UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

FACULTY OF ARTS

In collaboration with

CENTRE FOR OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

SOCIOLOGY

CSO 102: INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY

AUTHOR
PIUS MUTUKU MUTIE
 LECTURE ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS IN ANTHROPOLOGY

Lecture Outline
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Definition of Anthropology
1.4 The Sub-Disciplines of Anthropology
1.4.1 Cultural/Social Anthropology
1.4.2 Archaeological Anthropology
1.4.3 Biological/Physical Anthropology
1.4.4 Linguistic Anthropology

1.5 Language and Perception

1.5.1 Language and Culture
1.5.2 Language and Reality
1.6 Ethnography and Research Techniques

1.2 Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

1. Define the term anthropology
2. Identify the sub-disciplines of anthropology
3. Describe the sub-disciplines of anthropology
4. Differentiate anthropology from other academic disciplines
5. Compare and contrast anthropology with sociology
6. Discuss the methods used in ethnographic research

1.3 Definition of Anthropology

Anthropology has been derived from two Greek words ‘anthropos’ (man) and ‘logus’
(study of science). It is thus the study of human beings scientifically. Specifically, it is the
study of human beings and their works and behaviour. Kottak (2002) defines

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anthropology as the study of the human species and its immediate ancestors. It is an
equally comparative and holistic science.
Anthropology is often portrayed as the study of fossils and non industrial, non–western
cultures. While this is partly correct, it is much more than that. It is as comparative field
that examines all societies, ancient and modern, simple and complex. Anthropology
offers a unique cross-cultural perspective by constantly comparing the customs of one
society with another.

Besides, anthropology explores human, biological and cultural diversity in time and
space. Anthropologists ask such questions as: where did the native Australian Aborigines
come from?; why are cultures so diverse and unique?; Why are there linguistic and
cultural differences between the Kikuyu and the Maasai, the Luo, the Teso, the Taita etc.
The academic discipline of anthropology is divided into four main fields / sub disciplines
namely:
1. Socio cultural anthropology; popularly called cultural anthropology
2. Archaeological anthropology
3. Biological/physical anthropology
4. Linguistic anthropology

1.4 Sub-Disciplines of Anthropology

1. Socio cultural anthropology
2. Archaeological anthropology
3. Biological anthropology/physical
4. Linguistic anthropology anthrop

1.4.1 Cultural Anthropology

This is the most popular sub-discipline of anthropology. It is the study of human society
and culture. It describes analyses, interprets and explains social and cultural similarities
and differences.

To study and interpret cultural diversity, cultural anthropologists engage in ethnography

(based on field work) and ethnology (based on cross-cultural comparisons). Traditionally,

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ethnographers have lived in small communities and studied local behaviours, beliefs,
customs, social life, economic activities, politics and religion
Anthropologists tend to focus on the relatively poor and the powerless or those
discriminated against. It studies the origins and history of many cultures, their evolution
and development. Cultural anthropologists study the ways man has devised to cope with
his natural setting and his social milieu and how bodies of customs are learnt, retained
and handed down from one generation to the next.

1.4.2 Archeological Anthropology

This branch of anthropology attempts to reconstruct, describe and interpret past human
behaviour and cultural patterns through material remains. It is concerned with the early
period of human existence. While history simply deals with reconstructing the past by
analyzing written records, archaeology goes back beyond where history begins
reconstructing the past prior to the invention of scripts and writings.

Archaeological anthropologists have the opportunity to sit with living members of the
societies they study. They find artifacts/material items that humans have made or
modified such as tools, weapons, campsites and buildings. Plant and animal remains and
ancient garbage tell stories about consumption and activities of past human societies.

Examination of animal bones reveals the ages of slaughtered animals and provides other
information e.g. whether such animals were domesticated or wild. Analysis of wild and
domesticated grains allows archaeological anthropologists to distinguish between
gathering and cultivation.

The study of pottery and fragments or earthenware are also very important. Potsherds are
more durable than wood and textiles. The discovery, for instance, that potters used
materials that were not locally available suggests systems of trade and inter-cultural
exchange. Similarities in design and decoration at different sites can be proof of cultural
connections.

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Anthropological archaeologists are also interested in paleoecology (examination of past
ecosystems; the number of settlement levels e.g. cities, towns, villages etc) is a measure
of social complexity. Buildings offer clues on political and religious features. A temple or
a pyramid or the wall of Zimbabwe suggest that an ancient society had an authority
structure capable of marshaling the labour needed to build such monuments.

Through excavations, archaeological anthropologists can establish how settlements have

changed in form and purpose. Excavations document changes in economic, social and
political activities.

1.4.3 Biological/Physical Anthropology

o Concussed with human biological diversity
o Human evolution as revealed by fossil record, (paleo anthropology)
o Human genetics
o Human growth and development, environment and heredity.
o Human biological plasticity (the body’s activity to change as it copes with
stresses e.g. heat, cold and altitude)
o The biology, evolution, behaviours and social life of monkeys, apes and
other non-human primates.
o Charles Darwin established that the variety that exists within any
population permits some individuals (those with adaptive characteristics to
do better than others i.e. to survive and reproduce).

1.4.4 Linguistic Anthropology

o Studies across space and over time language in its social cultural context.
o Interpreted in finding out past people’s languages
o These anthropologists are interested with the relationship between
language cultural behaviours. While some examines the origin of
languages
o Linguistic anthropologists may focus on:

1.5 Language and Perception

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This is the study of how our language determines the way we order our universe.

1.5.1 Language and Culture

Language tells us a lot about a people’s way of life. An examination of vocabulary tells
us about a people’s value systems, aspirations, attitudes etc. For instance, the story of the
Turkana of northern Kenya having no ‘thank you’ in their vocabulary may suggest that
that any assistance accorded to a fellow tribesman will be reciprocated somehow and
therefore no need to thank him/her!

1.5.2 Language and Reality

This is where anthropologists are interested in the way people master culture and learn to
speak a particular language.

The vocabulary of a language is the encoding of that culture’s cognitive categories.

Historical Linguistics: This considers how language has changed overtime – changes in
sounds, grammar and vocabulary.

Social-linguistics: This branch investigates relationships between social and linguistic

variation. There is no language that is homogenous, i.e., in which everyone speaks like
everyone else.

Increasingly, linguistic anthropologists are asking: How do linguistic features correlate

with social factors including class and gender differences (poor/rich, men and women)?

1.6 Ethnography and Research Techniques

It is a separate field of anthropology. This is the first hand personal study of local
settings/groups particularly in distant areas or isolated societies. To understand these
new societies, ethnographers adopt a free-ranging strategy for gathering information.
They move from setting to setting to discover the totality and the interconnectedness of
social life. They use the emic approach (local oriented) as opposed to the etic approach
(scientist oriented). Ethnographers use a variety of techniques to gather data.
These include:

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o Direct observation of daily behaviour and activities and participant
observation: Ethnographers get to know their hosts/those being studied in
detail (the totality of their lives). They have to pay attention to seasons,
individual behaviour in varied settings and usually record what they observe as
they see it. Fieldwork usually takes more than a year so that they can observe
the entire annual cycle of life/activities. They usually record their impressions
in personal diaries which are kept separate from formal field notes. These
impressions, which may at first look unimportant, help to refine the formal
findings. Some of these impressions may include the way people greet, the way
they eat, they way they dress, the way they look at others, the way they welcome
guests etc-aspects that are not directly linked to what the researcher is studying.
A researcher could easily ignore them since even locals take them for granted.
Ethnographers strive to establish rapport (a good friendly working relationship
based on personal contact) with hosts. Participant observation basically means
taking part in community life as we study the group.
o Conversation and open-ended interviewing: Ethnographers constantly talk to
people and seek clarifications on what they observe. They might find it
necessary to learn the local language in order to communicate better.
o Interview schedule: This is where the researcher engages in face to face
interview with the respondents; asking the questions and recording the answers
as opposed to questionnaires which are more indirect and impersonal and where
the respondent usually fills the form send or given to them.
o The genealogical method: This is a method of tracing genealogies/family trees
which is very important in the study of kinship, marriage and descent. It is an
important method in understanding contemporary social relations and to
reconstruct history.
o Life histories: These are details of selected members of the study population
whom the researcher finds particularly interesting or unique. This information
may be recorded or videotaped for later review and analysis reveal how the
people being studied perceive and react to situations

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o Archaeological methods: Excavations of past remains by digging through the
cultural and natural stratigraphy i.e. the layers of deposits that make up an
archaeological site.
o Some ethnographers also use survey research which involves drawing a small
sample from a larger population, impersonal data collection, use of statistical
methods and generalizations.

Activity
1. Are you now in a position to define anthropology?
2. Can you identify the sub-disciplines of anthropology?
3. Do you know what ethnography is?
4. Can you identify the research techniques used in ethnography

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 LECTURE TWO
HUMAN EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATION

Lecture Outline
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Basic Evolutionary Considerations
2.4 Human-Primate Similarities and Differences
2.5 Acquired Human Traits

2.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Describe the theory of evolution
2. Critically analyze the theory of evolution
3. Identify human-primate similarities and differences
4. Identify and describe acquired human traits

2.3 Basic Evolutionary Considerations

From about 1750, scientists have been concerned about human origins and position
among plants and animals. At that time, the most dominant explanation for human origin
was creationism. Characteristics of life forms were seen a immutable – they could not
change. Living things were grouped on the basis of similarities and differencies in their
physical characteristics. Fossil discoveries in the 18th and 19th centuries raised doubts
about the theory of creation. Scientists asked themselves if all life had originated at the
same time, how come some ancient species were extinct. A new explanation but still
biblical-catastrophism-took root. It was argued that fires, floods and other natural forces
(including the time of Noah) had destroyed earlier species and that God would create a
new life forms once earlier ones had been destroyed. But still it was not clear why some
of the extinct species resembled later ones. A new explanation – evolution
(transformism) emerged. Evolutionists argued that species arose from others through a
long and gradual process of transformation. The chief proponent of this theory was
Charles Darwin. He was particularly influenced by uniformitarism – which states that the

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present is the key to the past. Evolution cast doubt on the age of the earth according to
creationism – 6,000 years arguing that it must have taken a much longer period for the
geological, climatical and other physiological features to take shape. Darwin claimed
that natural selection was the principle that explained the origin of species. This is a
process where nature selects the forms most fit to survive and reproduce in a given
environment (think about draught and famine relief!). It operates when there is
competition for strategic resources (necessary for life). Natural selection takes advantage
of the variety that already exists in a population. When there is emigration, natural
selection tends to favour types that are more likely to survive and reproduce in the new
environment.

To expound on Darwin’s theory, later scientists found explanations in genetics. The

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules make up genes and chromosomes. Biochemical
changes (mutations) provide much of the variety on which natural selection operates.
Through sexual reproduction the recombination of the father’s and mother’s genetic traits
in each generation leads to new genetical arrangements in the next generation. Although
dominant traits are more likely to be transmitted that recessive ones, the latter are neither
destroyed nor changed and may reappear in latter generations- e.g. a tall father and a
short mother may produce tall children but these parents may have some short grand
children irrespective of the height of their children’s mates. There is the hereditary
characteristic (genotype) and the expressed characteristics (the phenotype).

