/carpooling - reduces air pollution
➢ Switch off fans and lights when not in use
➢ Reduce aerosol spray products or room air fresheners - damage ozone layer
➢ Don’t pour products containing harmful chemicals down the drain or ground
➢ Buy durable products instead of disposable ones - these end up in landfill and
pollute groundwater
➢ Use rechargeable batteries
➢ Avoid asking for plastic carry bags when shopping - use own cloth bag
➢ Use washable cloth napkins/towels instead of paper ones
➢ Recycle products - newspapers, glass, aluminium.etc
➢ Engage in composting - reduces use of fertilisers
➢ Set up garbage separation and recycling programs
➢ Choose items that have less/no packaging
➢ Individual/community composting and motivate other ppl to join
 ➢ Don’t litter roads - put trash in dustbins
➢ Join NGOs - organise meetings
➢ Learn about the biodiversity of one’s locality
➢ Vote
➢ Don’t dwell on negative aspects
➢ When talking to officials, be courteous. Be respectful when disagreeing with their
opinions
➢ Practice what you preach.

Important question in unit 4

1. Steps to manage water pollution in India [10m]

Ans: Water pollution is a serious problem in India. The main sources of water pollution in India
are untreated sewage, agricultural run-off and waste discarded by industries. The steps taken
by the Indian government to manage water pollution are explained below:
❖ Introduction of environmental policies - in order to change behaviour of ppl and
industries
❖ Flocculation
➢ A water treatment process where solids form larger clusters, or flocs, to be
removed from water
➢ Can happen spontaneously or with the help of chemical agents
➢ It is a common method used in wastewater treatment and in purification of driking
water
❖ Local indian startups contribute to managing water pollution
❖ Water reuse plants are built - produces large amounts of clean water everyday
❖ Installed various sewage treatment plans
❖ Citizens develop innovative and inexpensive water treatment improvements
➢ Eg: two former engineering students invented a water filter that costs less than a
dollar. - filter dangerous microorganisms - consists of organic products and not
synthetic fibers
❖ In the case of rivers, India launched the Ganga Action plan (GAP) the largest ever river
clean-up operation in the country in 1985
❖ The National River Conservation plan
➢ All the rivers in India were taken up for clean-up operations
➢ Attempts were made to tap drains, divert sewage to sewage treatment plants
before letting out the sewage into the rivers.
➢ Cons:
■ Finances in the long run - who would pay?
■ Erratic power supply - plants are dependent on power - hence, facilities
are underutilised
➢ The major activities include:
■ Treating the pollution load from sewer systems of towns and cities
 ■ Setting up of Sewage treatment plants,
■ Electric crematoria
■ Low cost sanitation facilities
■ Afforestation
■ Solid waste management

Behind the scenes/bloopers that i do not wish to delete:

● The poi padi da . Come on. You can do this. I’m all pumped up
with energy xDDDDD okayyissa boring boring check kailash’s
notes in the end of his notes xDDDDDDDD i thought that video
was related to ecosystem xDDDDD i just know it. Its an old thing
cuz i dont type that in WhatsApp. I type that in Hangouts its more
appropriate when I’m texting from comp or in Hangouts which is
why i said its old. We used to use it. Nooooooo every single gamer
used it too. The person who used this a lot was a gamer. Hardcore
gamer . Edho onnu poda. lolololol where did you learn xD from. I
mean its surprising coming from you. Hangout died. No one used
it. Only nerds used it. Gamers back then were considered nerds
what lolololol look at nuclear waste disposal xDDDDD i wanna see
how it feels to type lmao. Lmao xD lmao lmao lmao Lolo lol lololol
lmao its not bad it suits this. Lmao LMAOOOOOOO ok we should
go back to studying but i dont want to i wanna disappear just for
tomorrow yesssssssssssssss -_- you disappear after exam. You
can do this. Go see Kailash link i dont see any changes FUVK
EVS lmao this looks cute lmao
● XDDDDD who said there was any change xDDDDD i told you to
see it cuz of never give up thingy i have no clue what that is
● I gtg eat and get back to studying but the stu is silent -_- -_- not
being chammathu at all rn no more sad meme stuff. Ok go byeeee
xDDD lmao okay lmfao ok i gtg fr . take a picture of this