Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.1 Introduction
When and how to use these pages
The Introduction in the Student Book indicates some of the ideas and skills in this topic area that students will
already have met from KS2 or from previous KS3 work, and provides an indication of what they will be studying
in this chapter. Ideas you have met before is not intended to comprehensively summarise of all the prior ideas,
but rather to point out a few of the key ones and to support the view that scientific understanding is progressive.
Even though students might be meeting contexts that are new to them, they can often use existing ideas to start
to make sense of them.
In this chapter you will find out indicates some of the new ideas that the chapter will introduce. Again, it isn’t a
detailed summary of content or even an index page. Its purpose is more to act as a ‘trailer’ and generate some
interest.
The outcomes, then, will be recognition of prior learning that can be built on, and interest in finding out more.
There are a number of ways this can be used. You might, for example:
 Use Ideas you have met before as the basis for a revision lesson as you start the first new topic.
 Use Ideas you have met before as the centre of spider diagrams, to which students can add examples,
experiments they might have done previously or what they found interesting
 Make a note of any unfamiliar/difficult terms and return to these in the relevant lessons.
 Use ideas from In this chapter you will find out to ask students questions such as:
 Why is this important?
 How could it be used?
 What might we be doing in this topic?

Overview of the chapter

In this chapter the students will learn about the particle model and its ability to explain different physical
processes. They will learn to apply the standard model to explain particular phenomena, such as changes of
state, thermal expansion, diffusion, density, concentration and pressure. They will learn to evaluate the strengths
and weaknesses of the model in terms of what it can and can’t explain, adapting it to suit a particular purpose.
The discovery of Brownian motion will be explored as a focus for how scientists work. The students will also
learn about different colloids, such as simple gels, foams, emulsions and aerosols, and how the particle model
can be used to explain what these are and how they behave. In terms of analytical skills, the students will use
graphs to explore the idea of latent heat, how melting and boiling points are affected by solubility and how
temperature affects the solubility of solids and gases – the particle model will be applied to each of these cases.
Finally ideas about the conservation of mass will be further developed to explain physical processes, linking it to
the calculation of efficiency of separation processes.

Obstacles to learning
Students may need extra guidance with the following terms and concepts:
 Particle model Students should be clear about accurate representation of particles in solids, liquids and
gases. For the same substance being represented, its particles should all be the same shape and size. In a
solid, there should be no gaps between the particles and the arrangement should show clear uniformity. In
liquids, all particles should be touching another liquid particle.
 Gases Students often think there is air in between gas particles – there is nothing between gas particles.
 Changing state There is no temperature change at the melting point and boiling point. Latent heat energy
goes into changing the particle arrangement and internal energy from one state into another. Evaporation and
boiling are not the same thing – evaporation takes place at all temperatures between the melting point and
the boiling point; only part of the liquid changes into a gas. Boiling only occurs at the boiling point, when all
the liquid changes into a gas.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 84 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

 Thermal expansion Particles themselves do not expand when heated – they simply gain kinetic energy and
take up more room as they vibrate more vigorously. Over the whole length of a solid, the solid is seen to
expand.
 Density This depends on the mass and the volume. Not all big objects sink (e.g. timber) and not all small
object float (e.g. stone). Gases have different densities – some, like carbon dioxide, will sink in air.
 Dissolving When making up solutions, the volumes do not just add up. The solute particles fit into the
spaces between the solvent particles, resulting in a lower total volume compared to the sum of the individual
volumes.
 Solubility Solubility of gases decreases with temperature because the particles gain in energy, overcoming
the solute-solvent forces and coming out of solution.

Topic title: Overarching objectives:

2 Using particles to explain matter

The properties of different states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) in terms of the particle
model, including gas pressure
3 Understanding solids

4 Exploring Brownian motion Brownian motion in gases

5 Understanding liquids and gases The properties of different states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) in terms of the particle
model, including gas pressure

6 Changing state Changes of state in terms of the particle model

7 Understanding evaporation Changes of state in terms of the particle model

Energy changes on changes of state (qualitative)

8 Exploring thermal expansion Changes with temperature in motion and spacing of particles

9 Making sense of models A simple Dalton atomic model

11 Explaining the density of solids and The differences in arrangements, in motion and in closeness of particles explaining
liquids changes of state, shape and density, the anomaly of ice–water transition

12 Explaining the density of gases Similarities and differences, including density differences, between solids, liquids and
gases

13 Explaining concentration and pressure The properties of different states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) in terms of the particle
model, including gas pressure

14 Exploring diffusion Diffusion in liquids and gases driven by differences in concentration

Diffusion in terms of the particle model

15 Conserving mass Conservation of mass changes of state

Conservation of material and mass, and reversibility, in melting, freezing, evaporation,
sublimation, condensation, dissolving

16 Deciding between physical and Mixtures, including dissolving

chemical changes The difference between chemical and physical changes

17 Explaining the properties of mixtures Mixtures, including dissolving

The properties of different states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) in terms of the particle
model, including gas pressure

18 Using particle models The differences in arrangements, in motion and in closeness of particles explaining
changes of state, shape and density, the anomaly of ice–water transition

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 85 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.2 Using particles to explain matter

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Recognise differences between solids, liquids and gases.
 Describe solids, liquids and gases in terms of the particle model.
Learning outcomes
 Use accurate observations to draw inferences about the properties of solids, liquids and gases. [O1]
 Draw circle diagrams and other models to demonstrate the differences between the arrangement of particles
in solids, liquids and gases. [O2]
 Use particle diagrams to explain the differences in energy and the forces on the particles in different states of
matter. [O3]

Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use models
 Working scientifically: record evidence
 Learner development: ask questions
Resources needed sticky labels; equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet
2.3.2; Practical sheet 2.3.2 (the last page copied onto card); Technician’s notes 2.3.2

Digital resources Quick starter; Interactive activity: Drag the solid, liquid or gas to the correct group when at
25°C and at atmospheric pressure; Interactive activity: Place the elements in order, from strongest to weakest
forces between the elements

Common misconceptions Particles in a solid do not move. Particles in a liquid do not touch. In particle
diagrams, the particles do not have to be the same size/shape. There is air between the particles of a gas.