Natural selection affects: facial features – for example long noses seem to be adaptive in
arid areas since membranes and blood vessels inside the nose moisten the air as it is
breathed in. Long noses are also adaptive in cold environments because blood vessels
warm the air as it is breathed in. Body size: a smaller body sheds heat more efficiently.
Average body size tends to increase in cold areas and to decrease in hot areas because big
bodies retain heat better than small bodies. J. A. Allen, a zoologist, came up with what is
now referred to as Allen’s rule in 1877. He stated that protruding body parts tails, ears,
fingers, toes, limbs etc tend to increase with temperature. Among humans, slender bodies
with long hands and limbs are advantageous in tropical climates. The Nilotes and
Cushites who live in hot parts of Kenya usually have tall linear bodies which increase

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surface area relative to body mass and therefore lose heat more efficiently. Those in cold
areas either tend to have large chests and shorter arms (e.g. Eskimos) or big heavy bodies
(northern Europeans) which conserve heat.

Lactose adaptation- in natural selection, there are times when adaptive changes can occur
during the individual’s lifetime. This is what is called phenotypical adaptation. This is
made possible by biological plasticity – the ability to change in response to the
environments we encounter in life. Genes and phenotypical adaptation work together to
produce a biochemical difference among human groups in the ability to digest large
amounts of milk. All milk contains a complex sugar called lactose and milk digestion
depends on an enzyme called lactase found in the small instestines. Among all mammals
except human and some pets, lactase production ceases after weaning so that these
animals cannot digest milk anymore. Lactase production and the ability to tolerate/digest
mil varies between populations. A study done by Kretchmer (1972/1975) showed that
about 90% of Northern Europeans and their descendants tolerate milk just like about 80%
of the Tutsi of Rwanda and Burundi and the Fulani of |Nigeria (both are herding groups).
However, such non-herders as the Yoruba and Igbo in Nigeria, the Baganda in Uganda,
the Japanese, Asians and many Israelis cannot digest lactose. Using these analogy which
groups in Kenya would not tolerate lactose? Which ones would?

2.4 Human – Primate Similarities and Differences

Similarities:
o Learning – This is common to monkeys, apes and humans. Behaviour and
social life are not rigidly programmed by the genes but learned.
o Tools – Just like humans, tool use is common among non-human species.
In fact, chimpanzees, just like humans, make tools with foresight (with a
specific purpose in mind).
o Predation and Hunting – Hunting among humans and primates only differ
in degree.
o Aggression and Resources – Both are aggressive and a change in sexual
relationships eases pressure in resources. This has been observed where
primate habitats are destroyed – drastic decline in birth rate.

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 Differences:
o Sharing and Co-operation – Although both humans and primates live in
groups, the patterns of interaction differ.
o Mating and Kinship – Humans mate for recreation as well as for pleasure
and usually not with relatives. Primates usually mate for procreation.
o Humans also have the institution of marriage; male primates (patriarchs)
may mate with several females in their group and only when the male
patriarch has been dethroned or incapacitated can another male take over.
o Humans, unlike primates, use language, use clothing etc.

2.5 Acquired Human Traits

There are a number of ways in which a human trait may be acquired (Fuligni, Greenfield,
Keller and Maynard, 2003; Kirk, 1928). A trait can be acquired in 3 ways namely,
universally, personally/individually and culturally.

1) Universally- There are certain traits that cut across all cultures. For instance,
all human societies are known to have some form of rituals, dress, food, music,
dance and the capacity to use a wide range of tools.

Nearly all societies have some form of alcoholic drink(s) whose consumption is
regulated by custom. Kirk argues that practically, every human being from the
Bronze Age until today would be frightened when he/she saw a sharp object
moving near or toward his/her body. The fear reaction itself, he notes, is
instinctive or inborn.

The need and love for companionship with one’s fellow kin, love of offspring as
well as the erotic preference for the opposite sex are found in all societies.
Universal traits may also be acquired from experience-from the natural
environment, from cultural objects/artifacts and from features of the social
environment which are common across societies.

2) At the individual level/personally -Traits are acquired differently/selectively

among human beings even when they share the same environment/culture. Some

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people go to church, others don’t; some people drink alcohol, others don’t; some
shave/plate their hair, others don’t; some people love dogs, while others don’t;
people generally dress differently depending on their values, preferences and
experiences. As critical as it is, leadership is acquired by some individuals and not
others even when all have similar opportunities. As some choose to pursue
leadership, the majority remain followers.

3) Culturally -Under a given culture, people acquire certain attributes that act as
symbols of identity and which will be absent in other cultures. For instance, most
Europeans and North Americans greet by hugging and kissing which is not the
case among most African societies. The Chinese will serve food in small bowls
while many people in other parts of the world use plates. Some religions like
Islam have a dress code which can be used to identify Muslims. Most westernized
and Christian societies are monogamous and stress faithfulness to one partner
while an Eskimo will gladly lend his wife to a guest. In Kenya, although cultural
practices are changing rather fast, there is still wife inheritance among the Luo,
woman-to-woman ‘marriage’ among the Kamba, Kisii and to some extent, the
Meru. Female circumcision is still common among the Maasai, the Kisii, the
Tigania, and some Kalenjin groups. All these traits are transmitted from one
generation to the next by tradition and social heredity process.

There are some traits that are erroneously taken to be instinctive e.g. racial
segregation and prejudice which is common in South Africa, USA, UK, Australia
and Zimbabwe among other countries. Closer analysis shows that children of the
‘privileged’ race interact with other children from the ‘underprivileged’ race
without any hesitation or repulsion before they learn the discriminative tradition
from their parents/society. Some nationalities are known for certain attributes-the
Chinese and Indians are known for their cuisine and medicine, most Africans for
their hospitality, extended family structures, wood carving, music and dance; the
French for their cuisine and etiquette, the Germans for punctuality and brewing,
and the Americans for jeans and fast food. Human beings are differentiated by
accidents of cultural history and practices that have been passed from one

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generation to the next. That is what differentiates a Luo brought up in Nyanza
from a Kikuyu from Nyeri.

It is important to note that all human traits are either:

1) Inborn-these are uniform and show individual or racial variations
(physiological differences)
2) Acquired-these could be universal, personal (individualised) or
cultural.

Activity

 Describe the theory of evolution

 Identify and discuss the human and primate similarities and
differences.
 Identify and describe the acquired human traits.
 What differentiates a Luo from a Kikuyu or a Kamba from a
Maasai?

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 LECTURE THREE
THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE
Lecture Outline
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Definitions of Culture
3.4 Basic Concepts in the Study of Culture
3.5 Layers/Levels of Culture
3.5.1 At the Society Level
3.5.2 At the Subculture Level
3.5.3 At the Cultural Universals Level
3.6 Characteristics of Culture
3.6.1 Culture as an Adaptive Mechanism
3.6.2 Culture as Learnt
3.6.3 Culture as Dynamic/Changes
3.6.4 Ethnocentrism
3.6.5 The Internal Heterogeneity of Culture
3.6.6 Permissible Behaviour Patterns
3.6.7 Cultures do not Exist in Isolation
3.7 Elements of Culture
3.7.1 Material Elements
3.7.2 Elements of Social Structure
3.7.3 Sentimental Elements
3.7.4 Activity Elements
3.7.5 Symbolic Elements
3.7.6 Beliefs, Knowledge/Intellectual Elements
3.8 Variations in Culture
3.8.1 Physical Environment
3.8.2 Inborn ‘Racial’ Qualities
3.8.3 Population Densities
3.8.4 Explanation In Terms of Culture History
3.9 The Role of Culture in Development

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 3.10 Why Link Culture and Development

3.2 Objectives
By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
1. Define the term culture
2. Identify and discuss the basic concepts in the study of culture
3. The role of culture in development
4. Identify the layers of culture
5. Discuss the layers of culture
6. Identify and discuss the characteristics of culture
7. Identify and discuss the elements of culture
8. Distinguish between characteristics and elements of culture
Identify and explain the variations in culture

3.3 Definitions of Culture

The word culture is derived from two Latin words: "Cultura" which means tending and
"Colera" which means cherish. Therefore culture is comprised of those things which we
tend to cherish or things which are important to us.

There are various definitions of culture. Generally, it can be simply defined as a group’s
way of life or doing things. Culture, is the way people behave, that is, the accepted and
patterned ways of behavior of a given people. Culture is a body of common
understandings; it is the total of the group's ways of thinking, feeling, and acting
Culture embodies the attitudes, values, and the history that are shared by a group of
people through their language, their history, and their music.

As early as 1928, Kirk, in his book, Culture and Progress, defined culture as “the sum
total of all that is artificial”. He noted that “it is the complete outfit of tools, and habits of
living, which are invented by man and then passed on from one generation to another. It
does not include any of the inborn biological characteristics of man”.

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According to Greenfield, Fuligni, Keller and Maynard (2003), culture is also viewed as a
socially interactive process of construction comprising two main components: shared
activity (cultural practices) and shared meaning (cultural interpretation). Hey note further
that both components of cultural processes are cumulative in nature since they occur
between, as well as within, generations. Meanings and activities, they add, not only
accumulate but also transform over both developmental time--across a single life cycle,
and historical time--between generations. They argue that cultural processes are based in
the biological nature of humans, defining enabling as well as constraining conditions; and
that contrary to many earlier accounts, culture and biology are not opposites, but
intrinsically interrelated and complementary.

3.4. Basic Concepts in the Study of Culture

3.5. Layers/Levels of Culture

There are roughly three layers/levels of culture that part of our learned behaviour patterns
and perception. These are at the societal level, at the sub-culture level and the cultural
universal level

3. 5. 1 At the Society Level

Each individual will most likely identify himself/herself with a given society that is
distinct from others in terms of language, traditions and beliefs. When people speak
Dholuo, Kikuyu, Kamba, Kiswahili or English, they are referring to the shared medium
of communication and symbolism that set each of these people apart from others.
Usually, those who share your culture do so because they acquired it as they were raised
by parents or other family members or care givers.

3.5.2 At the Sub-culture Level

In complex diverse societies or multi-ethnicity cultural societies people from diverse
backgrounds live together. These people retain much of their original cultural traditions.
Because of this, they are likely to be part of an identifiable sub culture in their new
society. The shared cultural traits of sub cultures set them apart from the rest of their
society.

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Sub cultures are usually associated with migratory groups living as communities in
industrialized countries e.g. the Vietnamese in the US (Vietenamese Americans), African
Americans, Mexican Americans, the Carribbeans and Indians in the UK, the Surinamese
in the Netherlands etc. the question is; can it apply in multi ethnic countries like Kenya
where there is a shared Kenyan identity but many ethnic groups (sub-cultures) e.g. Luo,
Kikuyu, Kamba, Somali, Maasai, Indian and Bukusu ethnic groups with distinct cultural
values and practices.

