Fundamental of Modern Computing

(BSC-202)

Dr Priyavrat
(Assistant Professor)

Department of Computer Science and Technology,

Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India.

Lecture 3
(Overview of AI Techniques (Logic and Reasoning))

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Table of Contents

1 Overview of AI techniques
Logic
Reasoning

2 Assignment

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Logic
• Logic is the systematic approach to structure and evaluate arguments,
it helps in drawing conclusions from given premises
• It is a formal system that defines rules for inference and
representation of knowledge
• Logic is concerned with reasoning and the validity of arguments. In
logic, we are not concerned with the truth statements, but rather with
their validity.

Example
P1: All lemons are blue
P2: Mary is a lemon
C: Therefore, Mary is blue

• C is considered to be valid because it follows logically from the two

statements (P1, P2), called premises.
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Logic
Why Logic is used in Artificial Intelligence?

Logic is essential in AI for knowledge representation, reasoning,

decision making, and handling uncertainty. It ensures that AI systems
can process information, make rational decisions, and adapt to new
knowledge efficiently.
• Used as a representational method (Knowledge representation):
Logic allows AI to store and organize information in a structured way.
Example
• “It is raining and it is Tuesday”
• R ∧T

• Automated Reasoning and Inference: AI can draw conclusions

from known facts and rules using logical reasoning
Example
If “All birds can fly” and “A sparrow is a bird,” then AI infers “A sparrow
can fly.”
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Logic
Why Logic is used in Artificial Intelligence?

• Decision-Making: AI needs logic to evaluate conditions and take

action
Example
(Self driving cars) IF the traffic light is red THEN stop the car.

• Handling Uncertainty: Fuzzy logic and probabilistic logic help AI

deal with imprecise (not clear or exact) information

Example
Instead of “hot” or “cold,” AI assigns values like “very cold = 0.1, cold =
0.3, Luke warm = 0.5, Warm = 0.7, Hot = 0.9, very hot”

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Logic
Why Logic is used in Artificial Intelligence?

• AI Learning and Adaptation: AI updates its beliefs based on new

data using non-monotonic logic (type of formal logic where
conclusions can be retracted or revised when new information is
introduced)

Example
• Initially: “All birds can fly.”
• New data: “Penguins cannot fly.”
• AI machine modifies its rule.

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Logic
Types of Logic

• Different types of logic are used in AI depending on the complexity of

reasoning, uncertainty, and application needs
• Foundational logic: Propositional and first-order logic
• Fuzzy, Probabilistic, and Non-monotonic logic help AI handle
real-world uncertainty and dynamic environments
Types of Logic:
• Propositional Logic (Boolean Logic): Deals with propositions:
statements that can be either true or false, offering a simplistic binary
framework for decision-making (Truth Table helps in reasoning)

Example
P: “It is raining” (P)
Q: “I carry an umbrella” (Q)
R: If P → Q (If it is raining, I carry an umbrella)
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Logic
Types of Logic

• Predicate Logic (First order predicate logic (FOPL)): An

extension of propositional logic, introduces the notion of variables and
quantifiers, bringing a more nuanced layer of complexity to logical
reasoning
• Statements are not merely true or false; they involve objects,
properties, and relationships between them
• Extends propositional logic by introducing quantifiers (∀, ∃), predicates,
and objects
• More expressive than propositional logic because it can handle
relationships and objects

Example
∀x (Human(x) → Mortal(x))
Meaning: “For all x, if x is a human, then x is mortal.”

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Logic
Types of Logic

• Fuzzy Logic: Deals with uncertainty, allowing AI systems to reason

in situations where information is imprecise.
• Deals with degrees of truth instead of binary true/false
• Helps in handling uncertainty and imprecise data
• Fuzzy Logic offers a larger range of outputs, including very, slightly,
and not at all
• These numbers between 0 and 1 represent the range of possible
outcomes

Example
Instead of “Is the water hot?” (True/False) (Propositional Logic)
Fuzzy logic assigns a degree: “very cold = 0.1, cold = 0.3, lukewarm =
0.5, Warm = 0.7, hot = 0.9, very hot”

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Logic
Types of Logic

• Non-Monotonic Logic: Allows AI to retract conclusions when new

evidence appears.