Key vocabulary particles, energy, intermolecular forces

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Review the idea that all matter is made up of particles. Ask the students what they understand by the term
‘model’ and how models might be important in science.
 Demonstrate the three states of matter in water, using a beaker of ice, a beaker of water and a beaker of
boiling water. Ask the students to devise questions about their observations and to write these on a sticky
label in 30 seconds. Collate these into common areas and review and answer them at the end of the lesson.
[O1]
 Ask the students to infer one common thing all the states have and one thing that is different about them.
[O1]
Challenge and develop
 Group activity Each group member should have a role – a chairperson, two recorders of observations and
two organisers of equipment and materials. Ask them to follow the instructions on Practical sheet 2.3.2 – they
are going to investigate and record observations about solids, liquids and gases. [O1]
Lower-attaining students can use the cards from page 3 of Practical sheet 2.3.2 to help them with their explanations.

 Ask the groups to answer the questions on Practical sheet 2.3.2 and think about how the particles are
behaving to account for their observations and to summarise their inferences. Each group should develop
their own particle model for the three states. Each chairperson should present their group’s model. [O1&2]
Higher-attaining students could think about what other observations they would need to carry out to confirm their ideas.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 86 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

Explain
 Show the students the accepted version of the particle model in the Student Book and/or use a simulation.
Ask them to identify any differences between their models and the accepted model. Ask the students how
the accepted particle model is different to theirs. What could account for the differences? What further
investigations are needed to prove the accepted model? [O2&3]

Consolidate and apply

 Working in groups of eight, the students role-play being particles in solids, in liquids and in gases,
explaining their actions. [O2&3]
Alternatively, for higher-attaining students, provide pairs of students with polystyrene balls, cocktail sticks and a large
sheet of paper. Ask them to make models of solids, liquids and gases showing the energy and the forces between the
particles.

 Ask all the students to draw their own particle diagrams for a solid, a liquid and a gas on a poster with
annotations to explain their arrangement, energy and forces. They should link one piece of evidence from
their practical work to each. They should attempt all the tasks of Worksheet 2.3.2 and answer the questions
in the Student Book. [O2]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to explain how the particle model might change for a solid at −50 °C
compared with one at 20 °C, and why at 20 °C metals are solids, water is a liquid and oxygen is a gas. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Scientists Ask the students to reflect in pairs on how they have worked as real scientists. What skills have they
shown? Why was it important to develop a model from their observations? Why did they need to compare their
model with the accepted model?
Question time Read out at least five of the questions devised at the start of the lesson on sticky labels. Select
different students to provide answers. Save any questions that cannot be answered for the appropriate lesson.
Answers to Student Book questions
1. any three solids – e.g. metal, plastic and wood; any three liquids – e.g. oil, water and petrol; any three gases – e.g. air,
oxygen, carbon dioxide
2. The particles in solids are very close together in a regular arrangement; in liquids they are still touching but have no
regular arrangement; in gases they are very far apart in a random order.
3. any suitable cartoon that correctly reflects the energy of the particles in different states
4. steam
5. The particles in air are far apart; so your hand can easily pass through the air; very little resistance. The particles in a
solid are close together; with very strong forces; preventing your hand from going between the wood particles.
6. It is easier to pull jelly apart; the forces between jelly particles must be weaker than between metal particles.
7. As the energy of the particles increases, the forces between them decrease; gas particles have a lot of energy and very
weak forces between them.
8. nothing

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.2

1. Solid – all the particles should be the same size; and touching each other; in a regular arrangement.
Liquid – all the particles should be the same size; and touching each other; there is no regular arrangement.
Gas – all the particles should be the same size; not touching; with no regular arrangement.
2. a) the particles can vibrate; but they cannot move about b) the particles can move around; but they are still in contact
with each other c) The particles move quickly; in all directions
3. a) i) particles have the least energy; and move slowly ii) particles have more energy; and move slowly
iii) particles have the most energy; and move very quickly; in a random motion
b) i) very strong intermolecular forces; holding the particles in position
ii) less strong than in solids; forces hold the particles together; but they are not strong enough to keep them moving
from their positions iii) very weak intermolecular forces
c) solid – strong forces; so a hand cannot push through; liquid – forces are not strong enough; to stop a hand; gas –
weak forces; so a hand passes through easily

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 87 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.3 Understanding solids

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Describe the properties of solids.
 Relate the properties and behaviour of solids to the particle model.
Learning outcomes
 Describe how the properties of solids vary. [O1]
 Explain some properties of solids using the particle model. [O2]
 Adapt the particle model to explain differences in the properties of different solids. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use models
 Working scientifically: record observations
 Learner development: ask questions
Resources needed mini-whiteboards; sticky notes; A3 paper; equipment and materials as detailed in the
Technician’s notes; card sort; Worksheet 2.3.3; Practical sheet 2.3.3 (second page copied onto card);
Technician’s notes 2.3.3

Digital resources Quick starter; Slideshow: Explaining properties of gases, liquids and solids

Common misconceptions Particles in all solids are the same.