Members of a sub culture share a common identity, food, tradition, dialect/language,

history and belief systems. As the cultural difference between members of a sub-culture
and the dominant national culture blur and eventually disappear, the sub cultures ceases
to exist except the group name and the claims to common ancestry. That is generally the
case with the Basuba who adopted Luo culture or the German Americans and Irish
Americans in the US today.

3.5.3 At the Cultural Universal Level

In spite of the fact that there are various differences among peoples, there are learned
behaviour patterns that are shared by all of humanity collectively irrespective of where
people live in the world of socialized. They share these universal traits, Examples of the
common traits include:

o having some means of production/ economic activity

o having some form of shelter
o communicating with a verbal language with grammatical rules for
constructing sentences
o using age and gender to classify people e.g. infant, teenager, old people,
woman, man etc)
o classifying people based on marriage and descent relationships and kinship
terms to refer to them (e.g. wife, husband, mother, uncle, cousin etc)
o raising children in some form of family setting.
o having a sexual division of labour (e.g. men’s work versus women’s work)
o having a concept of privacy

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 o having rules to regulate sexual behaviour
o having some sort of body orientation.
o making jokes and playing games having art

o having some form of leadership roles for the implementation of community

decisions.
o having festivals and rituals

As noted earlier, these are just examples. It is also important to note that different
cultures have developed their own specific ways of carrying out or expressing the traits
identified above.

3.6 Characteristics of Culture

This refers to the ‘properties’, features or attributes of culture. Characteristics of culture
identify the nature of culture.

Culture has many characteristics and therefore we will just consider the most important.
These include; culture as an adaptative mechanism, culture as learnt, culture as dynamic,
the interactive nature of culture, ethnocentrism and the permissible behaviour patterns of
culture.

3.6.1. Culture as an Adaptive Mechanism:

People are able to survive in different climatical conditions mainly due to the adaptive
nature of culture. This is what has made it possible for population to live in temperate
and ultimately sub-artic regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Invention of efficient fire
use, warm clothing, warm housing, efficient hunting skills, agriculture and commerce has
made it possible for humans to inhabit areas that had earlier on appeared inhabitable. 1
Culture has been a highly successful adaptive mechanism for the human species. It has
given humans a major selective advantage in the competition for survival with other
species. Culture has made human the most destructive large animal on the planet.

1
(Source: http://authro.palomar.edu/culture_2.htm)

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Human beings have been dependant on culture for survival. Over the years, we have
developed new survival related cultural skills and technologies at a faster rate than
natural selection could alter our bodies to adapt to the environmental challenges that
confronted us. One consequence of this has been that our bodies have remained those of
warm climate animals. Humans have not needed to develop thick layers of fat or heavy
fur in the cold regions since cultural adaptation/technology has made it possible to
survive in cold climates. Culture has made it possible for more humans to survive with
the consequent scarcity of resources, pollution etc. The development of cities for
instance, have also made it easier for viruses and other diseases to spread tastes.

3.6.2. Culture as Learnt

Babies are usually born with the generic capacity to learn and absorb from the
environment. They are born without any cultural knowledge. The genetical
predisposition to learn language and acquire other cultural traits makes it possible for
them to become bonafide members of a given society. Any normal baby placed into any
family or cultural setting on earth will learn and acquire the cultural traits of those around
him/her. Culture is not instinctive and therefore human beings are not genetically
programmed to learn a particular culture. Culture is transmitted through observation;
Children pay attention to the things that go on around them.

All human have the potential to discover new things and invent better technologies,
culture is cumulative – new cultural skills and knowledge are added onto what was learnt
in previous generations. The generations of today learn and utilize the technological
advancement made by previous generations.

Through globalization, it has been possible for Africans to adopt foreign languages,
dress, food and architecture while foreigners have used African indigenous medicinal
plants to develop medicines.

3.6.3 Culture as Dynamic/Changes

Culture has been adaptive mainly because it is not static. As new cultural traits are added
some old ones are lost because they are not found useful. A good example is the

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transformation that has been witnessed in the Kenyan Society. There are many
traditional practices that have been discarded to pave way for ‘modern’ lifestyles and
urbanization. The use of money as a medium of exchange has virtually replaced barter
trade.

The addition and subtraction of cultural traits results in culture change. Many cultural
changes can occur as a result of both invention within a society or through diffusion of
cultural traits from one society to another. Diffusion can be direct when two cultures
trade or intermarry. This is also what is called acculturation; the exchange of cultural
features that results when groups have continuous direct contact. Diffusion of culture can
be forced when a given culture subjugates another and imposes its customs on the
dominated group. Diffusion is indirect when ethnic group A is influenced by ethnic group
B through C. Finally, there is also cultural change through independent invention when
groups innovate their own mechanisms of dealing with their own problems (see Kottak,
2002: 281-2).

Many Africans have divided religions to adopt Christianity and Islam. The adoption of
Christianity came with its own values like monogamy. Urbanization, Population growth
and the scarcity of resources, and the empowerment of women also made polygamy
untenable. However, that has not stopped men from having mistresses or parallel
families usually known openly after the man’s demise.

Quite often, societies neither wholly adopt new cultural traits nor completely abandon old
traits. Various aspects of culture will be closely interwoven in a complex way. Even
where societies are receptive to new ideas, they are usually very selective. Germans for
instance seem eager to adopt new words from other languages especially from English
while many French people are resistant to it citing the threat of ‘corrupting’ their
language. Both groups however are eager to adopt new technology. Changes that are
perceived to be revolutionary/radical are likely to be resisted.

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3.6.4 Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one’s own culture as suspension and to apply
one’s own cultural values in judging the behaviour and beliefs of people from other
cultures (Kottak, 2002:271).

The way we interact and do things within our own culture seems quite ‘natural’ to us.
We are unaware of our culture because we are so close to it and know it quite well.
Expecting somebody to be aware and sensitive to their culture is like expecting a fish to
be aware that it is wet! Being fond of your own way of life and condescending or even
hostile towards other cultures is normal for all people. Alien culture traits are often
viewed as being different, inferior, less sensible and even abnormal. Most Kenyan
groups practice male circumcision with some, e.g. the Bukusu marking this rite of
passage in a very elaborate way. These groups usually find it odd therefore that the Luos,
most Europeans and most Ugandan groups do not practice male circumcision. On the
other hand, most western industrialized societies find polygyny, widely practiced in
Africa and the Muslim world, unacceptable; the same way many Africans and Muslims
detest open expression of affection between men and women. Eating of dogs in
Southeast Asia astounds many Europeans who adore dogs.

Our ethnocentrism can prevent us from understanding and appreciating another culture.
Anthropologists have to adopt a cultural relativity approach so that they can study a
culture as the point of reference while ethnocentrism has its negative side e.g. prejudice
and mistrust, it has the positive role of protecting a given culture and sustenance of pride
and unique practices.

3.6.5 The Internal Heterogeneity of Culture

Partly because we are immersed in our own culture, we do not know all of our own
culture. In all societies there are bodies of specialized cultural knowledge that are gender
specific. There are even bodies of knowledge that are limited to particular social classes,
certain occupations, religious groups and other societal groupings.

21
Gender based skills stem from the part that boys and girls undergo differentiated sex
typing. Although there are overlaps in many societies, there are certain tasks that are
gender specific. In African societies, boys are usually taught to be protectors of the
society, to acquire property, to be the heads of households, to look after cattle, to hunt etc
while girls are taught household chores like cooking, milking, cleaning etc.. In the
contemporary African society, things are changing but there are still distinctions. In
urban areas, men are more likely to know where to acquire what property, how to fix a
car or a computer while women are better on the keyboard, finer distinction in fabric and
fashion

In the world of professions, there are specialized terminologies, tools and theories. Social
workers, lawyers, medical doctors, the police etc are numerous technical terms in their
professions. To make it even more obscure for outsiders, professionals use abbreviation
to refer to their technical terms.

Activity
 Identify an abbreviation used by the following professionals:
doctors, accountants, social workers, lawyers and the police.
 What are some of the abbreviations or technical terms that
sociologists or anthropologists use?

3.6.6 The Permissible Behaviour Patterns

Cultures allow a range of ways in which ‘men can be men and women can be women’
Culture regulates how various activities should be carried out e.g what is expected of a
husband, wife, son, daughter, grandfather, clan elder etc. These rules of responsible
behaviour are usually flexible.2 What is expected of the various categories identified
above in a rural setting in Kenya would be far different in the towns and cities. For
instance, while grandparents may still have many responsibilities and influence in the
rural areas, the few who live with their married sons and daughters in the cities have
fairly little influence over their children except in situations where they support the
children financially.

2
http://authro.palomar.edu/culture-z.http page 6)

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In multiethnic and multi-religious country like Kenya, there are various expectations for
men and women within these categories. Muslims for instance have a dress code for both
men and women as well as elaborate rules of conduct.

What different cultures allow as acceptable behaviour can lead to a clash of cultures. For
instance, the casual revealing dress of young North American and European women in
the summertime is often interpreted outsiders as a sexual invitation or provocation. In
Nairobi, women have occasionally been ridiculed/attacked by men for dressing in a
‘provocative manner’ or for not being decently’ dressed. For the women usually
attacked for being in short/mini skirts, they fell that a modern city like Nairobi should not
have restrictions on what to wear and not to wear. Under the Taliban rule in Afghanistan,
in the 1990’s men would be punished for not having a full beard or allowing female
family members to go out in public unchaperoned or women were expected to cover their
face, body and feet while in public.

3.6.7 Cultures Don’t Exist in Isolation

There are virtually no societies still in isolation. Even in Kenya the Dorobo, Elamalo are
not in isolation. The integrative role of the state, improvement in infrastructure and
globalisation have intensified the interaction among different cultures. Many tribal
societies that previously lived in remote places virtually unaware of what existed beyond
their homelands are no more. Western Europe and North America have been extremely
influential in shaping the cultural values and economies of the world. China is also
emerging as an economic powerhouse around the world. As the Chinese penetrate new
markets, they also bring in their language and culture. The University of Nairobi is now
teaching Chinese language, something that was unimaginable in the 1980s.

The convergence and interactions of cultures is not likely to undermine the survival of the
current major cultures the same way many small indigenous ones have. Language
differences, different values and ethnocentrism will continue to safeguard most cultures.
The anti-westernization crusade in the newsline world for instance will show down the
adaptation of certain western values in that part of the world and in the process pressure
Muslim culture.

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As many people embrace globalism, others are reviving ethnic identities. In Kenya, the
crusade for a loose federal state, ‘majimbo’ is partly intended to create ethnically based
provinces. The disintegration of Yugoslavia, Czheckslovakia and the Soviet Union to
create largely ethnic based nations is also a reverse process of cultural/ethnic integration.
It is important to stress however that a group that seeks autonomy does not intend to be
isolated.

3.7 Elements of Culture

‘Elements’ refers to the stuff of which culture is made, the component of culture. They
include material elements, elements of social structure, sentimental elements/social value,
activity elements, symbolic elements and beliefs, knowledge/intellectual elements.