Example
Rule: Birds can fly.
Exception: Penguins are birds, but cannot fly.
AI updates its belief system dynamically.

Some other types of Logic are:

• Temporal Logic
• Description Logic
• Probabilistic Logic
• Modal Logic

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Reasoning
Reasoning and its Types

• Reasoning in AI refers to the process of drawing conclusions from

available information (fact or data) using logical rules
• It helps AI to make decisions, solve problems, and infer new
knowledge.
• Deductive Reasoning: Uses general rules to infer specific conclusions
• Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning involves observing specific
instances and generalizing to form broader conclusions
• Abductive Reasoning: Abductive reasoning starts with an
observation and tries to find the simplest and most likely explanation
• Analogical Reasoning: Solves new problems using similar past
experiences.

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Reasoning
Types of Reasoning

Choose the correct type of reasoning for the following facts and
conclusions:
Example
• The ground is wet → It probably rained last night.

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Reasoning
Types of Reasoning

Choose the correct type of reasoning for the following facts and
conclusions:
Example
• The ground is wet → It probably rained last night.
→ Abductive Reasoning

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Reasoning
Types of Reasoning

Choose the correct type of reasoning for the following facts and
conclusions:
Example
• The ground is wet → It probably rained last night.
→ Abductive Reasoning
• The sun has risen every day → It will rise tomorrow.

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Reasoning
Types of Reasoning

Choose the correct type of reasoning for the following facts and
conclusions:
Example
• The ground is wet → It probably rained last night.
→ Abductive Reasoning
• The sun has risen every day → It will rise tomorrow.
→ Inductive Reasoning

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Reasoning
Types of Reasoning

Choose the correct type of reasoning for the following facts and
conclusions:
Example
• The ground is wet → It probably rained last night.
→ Abductive Reasoning
• The sun has risen every day → It will rise tomorrow.
→ Inductive Reasoning
• P1: All humans are mortal.
P2: Socrates is a human.
C: Socrates is mortal

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Reasoning
Types of Reasoning

Choose the correct type of reasoning for the following facts and
conclusions:
Example
• The ground is wet → It probably rained last night.
→ Abductive Reasoning
• The sun has risen every day → It will rise tomorrow.
→ Inductive Reasoning
• P1: All humans are mortal.
P2: Socrates is a human.
C: Socrates is mortal
→ Deductive Reasoning

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Reasoning
Types of Reasoning

Choose the correct type of reasoning for the following facts and
conclusions:
Example
• The ground is wet → It probably rained last night.
→ Abductive Reasoning
• The sun has risen every day → It will rise tomorrow.
→ Inductive Reasoning
• P1: All humans are mortal.
P2: Socrates is a human.
C: Socrates is mortal
→ Deductive Reasoning
• AI for recommendation systems, like suggesting books based on the
reading habits of users with similar tastes

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Reasoning
Types of Reasoning

Choose the correct type of reasoning for the following facts and
conclusions:
Example
• The ground is wet → It probably rained last night.
→ Abductive Reasoning
• The sun has risen every day → It will rise tomorrow.
→ Inductive Reasoning
• P1: All humans are mortal.
P2: Socrates is a human.
C: Socrates is mortal
→ Deductive Reasoning
• AI for recommendation systems, like suggesting books based on the
reading habits of users with similar tastes
→ Analogical Reasoning
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Assignment

1 What is the difference between AI Logic and Reasoning?

2 Why Logic and Reasoning are used in AI?
3 How is prepositional logic different from Predicate Logic?
4 What is WFF(Well Formed Formula)?

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