Key vocabulary malleable, strength, hardness, soluble, conduct, alloy

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Show and tell Provide the students with mini-whiteboards. Ask them to draw the particle model for a solid
and show their drawings. Identify and challenge any mistakes – for example particles of different sizes and
incorrect structure.
 Show the students a candle and a block of metal. Ask them to feel them and to describe as many differences
in their properties they can think of. Make a list and come back to this at the end of the lesson. [O1]

Challenge and develop

 Group work Working in groups of three, the students work through Practical sheet 2.3.3. Ensure that they
wear safety goggles throughout, if they are using metal filings. Ask the students to investigate the different
properties of solids and to record their observations. [O1&2]
 Using the Student Book to help, they answer the questions on Practical sheet 2.3.3, and to make
predictions about what the particle models for the different solids must be like. They can sort the cards from
page 2 of the Practical sheet to help them further. Ask them to work in their groups to draw annotated
particle posters for at least three of the solids they have investigated. [O1, 2&3]
 Ask each group to display their posters around the room. Provide each group with sticky notes and ask them
to peer-review each poster, saying two positive things and one area where they could be improved. Allow
time for them to address any comments and make necessary improvements. [O2&3]

Explain
 Demonstrate the properties of sodium. Show how sodium can be easily cut with a scalpel, how it floats on
water, how it reacts with water and how it can conduct electricity. [O1&2]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 88 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

 Ask the students to plan and carry out a role-play, modelling the particles in sodium, where possible, to
explain all the properties they can identify through this demonstration. [O1, 2&3]
Lower-attaining students should identify all the properties.
Middle-attaining students should draw/act out a particle model for sodium, explaining how the model accounts for the
properties
Higher-attaining students should produce/act out different particle models, accounting for each property shown.

Consolidate and apply

 Ask the students to attempt the tasks of Worksheet 2.3.3 and answer the Student Book questions. [O1, 2&3]
 Pair work Provide the students with the descriptions of different solids with the particle models to match up
from the card sort. Ask them to match the cards and suggest an example of the solid described. [O1&2]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to carry out some research into less familiar solids – e.g. titanium,
potassium and brass. They should produce their own card sort game, which matches cards showing the
particle models with cards showing their properties and uses. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Properties Return to the list of properties compiled at the start of the lesson. Ask the students to add to the list.
[O1]
‘Top trumps’ The students could produce their own ‘top trump’ cards of the different solids they investigated
using the results from their investigation. [O1]
What we have learned Ask the students to reflect on three things they have learned about solids and the
particle model. [O1, 2&O3]

Answers to Student Book questions

1. ductility
2. diamond is the hardest material; and will be able to drill through any material
3. The particle model should show that most of the particles are small; with only a few much larger particles.
4. The arrangement of the particles in an alloy does not allow for smooth layers; this makes it much harder to pull the
metal into thin wires.
5. use thicker springs; to show strong intermolecular forces; and thinner ones for weaker forces
6. Copper is very hard and strong; wax can break easily and is soft. The particle model should show that copper has
much stronger intermolecular forces than wax; copper is ductile.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.3

1. hardness; strength; ductility; solubility; conduction of heat; and electricity
2. a) sodium and iron are metals; both will conduct heat; and electricity
b) sodium is soft but iron is hard; sodium reacts with water very quickly but iron reacts very slowly; iron is ductile but
sodium is not very ductile
3. a) The particle model should show that copper is hard with strong intermolecular forces – e.g. Figure 2.2.3c in the
Student Book.
b) The particle model should show that copper conducts electricity – e.g. Figure 2.3.3c in the Student Book.

Answers to Practical sheet 2.3.3

A–3
B–1
C–2

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 89 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.4 Exploring Brownian motion

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Describe how theories develop.
 Describe and explain Brownian motion in terms of particles.
Learning outcomes
 Identify the steps in developing theories, including Brownian motion. [O1]
 Use observations to develop hypotheses. [O2]
 Change hypotheses in the light of new evidence and use this to develop theories. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: understand how theories develop
 Working scientifically: develop explanations
 Learner development: ask questions
Resources needed equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.4; Practical
sheet 2.3.4; Technician’s notes 2.3.4

Digital resources Quick starter; Interactive activity: Re-order the statements about the movement of a drop of
red dye in water

Common misconceptions Once made, a theory cannot be changed.

Key vocabulary hypothesis, Brownian motion, kinetic theory, evidence

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Pair talk Ask the students to match the terms ‘hypothesis’, ‘theory’, ‘evidence’ , ‘evaluate’ , ‘prediction’ and
‘refute’ to their definitions on the interactive whiteboard or as a card sort using task 1 of Worksheet 2.3.4. [O1]
 Remind them about developing theories using evidence. Discuss the idea that theories are supported by
evidence. Present different ideas related to particles as follows: (a) particles in a liquid can move; (b) particles
in a solid do not move away from their positions. [O1]
 Ask the students to work in pairs to consider what evidence might be given to support each idea. They may
come up with the idea that when ink is dropped in water, the ink particles spread through the water; this is
evidence that the particles of a liquid move. A pen mark may be made on a piece of wax. Applying different
tests to the wax will show that the pen mark does not move, inferring that particles in a solid do not move.
[O1]

Challenge and develop

 Group work In small groups, students should follow the stages of the scientific process as follows:
making predictions, developing a hypothesis, testing a hypothesis, making observations and
reformulating a hypothesis based on new evidence. Practical sheet 2.3.4 provides full instructions for how
this can be achieved. The students will use five cups of cola and add different solutes to it to discover how
cola behaves. [O1, 2&3]
 Students should use the evidence, and scientific knowledge and understanding, to turn their hypothesis into
a theory. Explore how their hypotheses have changed with different observations, and how these may lead to
the development of a theory. [O2&3]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 90 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

 Discuss the experiments of Robert Brown using the Student Book. If possible, either demonstrate Brownian
motion (see Technician’s notes 2.3.4) or show a video of it. Discuss the different hypotheses that Brown
developed and the different types of experiments he did to test his hypotheses. [O1, 2&3]