3.7.1 Material Elements: This refers to tools, utensils, buildings and artefacts that are
used by a group of people to tame the environment. Material culture consists of the
artificial arrangement of matter and space relations. Archaeologists can distinguish
different past cultures by simply studying the remains of their material culture. All
cultures have material elements, some quite distinct and unique while others cut across
cultures.

3.7.2 Element of Social Structure

Cultures have laws governing social relations. There are guidelines on property, the
structure of government, the relationships within families/clans, religion, schools, rituals
etc. Different government systems are organised differently; e.g the US presidential
system compared to the British parliamentary system and a monarch or the French mix of
a parliamentary system and a presidential system.

All cultures have rules governing social relations of authority, representation, lections
and responsibilities between and among persons and institutions.

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3.7.3 Sentimental Elements/Social Values
Values are basic guidelines for good and desired behaviour. They are vague principles
that beliefs are based upon. Beliefs on their part are particular ideas that a group of
people hold as true. Cultures approve and disapprove certain things. For instance,
virtually all cultures approve of personal cleanliness, kindness, respect for the old and
disapprove theft/robbery and killing of fellowmen/women. Cultures shape peoples
attitude towards certain things. Each culture has mores (taboos of morality) or persons
that have ethical importance. They are then written code of rules and values which
governs personal behaviour and maintains certain institutions e.g the family and religion,
as sacred and inviolate.

Norms (rules) ensure that values are observed in society. Norms establish what is
considered rude in each culture.

3.7.4 Activity Elements/Skills

Cultures teach various focus of body movements either for economic purposes or for
entertainment. During, football, drumming etc are transmitted from one generation to
another as part of culture. The skill to keep cattle, to fill land, to build a house/hut, to
kick a ball etc are taught consistently to ensure that there is productivity and sustenance
of society/a group.

3.7.5 Symbolic Elements

Symbols are an important elements of culture. They are the foundation upon which all
other components are built. Symbols range from behaviour, gestures, language and the
alphabet. Symbols are assigned particular meanings that are recognized by everyone that
shares in that particular culture. Language is one of the important symbols. It is a
complex system of symbols used so that people can communicate with one another. It is
one of the most effective methods used to pass culture down to the next generation.
However, the way people perceive their world is limited to their language; the Maasai are
likely to have many different terminologies for cattle while the Eskimos are said to have
over a hundred different words for snow (since snow affects so much of their lines).

25
The purpose of symbols is to bring the world of reality under more effective and more
permanent control.

3.7.6 Beliefs, Knowledge/Intellectual Elements

Cultures are composed of belief systems and indigenous knowledge. Different cultures
will have different belief systems depending on whether they are western European,
Eastern European, Arab, Chinese, American. African Christian, Muslim or Hindu.
Within these groupings there are also variations.

Different cultures have also produced different pieces of knowledge. There has been
many technological breakthroughs from America, Europe, Japan, South Korea and China.
Indigenous medicines from Africa and Latin America have shaped the global world of
medicine. It is important also to note that beliefs that are a science to one culture may
seem magical to another culture/setting.

3.8 Variations in Culture

The question as to why different cultures came about is a fundamental one. There are
various explanations for cultural environment, inborn, racial qualities, population
densities, culture history.

3.8.1 Physical Environment

Culture has always been shaped by the geographical setting where a group of people live.
When they migrate, certain aspects of their culture also change. Groups that have lived
near lakes or seas e.g the Luo and coastal groups have a fishing culture. Those who have
lived in arable lands practice agriculture, those in arid lands pastoralism, bee keeping and
hunting etc.

The extent to which people are influenced by their physical environment has certain
limits and contradictions. Outsiders tend to find Arabs inhabiting deserts dressed rather
heavily for the hot weather, while the Luo of Nyanza appear not to have taken advantage
of their arable land and rainfall to produce as much food as their Kisii neighbours.

26
3.8.2 Inborn ‘Racial’ Qualities
This is a controversial explanation. Although touted by some western scholars as an
explanation for cultural variations and human advancement the insinuation that some
groups appear to have had a greater prosperity and potential for advancement is
outrightly racist. To say that a group of people are innately superior simply because they
have made superior achievements and discoveries or inferior because they did not make
such achievements ignores more logical explanations like the influences of the
environment and any social economic and political barriers that may have disadvantaged
certain groups.

3.8.3 Population Densities

The quantity of the population in relation to resources appears to influence cultural
variation.

As population increases, people become innovative in terms of resource mobilization and

utilization. Population growth compels countries to make housing regulations and rent
laws, and often violate the principles of personal liberty. On the other hand, under
population can discourage a government to improve infrastructure in a given area. The
failure to construct roads or railways means that such areas will not be fully exposed to
external influences. “Overpopulation” has led to statutory regulation on births in China
and India. Through out history growth in population has led to such innovations like
irrigation, and long distance trade as well as changes in social structure, norms and
values.

3.8.4 Explanation in Terms of Culture History

Different groups have experienced different things in their history which have been
passed from one generation to the next. Existing cultural situation, with its tools,
techniques, social organization, mores (norms), beliefs and knowledge systems can all be
shaped by external influence. Certain personalities in a groups’ history can be
responsible for great changes in human affairs and practices e.g. Hitler, George
Washington, Koitalel Arap Samoiei, Lenana etc.

27
Closeness to a different culture usually leads to diffusion; contact between neighboring
groups has always existed. The long history of interaction between the Kikuyu and the
Maasai for instance, has had evident impact on both groups.

3.9 The Role of Culture in Development

Using the modernization model, development can be defined as economic, social and
political progress. To put it simply, it is a way of devising means of dealing with what a
given society identifies as its problems. It is aimed at improving a people’s quality of life
through among other things, improved housing, health, education, water supply,
communication, roads, and security. The ability to cope with a society’s problems
therefore can be seen as development. Since most of the attributes of development
mentioned have implications on technology, a technologically advanced society or
country is therefore regarded more developed than others. This also means that
‘development’ is relative and comparative. Today, Kenya in particular and Africa in
general is regarded as ‘un’- and ‘under-developed’ simply because it is rated against
other countries. One of the biggest stumbling blocks to ‘development’ in Africa has been
the process and relations through which what is widely regarded as development unfolds.

3.10 Why Link Culture and Development?

Culture is both the context for development as well as the missing factor in policies for
development. Countries like Japan are said to have progressed technologically and
economically because of among other things, basing their aspirations on cultural values.
On the other hand, ‘development’ based on the western model was seen as inconsistent
with African values and culture. That is partly why Africans were encouraged to shed
their culture in order to progress socially, economically and politically.

The basic reason why culture and development are associated is because a people’s way
of life can facilitate the diffusion of new ideas or be an impediment. There are cultures
that are more conservative than others or that are more pervasive (controlling many
aspects of one’s daily life e.g. Islam) than others. Scholars agree that when it comes to
development, culture matters. For example, culture can be used as a political tool to
perpetuate an oppressive system of government that may not be accommodative to the

28
generation and diffusion of new ideas. For instance, the former President of Kenya,
Daniel Moi introduced queue-voting in 1998 to replace the secret ballot. His government
dubbed the new method “African”. It was to emerge that the idea was to find an easier
way of rigging out those progressive elements in parliament that were opposed to his
government. Besides, when the daughter of the late Robert Kennedy criticized Moi, the
then president said that was unacceptable and “un-African”. He said that apparently,
young women cannot caution “elders” in Africa!

An examination of minorities around the world appear to suggest that culture plays a role
in people’s development. The Chinese have excelled in business in Malaysia, the
Lebanese in West Africa and the Indians in the UK and East Africa. Could it be that these
groups have an entrepreneurial culture? Is there a link between culture and economic
performance? While this might appear to be the case, there are always contradictions.
Although Kenyans of Indian origin may dominate the Kenyan economy, there are also
pockets of indigenous Africans who have ventured into large commercial enterprises.
After all, the Yao of Tanzania and the Kamba of Kenya for example were some of the
most enterprising groups in the lucrative long distance trade to the East African coast in
the 19th and early 20th centuries. There are also some Kenyan groups that have turned
traditional practices into lucrative enterprises e.g. the Kamba specialization in wood
carving, the Kisii and soapstone works etc.

Nethertheless, there are some practices that are seen to be an impediment to ‘progress’ as
prescribed in the modernization theory. Some of the cultural practices that appear not to
facilitate faster economic and social progress include:
 Rain fed agriculture, subsistence farming (limited cash crop farming) and
pastoralism (keeping cattle as a way of life and nomadism).
 A weak entrepreneurial ethic. It is argued that when Africans make money, either
in politics or in sports, many put it either in non-productive endeavors or in areas
that don’t generate more capital for reinvestment or hardly creates jobs e.g.
housing and land. What this accusation ignores is the question of an enabling
environment for the creation of wealth.

29
 Rites of passage e.g. moranhood and women circumcision (FGM) which partly
contribute to early marriages
 Ethnicity/tribalism/nepotism in public appointments other than meritocracy
 A post colonial poor human rights record. Questions have been asked: Is there an
African notion of human rights? Is human rights culture specific? In general,
traditional African society embodies values that are consistent with and
supportive of human rights. The main obstacles to the observation of HR lies not
in traditional African values but in the problems arising from colonial rule e.g. the
system of indirect rule where Africans were governed in directly by their own
chiefs who were given enormous powers.
 A culture of corruption? One has to look at the question of structures. It is clear
that while corruption has been rampant in Kenya and Africa in general, this
menace is global. The only difference is that it impacts a lot on Africa’s meager
resources and that we have weaker checks and balances.
 Language barriers-strains in communication. This is compounded by low literacy
rate
 The “African” concept of time! Kenyans, and indeed Africans have also been said
to be the poor keepers of time. Mazrui popularly remarked that “we put on
watches but we don’t look at them”. The question of keeping time has to be traced
back to how life is organized in Kenya. In a rural setting, where most Kenyans
have spent most of their formative years, punctuality is not a virtue-it is not even
possible because few people neither have nor can afford watches. There are other
ways used to determine time-e.g. the position of the sun. Literacy is also a factor.
And does one need to keep time anyway? Are there penalties/sanctions? For
example, those who work with banks and other private enterprises in towns have
no choice but observe time. The context is therefore very important.

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Although Africans have been accused of having certain practices that are an impediment
to progress, there are also good values that can facilitate faster economic and social
development. These include:
 Family values: It is assumed that the relatively stable family structures in African
societies could be a basis for a strong economy
 Interethnic and religious coexistence/tolerance
 Care of the environment/ecosystem e.g. the Maasai care of wildlife or the Ogiek’s
symbiotic relationship with forests
 Women leadership-although women are bogged down by many historical, social
cultural factors, many Kenyans are not opposed to women leadership
 Language- Language is important because speakers express their relationship
among themselves and with their world through their language. Although local
tongues are spoken among ethnic groups, many Kenyans can communicate in the
national language, Swahili, and a sizeable proportion have also mastered the
official language, English.