Explain
 Divide the students into groups of three and ask them to draw a flow chart on a poster to describe each step
of the scientific process carried out in their investigation. They should explain how they carried out each step
in their investigation, providing examples of each. [O1, 2&3]
 Ask them to use the Student Book to apply the flowchart to Robert Brown’s observations and hypotheses, as
shown in task 2 of Worksheet 2.3.4. [O2&3]
Higher-attaining students should explain how they have changed their original hypothesis in light of new evidence, as set
out in task 3 of Worksheet 2.3.4. [O3]

Consolidate and apply

 Ask the students to use their posters and prepare a short presentation to explain the processes involved in
how scientists work, using Robert Brown as an example. Select different groups to deliver their presentations.
[O1&2]
Higher-attaining students should also include an explanation of the link between hypotheses and theories and the need
for peer review. [O3]

 The students should answer all the Student Book questions. [O1, 2&3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to use the Student Book and other resources, to explain how Einstein
was able to use models and analogies to support and develop the theory to explain Brownian motion. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
What we have learned Ask the students to reflect on three things they have learned about the scientific
process.
Investigative skills Ask them to write a target for how they might improve their own investigative skills based
on their learning in this lesson.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. a scientific explanation based on experimental evidence; it is possible to make testable predictions from a hypothesis
2. others can confirm that your evidence is reliable and without bias
3. only living things caused Brownian motion to occur
4. he carried out many investigations using non-living objects
5. If observations do not agree with an established theory, this means the theory might be wrong.
6. These are useful tools that help scientists to explain what can’t be seen, felt or heard; they can help in understanding
what is happening.
7. It is better to find evidence to refute it, rather than support, to be sure of its validity. We cannot prove that a theory
stands with only evidence that supports it, only if you can find no evidence against it.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.4

1. 1 with e; 2 with c; 3 with a; 4 with b; 5 with f; 6 with d
2. a) he predicted that non-living organisms would not show Brownian motion
b) he observed a range of living and non-living organisms exhibiting Brownian motion
c) he hypothesised that pollen grains moved because they were living
d) he tested non-living organisms to prove his hypothesis
e) non-living organisms behaved in the same way as living organisms, so he had to change his ideas
3. a) He was not able to turn his hypothesis into a theory because the evidence refuted his earlier hypothesis. He was
unable to develop a new hypothesis to support the evidence of his many investigations.
b) He could have made observations of liquids at different temperatures; Brownian motion increases at higher
temperatures.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 91 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.5 Understanding liquids and gases

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Compare different properties of liquids and gases.
 Relate the properties and behaviour of liquids and gases to the particle model.
Learning outcomes
 Describe some properties of liquids and gases. [O1]
 Design and carry out an investigation to compare the viscosity of different liquids. [O2]
 Use the particle model to explain experimental data and applications of liquids and gases. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use models
 Working scientifically: design investigations
 Learner development: communicate effectively
Resources needed images or examples of liquids and gases in different applications; equipment and
apparatus as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.5; Practical sheet 2.3.5; Technician’s notes 2.3.5

Digital resources Quick starter; Interactive activity: Place the fluids in order of most to least viscous at room
temperature; Slideshow: Volume and compression - How much air is in a scuba tank?; Hangman: Key
vocabulary game

Common misconceptions All liquids behave in the same way. Gases don’t dissolve in water, they just make
bubbles.

Key vocabulary viscosity, compressed, solubility

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Show some images or examples of liquids and gases in different applications. Ask the students to identify
the properties which are helpful in each application. [O1]

Challenge and develop

 Ask the students to summarise all the properties of liquids and gases and write them on the board. Question
them about the evidence for these properties. They may struggle with evidence for the properties of gases.
a) Demonstrate the ability of carbon dioxide to flow (see the instructions in Technician’s notes 2.3.5). Ask the
students to explain their observations.
b) Demonstrate the compression of gases using a gas syringe and a balloon. Ask the students to explain
why liquids cannot be compressed but gases can.
c) Show the bubbles in a fizzy drink. Ask questions about what this shows about the solubility of carbon
dioxide. Ask ‘How could we prove that some of the carbon dioxide dissolves in the water?’. [O1]
 Arrange the students in mixed ability groups. Ask them to design an investigation, using Practical sheet
2.3.5 for guidance, of the effect of temperature on the flow of liquids. They should plan to collect valid and
reliable evidence. Recap the meanings of the terms ‘valid’ and ‘reliable’ and discuss how these apply to their
design. Check through the each group’s plans and then ask them to carry out their investigation and record
their observations. A suggested procedure is:
 Place a beaker of oil in water baths at five different temperatures, e.g. 5, 20, 25, 30 and 40 °C.
 Check with a thermometer that the oil has reached the required temperature.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 92 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

 Place the viscometer in the clamp stand and position a small beaker under the viscometer.
 Fill the viscometer with oil and time how long it takes to empty.
 Repeat this three times at each temperature and calculate averages. [O1&2]
 The students should produce graphs of their results. [O1&2]
 Using the Student Book to help, the students should write an explanation of their findings. Select different
groups to share their results and analysis. [O3]

Explain
 Explore further ideas of compression using the Student Book, and some of the applications relating to this,
such as a real example of the bicycle pump. The students should answer the questions in the Student Book
about a bicycle pump works. [O1&3]
 Show the students the graph of how different gases dissolve in water in the Student Book (Figure 2.3.5d).
Ask them to devise a role-play to explain the data in the graph. [O1&3]

Consolidate and apply

 Ask the students to work in pairs to produce two annotated posters about liquids and gases. They should
explain all the properties they have come across, using adapted versions of the particle model. [O1&3]
 Ask the students to attempt the tasks of Worksheet 2.3.5 and answer any questions in the Student Book not
yet attempted. [O1, 2&3]

Extend
 Tell students able to progress further that gases increase in viscosity with increasing temperature, but that
the viscosity of liquids is reduced as their temperature increases. Ask them to develop their own hypothesis
and attempt to develop the particle model to explain this. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Evidence Return to the list of properties of liquids and gases compiled earlier. Ask the students to add any
further evidence from their learning this lesson.
Venn diagram Ask the students to draw a Venn diagram to summarise the properties of liquids and gases,
putting common properties in the centre.
Answers to Student Book questions
1. for example flushing toilets; putting liquids in moulds; ‘dry ice’ on stage
2. a) the temperature; the amount of liquid used; the time to allow the liquids to flow
b) a temperature below 10 °C; about 20 cm3 of oil; about 5 minutes
3. more of the gas can be carried in a container if it is compressed to a liquid
4. When the piston lifts up, there is more space inside for the air particles to flow in; the piston becomes full of air. When
the piston is pushed down, the air particles can be compressed; and are forced into the tyre.
5. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water than oxygen; this is because the intermolecular forces between the particles of
water and carbon dioxide are stronger; than the forces between the carbon dioxide molecules. (Conversely for oxygen.)
6. When it gets hotter the gas particles have more kinetic energy; they are able to escape the intermolecular forces
between themselves and the water particles more easily; and less gas remains in the solution.
7. The waste output from a factory may have a different temperature from the water in the river; which would alter the
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the water; this would affect the fish.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.5

1. a) ability to flow b) ability to flow and take the shape of the container c) ability to flow and be compressed
d) ability to take the shape of the container and be compressed e) ability to take the shape of the container and be
compressed f) ability to take the shape of the container and be compressed
2. a) use the same amount of liquid; allow the liquids to flow in the same type of tube; use the same temperature
b) 20 seconds c) i) a bar graph ii) data for independent variable is discrete
iii) the scale of the graph would be awkward because it needs to have a range from 1 to 10 000
3. Diagrams should show the honey–honey particles having much stronger forces than the water–water particles; the
honey particles are likely to be much larger than the water particles.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 93 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.6 Changing state

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Recognise changes of state as being reversible changes.
 Use scientific terminology to describe changes of state.
 Explain changes of state using the particle model and ideas about energy transfer.
Learning outcomes
 Describe and recognise changes of state, using correct terminology and the particle model. [O1]
 Interpret and explain data relating to melting and boiling points. [O2]
 Use the particle model to explain latent heat. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: analyse data
 Working scientifically: interpret evidence
 Learner development: ask questions
Resources poster paper; graph paper; paper glue; equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s
notes; Worksheet 2.3.6; Practical sheet 2.3.6; Technician’s notes 2.3.6

Digital resources Quick starter; Interactive activity: Drag the examples of change in state to the correct group –
melting, condensing or sublimation; Video

Common misconceptions Temperature increases during changes of state. All solids have the same melting
point.

Key vocabulary sublimation, melting point, boiling point, latent heat

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Recap ideas about changes of state using ideas from the Student Book. Ask the students to complete the
cloze activity in task 1 of Worksheet 2.3.6. [O1]

Challenge and develop

 Demonstrate the melting of salol and the boiling of water. While doing so, select a group of eight students to
model being the salol particles as the solid is heated. Alternatively, or additionally, show a simulation of a
solid being melted and a liquid being heated to boiling. Ask the students to record all the changes they
observe as the solid and liquid change state. Introduce and define the terms ‘melting point’ and ‘boiling point’
and apply these to the role-play. Challenge any misconceptions during this. [O1&2]
 Demonstrate, or show a video of, carbon dioxide (dry ice) or iodine subliming (see Technician’s notes 2.3.6).
Ask the students to compare the melting of wax to the heating of carbon dioxide or iodine. They should
notice there is no liquid phase for carbon dioxide or iodine. Introduce the term ‘sublimation’. [O1]
 Ask the students to follow the instructions on Practical sheet 2.3.6 and record the temperature as the
stearic acid is heated – if time allows they should do the same for ice. They should collect reliable data and
work out mean temperatures. Ask them to draw graphs of their findings. [O1&2]
 Discuss their graphs. Encourage the students to explain what is happening at each part of their graph, and
ask them to compare these for the two substances investigated. Use the Student Book to support this. [O1,
2&3].

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 94 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

Explain
 Working in pairs, ask the students to make posters of their graphs, including annotations to explain what is
happening to the particles at each step. [O&3]
Lower-attaining students should be able to identify the parts where changes of state are taking place. They should also
be able to describe how the arrangement and movement of the particles are changing, and how these might be different
for the two substances.
Middle-attaining students should be able to describe how the energy and forces between the particles are changing.
They should identify the melting and boiling points.
Higher-attaining students should be able to explain why the temperature does not change during the changes of state.
They should be able to explain differences between the two substances.

Consolidate and apply

 Ask the students, working in their pairs, to do task 2 of Worksheet 2.3.6. They use the cards to position the
melting points and boiling points on the thermometer scale as appropriate, and then answer the questions,
and also question a) of task 3. [O2]

Extend
 Provide students able to progress further with data and questions about latent heat, melting points and boiling
points of different substances – question b) of task 3 of Worksheet 2.3.6. Question c) then asks them to
predict what the change-of-state graphs would look like for each, if the solid was be heated for some time.
[O3]