Activity
 What is culture?
 Using a cultural group you are familiar with, identify the
characteristics of culture.
 What are the elements of culture?
 What is the difference between characteristics and elements of
culture?
 Identify and discuss the explanation for variations in culture.
 Using relevant examples, discuss the role of culture in Kenya’s
development.

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 LECTURE FOUR

LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

Lecture Outline
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Introduction to Language and Communication
4.4 Human versus Animal Community
4.5 Nonverbal Communication
4.6 The Structure of Language
4.7 Sign Language
4.8 Cyberspace and Communication

4.2 Objectives
By the end of the lecture, you should be able to:
1. Compare and contrast human and animal communication
2. Describe nonverbal communication
3. Show the significance of nonverbal communication
4. Describe the structure of language
5. Show the application of sign language
6. Discuss the impact of cyberspace

4.3 Introduction to Language and Communication

The brain has instinct for communication. We are born with the ability to perceive and
learn language which is the primary means of communication. Language developed over
hundreds of thousand years. Language permits the information stored by a Human
society to exceed by far that of any non-human group. It is uniquely effective vehicle for
learning.

Like culture, language is transmitted through learning. It is based on arbitrary learned

associations between words and the things for which they stand. It helps human beings to
share experiences and talk about the future. Linguistic anthropology is interested not

32
only in the development of languages but also ancient languages through which they
reconstruct history.

4.4 Human versus Animal Communication

Animals use what is called call system-only human beings speak. Such calls may be
varied in intensity and duration but are not as flexible as language. There is a famous
story about Viki, a chimpanzee raised by a family in the 1950’s as a member of the
family. Although the chimp was taught how to speak, Viki learned only four words –
‘mama’, ‘papa’, ‘up’, ‘ cup’. But unlike humans, animals communicate a lot through
odours, using scent to mark territories-chemical means of communication. In western
culture, perfume and deodorants are based on the assumptions that the sense of smell
plays a role in communication. That you influence the way people treat you simply by
the sense of smell.

4.5 Non-Verbal Communication

Human beings are not limited to verbal communication. There are other many ways of
transmitting and receiving information. These include facial expressions, eye contacts,
bodily stances, gestures, movements (walking styles), dressing styles etc. Maintaining a
direct eye contact with another person can be interpreted to mean many things and
sometimes appear to follow gender lines. Studies done in America showed that while
girls and women tend to look directly at each other when talking, boys and men do not.
The study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures and facial
expressions is called kinesics. Non verbal communication is not necessarily used alone
but combined with verbal communication for better communication. This is particularly
important when we want to emphasize something or to communicate our mood (sadness,
happiness, regret etc – just imagine how much you would lose out if you only listened to
a person without seeing their facial expressions, gestures, body movements etc. Culture
teaches us that certain body movements should accompany speech. In some cultures,
people gesture a lot (Italians) while in others people smile a lot as they talk. Across
cultures, gestures mean different things. From the Movie “the gods must be crazy” you
could see that nodding does not always mean affirmative nor does head shaking from one
side to side mean negative. While many people point with their fingers, the people from

33
Madagascar point with their lips. In many cultures, men have firmer hand shakes than
women. In Kenya, there are some notable differences in the way people shake their
hands.

4.6 The Structure of Language

The Scientific study of language involves phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax.
Phonology is the study of speech sounds and is concerned with which sounds are present
and important in a given language.

Morphology is the study of the forms in which sounds combine to form morphemes –
words and their meaningful parts e.g. cars contains two morphemes – a car- as the name
of a kind of machine and –s- as a morpheme indicating plural. A language’s lexicon is a
dictionary containing all its morphemes and their meanings e.g. the Oxford English
Dictionary. Syntax – is the arrangement and order of words in phrases and sentences. It
is through syntax that we learn whether nouns come after verbs etc

Speech sounds – it is through speech sounds that we can tell the nationality or ethnic
group of a person who speaks a language that we are familiar with. If you hear
somebody say ‘problems’, ‘homo’, ‘denominason’, ‘ket’, ‘glass’, etc or in the U. S. the
English spoken by Afro Americans is often disputed as standard English – but ‘ebonics’
e.g. instead of saying ‘he is tired’ you say ‘he tired’; you form certain opinions about
their ethnicities. It is important to note that we often write the way we pronounce things
– ‘individuals’, ‘where/were’ etc. A phoneme is a sound contrast that is usually close but
makes a difference/differentiates meaning e.g. ‘g’ and ‘k’ or ‘r’ and ‘l’, ‘get/ket’,
‘raw/law’, ‘pit/bit’ etc. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds in general while
phonemics studies only the significant sound contrasts (phonemes) of a given language.

4.7 Sign Language

There are other means of communication other than speech e.g. sign Language used by
deaf and mute people as well as to communicate with a wide range of ages. Sign
language employs a number of gestures that are analogous to sounds in spoken language.
Although sign language is learnt in formal schools, groups develop their own ways of

34
communicating with their deaf members of their community. It is one of the most
effective ways of integrating such people in social life. In most industrialized countries,
it is used in many forums like seminars, conferences, meetings, rallies and on television
to ensure that those challenges in speech are not only communicated to but can also
participate/contribute/give feed back.

How many of you know sign language?

Research has shown that apes can learn how to use language; particularly sign language.
Sign language uses certain gestures that are analogous to sounds in spoken language.
Many chimpanzees, gorillas, monkeys and baboons learn sign language quite easily.
Apes generally just like humans, have the linguistic ability to produce language. They
have the ability to build on learnt sign language – they are able to combine isolated signs
to build new signs. Apes also have demonstrated linguistic displacement – the ability to
talk or communicate about things that are not present – which is very different from the
call system which is limited by place/are situational.

4.8 Cyberspace and Communication

Cyberspace is the navigation of the world via computer. This is regarded as the new
realm of communication. It is part of what is called advanced information technology –
which include Computer Hardware and software, modems, telephone systems (including
cell phones and use of SMS), cable TV, Satellite dishes, fax etc. AIT has played a key
role in enhancing communication and connecting people world wide and is one of the
drive force in globalization. However, access to AIT is un equal among nations and
peoples. The third world countries have poorer access compared to industrialized
countries like North America, Western Europe, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New
Zealand, even with developed countries, some economic, demographic and cultural
factors affect access to and use of cyberspace.

35
Activity
1. Compare and contrast human and animal communication
2. What is non-verbal communication and in what situation do we
use it?
3. In your class setting or in the streets in town, what are some of
the non-verbal communication techniques do you observe?
4. What is the significance of non-verbal communication
5. Describe the structure of language
6. What is sign-language?
7. What is cyberspace? From your experience, what is the
significance of cyberspace in human communication?

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 LECTURE FIVE
ETHNICITY
Lecture Outline
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Definition of the Term Ethnicity
5.4 Ethnic Conflict
5.5 Peaceful Coexistence
5.6 Multi Culturalism

5.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be in a position to:
1. Define the term ethnicity
2. Define ethnic groups and race
3. Compare and contrast ethnic groups and race
4. Discuss ethnic markers, identities and statuses
5. Describe the relationship among ethnic groups, nations and
nationalities
6. Discuss the root causes of ethnic conflict
7. Discuss how ethnic conflicts can be resolved
8. Define interethnic coexistence
9. Demonstrate how interethnic coexistence is attained

5.3 Definition of Ethnicity

Ethnicity has various definitions Kottak defines it as identifying with, and feeling part of
an ethnic group (2002:29)

Smith (181:66) is cited by Cottam and Cottam (2001) as defining an ethnic groups as “a
social group whose members share a sense of common origin, claim a common and
destructive history and destroy, poses ones of more destructive characteristics and feel a
sense of collective uniqueness and solidarity”.
 The term “ethnic group” is found to be more acceptable than “tribe” which is
associated with colonialism; but Baumann (1996) avers that most Europeans

37
 would be upset if they were categorized as belonging to a certain ethnic group. In
American society, ‘ethnicity’ is interchangeable with being ‘black’ with a
tendency not to categorise other ‘white’ groupings as ethnic.
 In Kenya, ethnic groups are either refereed to as ‘tribes’ or ‘communities’. In
Kenya and other British colonies, names of ethnic groups were often adopted in
naming their traditional homelands; where the Kisii lived, was named Kisii
District, where the Meru lived, Meru District, where the Samburu inhabited,
Samburu District etc.
 Some of the earlier references to ‘ethnicity’ can be traced to Max Weber’s Ethnic
Groups’ in his book “Economy and Society” according to him, and ethnic group
is a political community that inspires the relief in common ethnicity.
 The first reference to the term ethnic to African society is said to have been done
by Seligman in 1936.

In ethnicity debates, these are primordial (involuntary) and pragmatic approaches.

Primordial is a perspective that stresses predisposition and cultural distinction in
which one’s ethnic is taken as ‘inhiral’ or as a social fact peoples cultural
differences based on language, tradition, religion and ethnic roots are assumed to
be by nature.
 The primordial approach is associated with the works of Geertz (1973) Gutkind
(1970) and Cohen (1969) among others. They talk about ethnic groups as
constituting people whose identities are primarily grounded in existential feelings
or “primordial sentiments”.
 In some countries, ethnicity is still defined in this sense. In Canada, being Indian
is defined in law through blood descent – Roosens (1987) notes. “ A child of two
full blood Indians is, without any doubt, an Indian, but one who deviates too
much from this ideal is not”.
 In conventional considerations, this is the commonest way of defining who is a
member of an ethnic group

38
Pragmatic Consideration
 Fredrick Barth led the way in the adoption of a discourse that treats ethnicity
and ethnic groups as constructed
 He argued that ethnic groups set boundaries, which tend to shift depending on
the social, political and economic context.
 Schlee (1996) wrote about the principle of inclusion and exclusion that
identifies those who can and cant be group members – you might be ‘Kikuyu’
but if you are wealth, you may as well be accepted as a “Maasai’ etc.
 Ethnicity is relative and is a social resource manipulated by actors depending
on who has the power to influence the flow or access to scarce resources.
People can change their ethnic identity if they can profit by doing so.

Status
 Any position no matter the prestige that one occupies in society.
 Some statuses are ascribed – people have little or no choice – e.g Race and
ethnicity from biological sense.

Achieve statuses – through talents, choice, actions and efforts. An ethnic group can fight
for a more elevated status in society – e.g the blacks in South Africa and the US also, as
noted earlier, people can always negotiate their social identity.

Nations – Originally synonymous with an ethnic group/tribe it is still debatable what

constitutes a ‘nation’ and the level homogeneity necessary; is it a cultural society?

Nationalities
 These are ethnic groups that have autonomous political status
 Nationalities are imagined communities – Anderson (1991) – they can only
imagine that they participate in the same groups.

State – an independent centrally organized political unit.

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5.4 Ethnic Conflict
 Instrumentalisation of ethnicity
 Competition over scarce resources competing modes
 Political power
 External influences and colonial powers

5.5 Peaceful Co-existence

Ethnic distinctions can be maintained despite generations of interethnic contact. Plural
society is defined as “A society combining ethnic contrasts ecological specialization and
the economics specialization of those groups” (Kottak 2002:303: citing Barth (1968).
Ethnic boundaries are not stable and enduring when different ethnic occupy different
ecology zones. They can survive without competition. Under such conditions ethnic
diversity can easily be maintained. In Kenya, over 40 ethnic groups lead fairly distinct
life styles and have different cultural values and norms but live together and interact
together as Kenyans. Although there are inter-marriages and multilingualism many have
Kenyans groups have maintained their identities and inhabits distinct geographical area.