Plenary suggestions
True/false quiz Ask the students to use the graph of ice melting (Figure 2.3.6c) in the Student Book. Play ‘true’
or ‘false’ using statements such as:
 Ice melts at 0 °C.
 The temperature changes as ice melts.
 Once the ice has melted, the temperature of the water remains constant.
 The boiling point of water is not fixed.
 The energy needed to boil water is less than the energy needed to melt ice.
What I have learned Ask each student to share with their partner all the new ideas learned in the lesson.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. freeze some water to make ice; then heat the ice to make water
2. a) changing a solid to a liquid b) changing a gas to a liquid c) changing a liquid to a gas
d) changing a liquid to a solid e) changing a solid to a gas
3. the intermolecular forces between copper particles are much higher; than those between aluminium particles
4. hydrogen has weaker intermolecular forces than mercury; the strongest intermolecular forces are in ice
5. a) solid and liquid c) liquid d) liquid and gas e) gas
6. all the energy is being used to overcome the intermolecular forces; to enable the water to boil and change state
7. No; different substances have different strengths of intermolecular force; some will require much more energy than
others to overcome these forces. In carbon dioxide and ice, the intermolecular forces between the carbon dioxide
particles are much weaker than in ice; and need much less energy to change state – this why it sublimes.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.6

1. close together; vibrate; kinetic energy; intermolecular forces; melting; liquid; quickly; intermolecular forces; boiling; gas
2. Check that the cards are correctly placed on the thermometer.
a) i) gas ii) liquid b) i) liquid ii) gas
3. a) i) oxygen; nitrogen; water; mercury ii) magnesium; water; mercury iii) water; mercury
b) i) true ii) false iii) true
c) Graph for aluminium should show a much higher melting temperature and a very much higher boiling point; with a
much longer flat part where the liquid is boiling.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 95 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.7 Understanding evaporation

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Investigate factors affecting evaporation.
 Explain the differences between boiling and evaporation using the particle model.
Learning outcomes
 Investigate and describe factors affecting evaporation. [O1]
 Describe the processes occurring in evaporation and boiling using the particle model. [O2]
 Use the particle model to explain how different factors affect evaporation. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: ask questions
 Working scientifically: design investigations
 Learner development: collaborate effectively
Resources needed equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.7; Practical
sheet 2.3.7; Technician’s notes 2.3.7

Digital resources Quick starter; Interactive activity: Drag the items to the correct group – boiling point less or
greater than water; Slideshow: Factors affecting evaporation - Why does nail varnish remover dry more quickly
than water?

Common misconceptions Evaporation and boiling are the same thing.

Key vocabulary evaporation, boiling, surface area

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Place a few cm3 of alcohol in an evaporating dish and the same amount of oil in another. Use a hairdryer and
blow over each to the same extent. Ask pairs of students to devise three questions about what they see. [O1]
 Select different students to share their questions and write them on the board. Ask pairs of students to select
any question that can be investigated experimentally. Explore what it is that makes an ‘effective’ question –
ascertain that it should address the independent and the dependent variables. Ask the students to change
the question they selected into an effective question that can be investigated and take feedback. [O1]
 Ask the students to look at the images on Worksheet 2.3.7 and explain whether they show evaporation or
boiling. Ask them to give three key differences between evaporation and boiling. [O1&2]

Challenge and develop

 Explore what has happened in each of the dishes – where have all the particles of alcohol gone? Why are the
oil particles still there? Use the Student Book to discuss the differences between evaporation and boiling.
[O2]
 Either show a simulation or use role-play by a small group of students to explain what is happening when a
liquid evaporates and how this differs from when it boils. Select different pupils to summarise how
evaporation and boiling are different. [O2&3]
 Divide the students into pairs and ask each to devise their own question to find out about one (different)
factor that can affect evaporation. The images of evaporation in the worksheet should act as a stimulus. They
should use their question to plan an investigation using Practical sheet 2.3.7. [O1]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 96 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

 Check through their plans first, including safety, then ask them to carry out their investigations and record
their findings. They should plot an appropriate graph of their results. Discuss the terms ‘repeatable’ and
‘reproducible’. Ask students to reflect on these two terms and how they apply to their investigation. [O1]

Explain
 Ask students to develop their own models/or use role-play to explain their findings. They should be prepared
to present their findings and explanations to the class. [O2&3]
Consolidate and apply
 Ask the students to attempt tasks 2 and 3 of Worksheet 2.3.7. [O2&3]
 Ask them to make a list of applications in which evaporation might be needed to take place quickly, and
situations where evaporation must be prevented. [O2]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to research and use the particle model to explain the strategies that
two different animals and two different plants use to reduce unwanted evaporation. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Acrostic Ask the students to make an acrostic of the word ‘evaporation’.
Summarising They could summarise the key similarities and differences between evaporation and boiling.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. Clouds are made from the evaporation of water.
2. it comes from your body (respiration)
3. it will take place near the boiling point; the temperature is higher; so there is more heat transferred to the liquid
particles; so more will evaporate
4. Boiling is where the whole of the liquid changes to a gas at a fixed temperature. Evaporation is where some of the
particles escape to become a gas; at temperatures between the melting point and the boiling point.
5. The more heat transferred by the Sun; the higher the rate of evaporation. The larger the surface area; the higher the
rate of evaporation. The stronger the surface wind; the higher the rate of evaporation.
6. The effect of temperature; the energy transferred by heat will directly affect the kinetic energy of more surface particles;
changing the state from liquid to gas more quickly.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.7

1. a) evaporation b) boiling c) boiling d) evaporation e) evaporation
2. In boiling the whole liquid changes into a gas; bubbles can be seen throughout the liquid; this happens at a fixed
temperature. In evaporation only the surface of the liquid changes into a gas; this happens at any temperature between
the melting point and boiling point.
3. a) Evaporation happens only at the surface; so more particles will evaporate from a large surface area than a smaller
surface area.
b) The higher the temperature the more energy the particles in a liquid have; so more of them will get enough energy to
escape and form a gas.
c) The greater the wind speed, the higher the energy the air particles have; they transfer this energy to the surface
particles of the liquid; so the more energy transferred the higher the rate of evaporation. In addition the wind will also
remove particles from near the liquid’s surface, allowing space for other particles to escape.
d) The intermolecular forces between, for example, alcohol particles are weaker than those of water; so less energy is
needed for these particles to escape as a gas; so alcohol will evaporate much faster than water.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 97 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.8 Exploring thermal expansion