5.6 Multi Culturalism

Multiculturalism contrasts sharply with assimilation. Multiculturalism encourages the
practice of many cultures. It is a situation where many different groups of peoples are
socialized into a national culture as their particular ethnic cultures.

In many multi-cultural societies people speak more than one language and eat
“American” e.g hamburgers and other traditional foods e.g Chinese, Indian, etc.
Multicultalism works best in a society whose political systems promote human freedom
and where there are many diverse ethnic groups (Kottak, 2002:300). From this
description, would you consider Kenya a multicultural society? Many parts of the world
are experiencing revival of ethnic identity. This is contrary to the expectations by many
national governments that ethnic distinctions should decrease with more integration of
the nations states. Some of these revivals have even led to disintegration of states,
creation of new states or increased agitation for autonomy. While some groups have
resolved this problems peacefully e.g creation of Czech Republic and Slovakia from what

40
used to be (Czechoslovakia), others have been violent e.g disintegration of former
Yugoslavia. In other countries e.g Spain and Canada the Basques and the French of
Quebec have been fighting for greater autonomy respectfully. These are examples of
situations where groups of diverse cultures have been able to coexist peacefully for a
wide range of reasons. The quest for greater autonomy and recognition is due to a wide
range of reasons notably, domination, inadequacy of or no representation in national
governments, discrimination and prejudice, unequal distribution of resources and
restriction on group’s freedom to observe religious and cultural practices.

Activity
1. Can you define the term ethnicity?
2. Can you distinguish between ethnics groups and race?
3. What are ethnic markets?
4. What kind of ethnic markers can you identify from your ethnic
group?
5. In what situations/context are ethnic groups nations?
6. What is ethnic conflict?
7. What are the causes of ethnic conflict?
8. Discuss how ethnic conflicts can be resolved
9. What is interethnic co-existence?
10. Does coexistence propose the absence of conflicts?

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 LECTURE SIX
MARRIAGE, THE FAMILY, KINSHIP AND DESCENT

Lecture Outline
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Marriages
6.3.1 Incest and Exogamy
6.3.2 Endogamy
6.3.3 Homogamy
6.3.4 Caste
6.3.5 Royal Incest
6.3.6 Bride Wealth
6.3.7 Dowry
6.3.8 Sororate Arrangements
6.3.9 Levirate
6.3.10 Divorce
6.4 Nuclear and Extended Families
6.4.1 Nuclear Family
6.4.2 Descent Groups
6.4.3 Geneological Kin Types and Kin Terms

6.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be in a position to:
1. Identify various types of marriages
2. Describe the various types of marriages
3. Describe nuclear and extended families
4. Describe lineage, clans and residence rules
5. Identify and describe descent groups
6. Describe genealogical kin types and kin terms
7. Discuss the challenges facing marriage and the family in Kenya

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6.3 Marriages
Royal Anthropological Institute defines marriage thus: a union between a man and a
woman so that the children born to the woman are recognized as legitimate offspring of
both partners.

This definition is not universally valid. Some societies for instance, recognize same-sex
marriages. In other societies, e.g. in Africa and among Muslims, marriages unite more
than two spouses (polygyny). These are plural marriages e.g. when a woman weds a
group of brothers this is called fraternal polyandry –practiced for example among
Himalayan cultures.

In some societies, one can have different multiple spouses without seeking for divorce-
e.g. through customary law, common –law, civil law and religious law.
In Kenya among the Kamba, Meru and Kisii a woman can marry another woman if she
did not get children of her own or got only daughters.

In Sudan, a Nuer woman can marry a woman if her father has only daughters but no male
heirs who are necessary for his patrilineage to survive. The daughter is asked by the
father to act like his son and ‘marry’. The bride can only have sex with a man or men
whom the ‘husband’ has approved. This is quite close to the woman-to-woman marriage
practiced among the Kamba and the Kisii.

All the groups that have this practice (the Nuer, Kamba, Kisii and Meru) social paternity
is/was treated as more important than biological paternity. This is also the case among the
Maasai where married women may have sex with their husband’s age-set colleagues.
Generally, marriage is intended to accomplish the following
 Establish the legal father of a woman’s children and the legal mother of a man’s.
 Give either or both spouses a monopoly in the sexuality of the other.
 One either or both spouses rights over the others property
 Establish a joint fund of property for the benefit of the children.
 Establish a socially significant “relationship of affinity” between spouses and
their relatives.

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6.3.1 Incest and Exogamy
In many non-industrialized societies, strangers are pofountial or actual enemies. Marriage
is one of the primary ways of converting strangers into kin of creating and maintaining
personal and political alliances and relationships of affinity.

Exogamy is the practice of seeking a husband or wife outside ones own group. It has
adaptive value because it links people into a wider social network.

In many communities in Kenya selection of suitors may not be allowed within the clan.

Incest –sexual relations with someone considered to be a close relative. All cultures have
taboos against it- but cultures define incest differently. This may for instance depend on
the way first cousins are defined and categorized.

The children of two brothers or two sisters are parallel cousins. The children of a brother
and a sister are cross cousins your mother’s sister’s children and your father’s brother’s
children are your parallel cousins. Your father’s sister’s children and your mother’s
brother’s children are your cross cousins.

Cross cousins are always members of the opposite moiety (“Half”) and parallel cousins
always belong to your own moiety with patrilineal descent, people take the father’s
descent group affiliations in a matri-lineal society they take the mother’s affiliation.
Your mother’s sister’s children and your father’s brother’s children belong to your group.

Defined as close relatives, parallel cousins are tabooed and sex or marriage partners.
They fall within the incest taboo- but cross cousins don’t. In some societies – sex with
cross cousins is at incestuous since they are not considered forbidden relatives.

Among the Yanomami of Venezuela and Brazil, men anticipate eventual marriage to a
cross cousin by calling her “wife” they call their male cross cousins “husband” and their
female cross cousins “sister –in law”.

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6.3.2 Endogamy
While exogamy pushes social organization outward, inconsistent endogamy dictate
mating or marriage within a group to which one belongs.
 Most societies are endogamous units although they do not need a formal rule
requiring people to marry someone from their own society.
 In western societies, classes and ethnic groups are quasi-endogamous groups.
Members of an ethnic or religious group often want their children to marry
within that group although many of them do not do so.

Q: How many of you cannot marry outside your ethnic group? A female student
from Kisii once told me during an interview that she would rather die single
than marry a non-Kisii!

6.3.3 Homogamy
Means to marry someone similar e.g. when member of the same social class or
race/ethnic inter-marry.

In most modern societies there is a correlation between socio-economic status (SES) and
education. People with similar SES tend to have similar educational aspirations to attend
similar schools and attain similar careers.

Homogonous marriage seems to concentrate wealth in social classes and to reinforce the
system of social stratification.

6.3.4 Caste
This is an extreme example of endogamy practiced in India which was formally
abolished in 1949 but has not died out. Castes are stratified groups in which
membership, is ascribed at birth and is lifelong- they are grouped into five major
categories (vasua) each is ranked relative to the other 4. Each vasua includes a large
number of subcastes (jati). A community may include castes of agricultural workers,
merchants, artisans priests and sweepers. The untouchable vasua- includes subcastes
whose ancestry, mutual status and occupations are considered so impure that higher caste
people consider even casual contact with untouchable as defiling.

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6.3.5 Royal Incest
It is similar to caste endogamy. Best-known examples are from India, Peru, ancient Egypt
and traditional Hawaii. There cultures allowed royal brothers sister marriage.

6.3.6 Bride Wealth

This is a customary gift before at or after marriage.
 In societies with descent group people don’t enter marriage alone but with
the help of the descent group.
 Descent –group members have to contribute to the bride wealth. Another
word for bride wealth is bridepoke, which is inaccurate since people who
practice this custom don’t regard the exchange as a sale.
 Bride wealth compensates the brides group for the loss of her
companionship and labour. It also makes the children born to the woman
full members of her husband’s descent group.

6.3.7 Dowry
Is a marital exchange in which the wife’s group provides substantial gifts to the
husband’s family. Dowry is usually practiced in India and is associated with low female
status. Women are perceived as burdens and therefore when husbands and their families
take a wife, they expect to be compensated for the added responsibility.
India passed a law in 1961 against compulsory dowry but the practice continues. When
the dowry is considered insufficient, the bride may be harassed and abused.

6.3.8 Sororate Arrangements

This is where if a married women dies young, the husbands family/group asks the wife’s
family for a substitute often his sister. If the deceased had no sister or if all are married
another woman from her group is made available. This practice ensures that the
bridegrooms family cannot claim its bride wealth back and that the alliances between the
two families continue.

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6.3.9 Levirate
In societies if the husband dies young, the widow may marry his brother. Just like
sororate, it is a continuations marriage that maintains the alliance between descent
groups. In some cases marriage does not involve cohabitation of the widow and her new
husband. Although wife- inheritance among the Luo has been popularized –levirate
arrangements are common among Kenyan societies.

6.3.10 Divorce
This varies across cultures
 Marriages that are political alliances between groups are more difficult to
dissolve.
 Divorce tends to be more common in matrilineal than in patrilineal societies.
 In the so-called ‘traditional’ societies divorce is generally rare.
 In modern societies Industrialized societies divorce is quite common. In
Germany for example 2 in every 5 marriages ends up in divorce.
 Marriages have been complicated by the idea that romantic love is necessary for
a good marriage – so when there is no love, the marriage may be terminated.
 Other causes include
o Barrenness/impotence
o Unfaithfulness
o Change in social status
o Incompatibility –religion, social class, ethnicity etc.

6.4 Nuclear and Extended Families

6.4.1 Nuclear Family
Usually consisting of two parents (mother and father) and their immediate children. It
lasts only as long as the parents and children remain together. Since many societies
persuit divorce, some people establish more than one family through marriage.

From an individual point of view the critical relationships are with parents and siblings in
the family of orientation (when and with spouse and children in the family of procreation
(formed when one masses and has children).

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Nuclear family organization is widespread but not universal. In some societies, it is rare
or non-existent. Other social units like descent groups and extended families assume
most or all of the functions carried out by nuclear families. Due to industrialization
however, the extended families are threatened.

Many married couples today live where they can find work –often away from their
parents. This postmarital residence pattern is called neolocality – is where married
coupled are expected to establish a new place of residence. The family among Foragers
those who ascertain food by searching – gathers.

Even among hunters and gatherers the nuclear family is often the most significant kin
group. Unlike most societies with modern economies foragers usually don’t reside
neolocally. Instead they join a band in which either the husband or the wife has relatives
couples and families may move from one band to another several times. Hunting is
particularly done in bands/groups and then the meat is shared out.