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Identify how heat affects the arrangement and movement of particles.
 Use the particle model to explain the effects of heat on expansion.
Learning outcomes
 Describe how solids, liquids and gases behave when heat is applied to them. [O1]
 Compare the thermal expansion of different solids and liquids. [O2]
 Use the particle model to explain expansion in solids, liquids and gases. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use models
 Working scientifically: develop explanations
 Learner development: communicate effectively
Resources needed masking tape; poster paper; equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes;
Worksheet 2.3.8; Practical sheet 2.3.8; Technician’s notes 2.3.8

Digital resources Quick starter; Video

Common misconceptions Particles themselves get bigger when they are heated. Heat is made of ‘heat
molecules’.

Key vocabulary thermal expansion

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Demonstrate a metal ball passing through a ring. Now heat the ball with a Bunsen burner. The students
should observe that the metal ball can no longer fit through the ring. Ask them to work in pairs and develop
a hypothesis for this observation. Discuss ways it can be tested further. [O1]
 Demonstrate the ‘dancing coin’ experiment described in Technician’s notes 2.3.8. Encourage the students to
again develop a hypothesis for their observations and to think of other ways to test these. [O1]
 Demonstrate heating a crushed ping pong ball in boiling water. The students should notice that the ping pong
ball regains its shape. What hypothesis can they come up with about the expansion of gases? [O1]

Challenge and develop

 Discuss the term ‘thermal expansion’ using the Student Book and answering questions 1 and 2. Select a
group of students to role-play being particles in a solid. Use masking tape to mark the area they stand in.
Ask them to show what happens when they are heated. The observers should identify what happens to the
overall volume of the solid. Emphasise the fact that the particles themselves do not expand, just the volume
they occupy as they are heated. Repeat with liquids and gases, comparing the expansion between solids,
liquids and gases. [O1&2]
 Working in groups of three, the students carry out the two investigations outlined on Practical sheet 2.3.8.
They will make ‘thermometers’ using water and alcohol, and observe the expansion of gases at different
temperatures. The amount of expansion in a solid is small and difficult to measure accurately. [O1&2]
 Ask the students to draw appropriate graphs of their observations. Explore their conclusions from their
investigations. [O1&2]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 98 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

Explain
 The students work in groups of three to create annotated posters of particle diagrams to explain the
observations from each investigation. [O1, 2&3]
Consolidate and apply
 The students should do tasks 1 and 2 of Worksheet 2.3.8, explaining comparisons in the expansion of
solids, liquids and gases. [O1, 2&3]
 Show the students a bimetallic strip as drawn in task 3 of Worksheet 2.3.8. Ask them to write an explanation
about how it might work. [O3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to look again at the graph of the expansion of ice on Worksheet 2.3.8.
Ask them to suggest some explanations for this anomalous behaviour. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Applications Ask the students to think of as many examples of thermal expansion in action as they can.
Problem solving Can they also think of problems that are caused by thermal expansion? How might some of
these be solved?

Answers to Student Book questions

1. the lid will expand on heating; making it fit more loosely; and so be easier to remove
2. The air inside the balloon will expand; taking up more space; this may cause the balloon to pop.
3. lead; aluminium; copper; steel; glass
4. Copper will expand on heating; long lengths should not be used; and room for expansion allowed for.
5. If filled with a solid, the expansion may be too small to detect and measure. With a gas, the expansion will be large;
meaning that a large container will be needed; this is not practical.
6. The sea will get warmer with increased global warming; this will cause the seawater to expand taking up more room
and sea levels will rise; causing flooding.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.8

1. a) The gas inside the aerosol expands on heating; because it is inside a closed container, the pressure increases; to
such an extent that the can will explode.
b) The railway line has buckled; this is because the iron has warmed up and expanded; because there is nowhere else
for it to move to, it changes shape and buckles.
c) As the seawater warms, it expands; this means that the volume increases; and the sea level will rise.
2. a) As water cools from 4 °C to 0 °C, the volume of water increases; it will take up more space; this can cause the pipes
to burst.
b) Water does not expand uniformly on heating; so it is not suitable for use in a thermometer.
c) Mercury is a liquid in this range of temperature; and it expands uniformly.
3. Check that the diagram shows that brass curves more than iron; the particles in brass are further apart than the
particles in iron.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 99 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.9 Making sense of models

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Describe the concept of a ‘good enough’ model.
 Link the particle model to elements and compounds.
 Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the particle model.
Learning outcomes
 Describe different models that can be used to represent particles. [O1]
 Apply and adapt models to make them more suitable for use. [O2]
 Evaluate the strengths and limitations of particle models. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use models
 Working scientifically: develop explanations
 Learner development: ask questions
Resources needed equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.9;
Technician’s notes 2.3.9

Digital resources Quick starter; Hangman: Key vocabulary game

Common misconceptions There is only one particle model.