In some hunting communities in Kenya, hunting groups are not necessarily related by
blood. This could be neighbours/villagemates. The older men organize such hunting
exercises. Those who know how to kill an animal may get large portion of the carcass as
reward.

6.4.2 Descent Groups

A descent group is a permanent social unit whose member shares ancestors. Often,
descent group membership is determined at birth and is life long.

There is matrilineal and patrilineal descent. Matrilineal descent is where you join the
mother’s group automatically at birth. Matrilineal descent groups therefore include only
the children of the group’s women. Partilineal descent which is more common people
automatically have lifetime membership in the fathers group. The children of all the
group’s men join the group but the children of the female members of that group are
excluded. Matrilineal and patrilineal descents are types of unilineal descent.

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6.4.3 Geneological Kin Types and Kin Terms
Kin terms are the words used for different relatives in a particular language. Geneological
kin type refers to an actual genealogical relationship (for example, mother’s sister) as
opposed to a kin term (e.g. aunt). Kin terms are used to denote the social construction of
kinship in a given culture. A kin term could lump together a number of genealogical
relationships. For example, uncle lumps together mother’s and father’s brothers while
father could mean biological father, stepfather or even a priest. There is a wide range of
symbols used to denote kinship and genealogy. For instance, ∆ is a symbol for male, Ο
stands for female, = means, married to, and ≠ stands for is divorced from.
People perceive and define kin relations differently depending on the cultural
background.

Activity
1. Can you identify at least 3 types of marriages?
2. Why are some marriages not common in Kenya?
3. To what extent are Kenyan families becoming nucleated?
4. What is a lineage and what is its significance in society?
5. What are descent groups?
6. What is kinship?
7. What is a patrilineal /matrilineal society?
8. From your reading and experience, what are some of the
challenges facing marriage and the family in Kenya?
9. In what ways can such challenges be addressed?

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 LECTURE SEVEN

GENDER
Lecture Outline
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Definition of Gender
7.4 Gender Among Matrilocal and Society
7.5 Gender Among matrilineal and Matrifocal Societies
7.6 Sexuality in Western Culture
7.7 African Societies
7.8 Homosexuality
7.9 Patriarchy and Violence

7.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be in a position to:
1. Define the term gender
2. Discuss gender among foragers
3. Discuss gender among matrilineal and matrifocal societies
4. Discuss gender among patrilineal/patrilocal societies
5. Evaluate patriarchy and violence

7.3 Definition of Gender

Men and women differ genetically women have two X chromosomes and men have an X
and a Y. The father determines the baby’s sex because he has the Y chromosome. The
chromosomal difference is expressed in hormonal and physiological contrasts. Men and
women differ not just in primary characteristics (e.g. genitalia and reproductive organs)
and secondary characteristics (e.g. breasts, voice, hair distribution) but also in average
weight height strength and longeisty. Women tend to live longer than men and have
better endurance capabilities. Men tend to be taller and weigh more than women but to
what extent do such genetically and physiologically determined differences go? How
about culture? To what extent does culture influence the actions of men and women in a
given society?

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Many of the behavioural and attitudinal differences between the sexes emerge from
culture rather than biology. Sex differences are biological but gender encompasses all the
traits a culture assigns to and inculcates in males and females. Gender refers to the
cultural construction of male and female characteristics.

Gender role- are the tasks and activities that a culture assigns to the sexes- but these
‘roles’ are not static and keep on being transformed. Many Kenyan men would not cook
just about 40 years ago but many cook today. There are also male nurses today, male
secretaries, women mechanics etc.

Gender stereotypes- these are over simplified but strongly held ideas about the
characteristics of males and females “The problem with men/women is …..” married
women are …..” educated women are problematic as waves” etc

Gender stratification - this is the unequal distribution of rewards (socially valued

resources prestige, power etc between men and women neglecting their different position
in a social hierarchy for a long time, research on stratification was gender blind’ it was
written as though women did not exist. Women were ignored when analyzing divisions of
powers wealth and prestige. There are hardly any societies where men don’t have more
wealth, status and influence than women. Inequalities of gender are deeper rooted
historically, than class systems even in hunting and gathering societies men have superior
standing to women. Modern fames, the material position of women tends to reglect that
of their fathers or husbands –which implies that gender inequalities have to be explained
in class terms.

7.4 Gender Among Matrilocal and Society

Economic roles affect gender stratification. Some studies have shown that gender
stratification decreases when men and women make roughly equal contribution to
subsistence. Gender stratification would be greatest when women contributed either
much more or much less than men do. This applies mainly in food producing societies. In
foraging (hunter/fishers) societies gender stratification was most marked when men
contributed much more to the diet than women did. Among gatherers, gender

51
stratification was different from hunters and fishers. Gathering, which is usually a
women’s work, usually supplies more food than hunting and fishing. Women may do
some fishing and hunt small animals when gathering is prominent, gender status tends to
be more equals than it is when hunting and fishing are the main subsistence activities.
Gender status is also more equal when domestic and public spheres aren’t sharply
separated. The home and the outside world are usually contrasted through the so-called
domestic public dichotomy- often when domestic and public spheres are clearly
separated, public activities have greater prestige than domestic ones- since men are more
likely to be active in the public domain, this intensifies gender stratification. Hunter-
gatherers have less gender stratification than food producers because the domestic public
dichotomy is more developed among good producers. Food producers usually assign, the
arduous tasks of carrying water and firewood and pounding grain to women.

In foraging societies, women are either pregnant or lactating during most of their child
bearing period. This should limit their activity and movement. But among the Agata of
the Philippines women gather and hunt with dogs while carrying their babies.
There are foraging societies however where gender roles are interchangeable –men may
gather food and collect water- e.g. among the Ju/’hoansi.

7.5 Gender among Matrilineal and Matrilocal Societies

Among cultivators with matrilineal descent and matrilocality (residence after marriage
with the wife’s relatives so that children grow up in the mothers village) –female status
tends to be high.

Matrilinity and matrilocality disperse related males rather than consolidating them.
Patrilinity and patrilocality (residence after marriage with the husbands kin) keep male
relatives together –which is important during warfare. Women obviously have a lot of
influence in matrilineal, matrilocal societies. They determine – descent group
membership, succession to political positions, allocation of land, and overall social
identity. Matrilocality creates solidarity chisters of female kin. The men may enjoy public
authority but much of the power and decision making usually belongs to the senior
women.

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Matrifocal societies: Matrifocal societies –(mother centred but often with no resident
husband-father) are not necessarily matrilineal some are actually patrilineal. A study by
Tanner (1974) found this practice among the 1960 of Eastern Nigeria who are patrilineal
patrilocal and polygamous (many have many wives)- each wife had her own house where
she lived with her children. Women planted crops next to their houses and traded
surpluses. Women’s associations ran the local markets while men did the long distance
trading.

Patrilineal/patrilocal societies consists of patritinity, patrilocality, warfare and male

supremacy. These systems are common in place where resources are scarce and warfare
has to be used to sustain the families. Women work hard in the farms, cook and take care
of children lent are isolated from the public domain.

As horticulture developed into agriculture, women lost their primary role as primary
cultivators. Agricultural techniques like ploughing/plowing were assigned to men
because of their strength. Studies done have shown that men may dominate upto 70% of
subsistence labour in an agricultural society. Kottak (2002) argues secures that with
agriculture, women were cut off from production for the first time changes in kinship and
post marital residence patterns are disadvantageous to women. Descent groups and
polygamy declined with agriculture and the nuclear family became more common. The
woman was isolated from her kinswomen and co-wives. Female sexuality, he argue, is
carefully supervised in agricultural economies- men have easier access to divorce and
extramarital sex.

In commercialized agriculture, many societies tend to treat the house as the female sphere
and the fields as the male domain.

7.6 Sexuality in Western Culture

For a long time western attitudes towards sexual behaviour were moulded primarily by
Christianity.

53
The dominant Christian view has been that sexual behaviour is suspect except that
needed for reproduction but many people, even believers, ignored or recited against the
churches teaching and commonly engage in fornication and adultery.

In the 19th century, argues Giddens (2001) even doctors oppressed to endorse church’s
teaching. Some argued that any type of sexual activity unconnected with reproduction
causes serious physical harm. Masturbation was said to bring on blindness, insanity, heart
disease etc while oral sex was claimed to cause cancer. Good women were believed to be
indifferent to sexuality accepting sex with their husbands only as a duty. But even during
this time, in the expanding towns and cities prostitution was rife and openly tolerated.
Even men who were viewed as need behaved and devoted to their wives regularly visited
prostitutes or kept mistresses.

Today traditional attitudes exist alongside much more liberal attitudes towards sexuality.
But those strongly influenced by Christianity still believe that premarital sex is wrong.
They believe sex should be confined within marriage and that this should only be
heterosexual.

There are many other people however who believe that sexual pleasure is desirable at
whatever stage of life-except among minors/children. Movies have become extremely
explicit while pornographic material is readily available.

7.7 African Societies

The African societies have also experienced unprecedented transformation in their
sexuality while many were polygamous, sexual behaviour outside marriage was not
tolerated. Formal education urbanization and Christianity have played a significant role in
the transformation of African societies.

Through formal education, African women can now be economically independent and
many cannot tolerate polygamous practices. There are many single women/mothers today
across Africa and often by choice extra marital affairs have become more explicit and
divorces/separations are much more common. Urbanization often separates a family –

54
usually the man goes to the cities/towns to work while the woman remains in the rural
areas to take care of children and the father. This arrangement has often led to polygamy
–where the man, sometime secretly keeps a spouse in town. In some extreme case, these
men may abandon the rural based family. Some of the women left behind may also
engage in extra marital affairs and in some cases (particularly where they have no
children or only a few), may elope/marry another man.

Polygamy is still common in many African settings and is particularly common in

Muslim communities. Modernity has not necessary led to increased promiscuity even in
western societies. A study done in the US in 1994 showed that only 10% of women and
less than 25% of men reported having an extramarital affair during their entire lifetime.
But there was a progressive increase in the level of premarital sexual experience.

7.8 Homosexuality
This can be defined as the orientation of sexual activities or feelings towards others of the
same sex. It exists basically in all cultures although it has been commonly located as a
western practice.

Giddens notes that the Batak people of northern Sumatra for instance permit male
homosexual relations before marriage. Boys leave their homes at puberty and sleep in a
dwelling with a dozen or so older males who initiate the newcomers into homosexual
practices. Kottak notes that among the Etoro of papua New Guinea, Etoro men believe
that semen is necessary to life force to a foetus. Heterosexual intercourse, which is
required only for reproduction is discouraged. Women who want too much sex are
viewed as witches and hazardous to their husbands’ health. Sex is allowed only about 100
days a year- the rest of the time it is tabooed. Sex can only happen in the woods.
They believe that boys cannot produce semen on their own they must acquire semen
orally from older man.

7.9 Patriarchy and Violence

Due to women’s inferior social status in many patriarchal arrangements, women have
also suffered a lot of violence and death.

55
Although more prevalent in certain social settings than in others, family violence and
domestic abuse of women are worldwide problems. They tend to be more common and
disastrous in monogamous arrangements and they are often associated with woman’s
isolation from supportive kin. It is usually in patrilineal/patrilocal societies that
anthropologists most typically find forced female genital operation, preference for males,
female infanticide, dowry and oppression of women by their kin-law.

Activity
1 Are you in a position to distinguish between gender and sex?
2 How is gender manifested among foragers?
3 Compare and contrast gender manifestations among matrilineal,
matrifocal and patrilineal societies.
4 To what extent are some of the problems facing women in
Kenya emanating from the dominant patrilineal system
5 What is domestic violence? Do you think that it is on the
increase in Kenya? If yes, why?
6 To what extent have gender differences impacted development
in Kenya?

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 LECTURE EIGHT

RELIGION
Lecture Outline
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Definition of Religion
8.4 Kinds of Religion
8.5 Magic and Religion
8.6 Rituals: Traditional and Secular
8.7 Rites of Passage and Religion
8.8 Totemism
8.9 The Role of Religion in Society

8.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be in a position to:
1. Define the term religion
2. Identify and discuss the kinds of religion
3. Distinguish between magic and religion
4. Discuss the relevance of rituals and rites of passage in social,
economic and political life
5. Describe totemism

8.3 Definition of Religion

Religion has been derived from the word religion, which means “to bind together”
Edward Tylor (1871–1958) was the founder of the anthropology of religion. He argued
that attempts to explain dreams and trances led early humans to believe that 2 entities in
habit the body – one active during the day and the other active during sleep and trance
states that death is departure of the soul. From the castin word for soul (anima) –

57
Taylor named this belief animism. He argued that this belief in spiritual beings is the
earliest form of religion.
 and pseudo science. He believed that from animism, then come polythenic (the
belief in multiple of gods) and then finally monothesion (the belief in a single, all
powerful deity)
 Apart from animism – some people also belief in mana sacred impersonal force
which can decide in people animals or plants etc.
 There is also the concept of taboo – something that contains mana or a person that
posses mana are taboo i.e. they are set apart as sacred and off limit to ordinary
people. Durkheim came up with the concept of scared and profane. He noted that
in every ethnic group, there is some distinction between what is religious

8.4 Kinds of Religion

Wallace (1966) identified four types of religion:
1. Shamanic - This is common among foraging groups. It is led by shamans and
not full time officials. There are curers (witchdoctors) mediums, spiritualist
astrologer and other diviners. There is a strong belief in plants and animals
(supernatural)
2. Communal – common among food producing groups. It has part time
specialists, and occasional community sponsored events including rites of
passage. There is belief in several deities with some control over nature.
3. Olympian – This has priests and people believe in gods with specialized
functions. It is common in chiefdoms and archaic states.
4. Monotheistic – This is run by priests, pastors, ministers, imams etc. There is
belief in a supreme being and is found among many states. Examples include
Christianity and Islam.

8.5 Magic and Religion

This refers to supernatural techniques intended to accomplish specific aims. Magicians
use imitative magic to produce a desired effect by imitating it e.g if the magician wants
to kill or influence a person they initiate that effect on an image or shadow of the victim
e.g. sticking pins in vodoo dolls”

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They can also use contagious magic. Here, whatever is done to an object is believed to
effect a person who once had contact with it – magician may use hair nails etc to inflict
harm on somebody.

According to Malinowski, when people face uncertainty and danger, they turn to magic.
He argued that magic is used to establish control and it offers emotional comfort
particularly when people face a crisis.

Religion Magic
Public and communal Confined to an individual
Has congregational aspect Air of secrecy surrounds the magician
Priests command respect in the society The magician is much feared in society
Priest is considered benevolent-i.e Magician considered malevolent and
Well meaning and kind harmful for the society.

8.6 Rituals: Traditional and Secular

They include liturgical orders, sequence of words and actions invented prior to the
(current) performance of the ritual.

Rituals are not plays which have an audience; rituals have participants. This demonstrates
the level of involvement.
Rituals convey information about the participants and their traditions. They translate
enduring messages, values and sentiments into action.

Rituals are social acts; by taking part, the performers show that they accept a common
social and moral order.

8.7 Rites of Passage and Religion

Customs associated with the transition from one stage of life to another
Beliefs and rituals can create a cause of insecurity danger and anxiety.
Participation in collective ritual may build up stress e.g the collective circumcision of
boys and girls.

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The rites of passage today include military baptisms, confirmations retirement etc parties.
rites involve changes in social status e.g from boyhood to manhood
All rites of passage have 3 phases
 Separation
 Laminating
 Incorporation

Separation – people withdraw from the group and move to another status group.
Liminality – here people occupy ambiguous social positions. People are cut off from
normal social contact e.g. during circumcision or military training, people experiencing
liminality together form a community of equals.

After this stage then the group again becomes part of the policy

8.8 Totemism
Totems can be animals plants or geographical features. In each ethnic group, groups of
people have particular totems they customarily neither killed nor ate. These were their
toxemic animals. Totemism uses nature as a model for society. People relate to nature
through their totemic association with natural species.

8.9 The Role of Religion in Society

Religion assists human beings to adapt to their environment/cultural ecology. For
instance, Indians treat cattle as sacred; they don’t eat them but use them to plough
and draw carts and use the manure for their farms.
Social control – it helps people to cope with adversity and tragedy and provides hope that
things will get better. Sinners can repent and be saved or go on sinning and be damned.
Religion has a system of rewards and punishments.

The power of religion affects action; religions can coexist or their differences can be a
basis for enmity and disharmony.

Religion has been used to mobilize society or segments of it against particular groups

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Religion often prescribe a code of ethics and morality to guide behavior e.g the Judaic ten
commandments.

Religion also maintains social control by stressing the temporary and fleeting nature of
this life and there is promise for rewards and punishment in an after life or reincarnation
(Hinduism and Buddhism). Such beliefs reinforce status quo – people can accept what
they have now knowing they can expect something better in the after life/next life

Activity
1. What is religion?
2. Can you identify the various kinds of religion?
3. What is the distinction between magic and religion.
4. What are ritual and rites of passage? What is their significance in
your society?
5. What is totenism?
6. What is the link between religion and social change?
7. Discuss the role of religion in society?

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 LECTURE NINE
APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY
Lecture Outline
9.2 Objectives
9.3 Value of Anthropology
9.3.1 Medical Anthropology
9.4 Careers in Anthropology

9.2 Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be in a position to:

1. Discuss the relevance of anthropology in education
2. Discuss the role of anthropology in urban settings
3. Discuss the role of anthropology in medicine
4. Identify and discuss careers in anthropology

9.3 Value of Anthropology

Apart from academicians or those who have made contributions in the realm of
knowledge, who have made a tremendous stride in the production of anthropological
data, perspectives/theories and methods that have allowed people to have a greater insight
of society and to comprehend a wide range of contemporary societal challenges,
anthropology has a wider application.

Anthropologists also work in areas of public health, family planning, police departments
and in economic development sectors.

9.3.1 Medical Anthropology

Medical anthropology considers the socio cultural context and implications of disease
and illness. Perception of good and bad health a long with actual health threats and
problems differ across cultures. Various societies and ethnic groups recognize different
illness symptoms and causes and have developed different health care systems and

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treatment strategies. Medical anthropologists assist the field of medicine through the
combination of their biological and cultural knowledge. They also advice on herbal
medicine.

9.4 Careers in Anthropology

Anthropologists are deployed as development workers. They work for international
development agencies like the World Bank, USAID, DFID, CIDA etc. they are deployed
in such agencies to assess the social and cultural dimensions of economic development.
As experts in local cultures any development agency needs to understand the people its
working with their cultural and social situations. Anthropologists can identify specific
social conditions and needs that must be addressed and that contributes to success of
development programme planners in Europe, America and Japan who often lack
knowledge after about the development needs of people in rural Africa. For example
development plans are often worked if an anthropologist is deployed to work with the
local people to identify local needs, demands, priorities and constraints.

Anthropologists may work as consultants where they assess the performance of

development interventions and advise on what contributed to the success or failure of a
particular intervention e.g. family planning among a community. Many agencies for
instance funding AIDs programmes have been engaging anthropologists as consultants to
advise them on the best approaches to use in containing the spread of HIV/AIDs and
particularly why awareness levels have not been matched by a corresponding change in
behavioral patterns. They have influenced some policy in cities by showing that urban
neighbourhood display strong kin ties and are not fragmented.

Anthropologists work as government advisors on matters of minorities, minority rights,

protection of cultural heritage, how different groups can coexist peacefully and the causes
and resolutions of ethnic conflicts.

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Anthropologists also advise governments on the best way to effect social, economic and
political transformation in a multi-ethnic countries e.g. the fallacy of trying to convert
pastoralists into farmers or how the implementation of a project can lead to ethnic
tensions and conflicts. They also work in police departments and are critical in the
gathering of intelligence. As forensic experts, they identify victims of crimes, accidents,
wars and terrorism.

In environmental management, anthropologists apply their skills in studying the human

dimension of environmental degradation (eg deforestation, pollution). Anthropologists
examine how the environment influences humans and how human activities affect the
biosphere and the earth itself; including what trees and pastures for example mean to
groups of people whose activities are seen to be generating environmentally destructive.
As cultural resources managers, they interpret, prepare inventories and prepare historic
resources for local, state and international organizations. They advise governments and
non-governmental organization on endangered languages, cultures and habitats.
They also advise on sacred grounds, and areas that should be preserved when
implementing projects like schools, hospitals churches etc.

Activity
 What is the role of anthropology in education?
 Describe the contribution of anthropology in the understanding of
urban structures.
 What is medical anthropology?
 How relevant is anthropology in the area of business and
commerce?
 Identify some careers that can be pursued by gendinatics in
anthropology.

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Anderson, Benedict 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections of the Origin and Spread of
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Armstrong, Warwick 1998. Belonging, Ethnic Diversity and Everyday Experience:

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Aubey, C. H. 1961. Coexistence: Economic Challenge and Response. Washington:

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Crawford, Beverly and Lipschultz, Ronnie D. (eds.) 1998. The Myth of ‘Ethnic Conflict’:
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Eriksen, Thomas H. 1993. Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives.

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Eriksen, Thomas H. 1995. Small Places, Large Issues: An Introduction to Social and
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Galtung, Johan 1994. “Coexistence in spite of Borders: On the Borders in the Mind”. In:
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Geertz, Clifford 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books

Giddens, Anthony 1984. The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of

Structuration. Oxford: Polity Press.

Gluckman, Max 1965. The Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society. Oxford: Basil
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Kottak, C. P. 2002. Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity. Ninth Edition.

New York: McGraw-Hill.

Mare, Gerhard 1993. Ethnicity and Politics in South Africa. London: Zed Books Ltd.

Mazrui, Ali A. 1975. Soldiers and Kinsmen in Uganda: The making of a Military
Ethnocracy. Beverly Hills, California: Sage.

Pasternak, B. C. R. Ember and Ember, M. 1997. Sex, Gender, and Kinship: A Crosscultural
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