Key vocabulary atom, element, compound, particle model

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Show the students one or two demonstrations (see Technician’s notes 2.3.9):
 a jar with a layer of carbon dioxide in the bottom – if a lighted splint is held in the air it stays lit, but it goes
out when held in the bottom of the jar
 using corn flour and water showing its unusual properties when it is hit.
 Ask the students to draw a particle model for solids, liquids and gases. Ask them to apply the model to the
materials in the demonstration(s). Ask the students to consider if the particle model can account for all the
observations. [O1&2]

Challenge and develop

 Discuss the idea that John Dalton was the first chemist known to propose the idea that particles are made up
of atoms, and that since then our idea of what atoms are like has changed considerably in the light of new
evidence. Lead the students to the understanding that the particle model is one that can explain some but not
all things – use the Student Book to help. [O1&2]
 Using popcorn, demonstrate an alternative model for looking at particles during a change of state. Ask them
to apply this model for explaining changes of state. Ask them to use role-play and polystyrene balls (see
Technician’s notes 2.3.9) as two alternative models for explaining changes of state, and to consider their
strengths and limitations. [O1, 2&3]
 Now demonstrate how ice floats on water. Ask the students to select a model that can explain why ice floats.
What would each of the models predict should happen? Help them to understand that a new model is needed
to explain this phenomenon. Use the Student Book to ‘see’ the forces between the particles in ice and in

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 100 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

water. Ask the students to construct their own three-dimensional model to explain how this phenomenon
works. [O2&3]
 Provide the students with coloured paper clips, coloured modelling clay and building bricks. Give them with
the list of compounds and elements in the second section of Worksheet 2.3.9 and ask them to make models
using the different materials. [O1, 2&3]

Explain
 Working in pairs, ask the students to compare all the models used so far for explaining changes of state and
rank them in order of most useful to least useful. They should explain their reasons. [O2&3]
 Ask them to do the same for the element and compound models. [O2&3]
Consolidate and apply
 Ask the students to complete the tasks of Worksheet 2.3.9, using appropriate models to explain the
situations given in task 3 of Worksheet 2.3.9. [O1, 2&3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to consider the question ‘Is there a perfect particle model?’ Ask them
to use evidence and observations to justify their answer. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Models Return to the ‘standard’ particle model and ask the students to summarise its limitations. Ask them to
give three reasons why scientists need to use and adapt models.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. Liquids and gases can flow but solids cannot; solids have a fixed shape; solids are stronger than liquids and gases.
2. When the solid popcorn kernels get hot they move around more; just like the particles of a solid when it changes into a
liquid. As more energy is transferred to the popcorn, the particles move more and more. When they finally pop, they
move like the particles of a gas; in a random way flying all over the place. One problem is that the ‘gas’ popcorn
particles are unlike the ‘solid’ particles; in reality the particles remain the same no matter what the state of the
substance.
3. H2O should have one oxygen atom and two smaller hydrogen atoms; HCl should have one large chlorine atom and one
small hydrogen atom; ideally of the same size as in the water molecule.
4. it shows the types of atoms present; and the approximate scale of their sizes
5. both models can explain why steam diffuses faster than liquid water; because both show that the particles in a gas
move faster than those in a liquid
6. the standard particle model does not show the shape of the ice crystals; and so cannot explain this

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.9

1. a) any of the three can be chosen; with a suitable reason – they all have strengths and limitations
b) in the gas state the particles themselves change form; which does not occur with real particles. In the ‘liquid’ state the
particles of popcorn do not stay close together
c) the gas particles are free to move in any direction
d) any answer; with a suitable reason
2. suitable models built with the correct numbers and types of atoms in different colours; ideally the solid particles should
be made in 3-D matrix
3. a) building bricks or molecular modelling kits can be used; the sizes and types of particles can be represented
b) popcorn, role-play and paperclips would not be suitable; they cannot adequately show different sizes and types of
particles
c) role-play could be used; it can show that aluminium has stronger intermolecular forces than water
d) popcorn and polystyrene balls; cannot show the forces between the particles
e) modelling clay is probably the most adaptable; any shape or sized particles can be represented

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 101 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.10 Applying key ideas

Explaining heat packs
Objectives
 Extract ideas about changes of state, expansion and energy changes from the text, including earlier sections
of the topic.
 Apply ideas about the particle model to explain some physical processes.
 Use ideas and information about particles to explain the properties of different states of matter and how
changes of state can be applied.

Outcome
 Making clear and effective responses to questions, indicating understanding and the next steps in learning.
The purpose of this activity is to provide an opportunity to see how successfully students are grasping the key
ideas so far. It is not designed to be used as a formal test – it might be that students work on the questions
collectively. It does provide an opportunity for you to look at written work, engage students in discussions and
form ideas about progress being made.
The tasks are progressive. Lower-attaining students should be able to tackle the first task, middle-attaining
students should be able to work through the next two and the more challenging final task is most suitable for the
higher-attaining students.

Resources needed sodium acetate heat packs; self-heating cups; Worksheet 2.3.10; Technician’s notes 2.3.10

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Quiz the students in relation to the key terminology used in previous lessons. Provide them with the key
words and ask them to come up with their own definitions.
 Demonstrate how quickly a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate crystallises by making a sculpture
using the directions in Technician’s notes 2.3.10. Use a thermometer to show that there is a temperature
change during the crystallisation process. Explore reasons for the transfer of heat using ideas about changes
of state.
Challenge and develop
 Discuss changes of state, emphasising the energy transfers that take place. Focus on the fact that as liquids
change to solids heat needs to be transferred from the liquid to the surroundings. This is a useful energy
transfer used in hand warmers. Discuss also the need for heat to be transferred to a liquid for it to turn into a
gas.
 Working in pairs, give the students sodium acetate hand warmers and self-heating cups based on phase-
change materials. Ask them to discuss the heat transfers involved and to think about what is happening to
the particles. In the case of the self-heating cups, one model uses an oil-type solid in a sealed unit within the
cup. When the coffee is hot, energy is transferred from the coffee to a suitable temperature for drinking. The
solid oil melts to form a liquid. When the coffee cools, the liquid changes state to become a solid. Energy is
transferred back to the coffee in the process, heating it up. There are other types of heat packs available –
some rely on chemical reactions.
 Ask the students to think about in what other ways changes of state may be useful in energy transfers.
Explain
 Ask the students to read the text about Explaining heat packs in the Student Book. Depending on their ability
to assimilate text, you may need to adopt the following strategies.
 Have students working in pairs, with Worksheet 2.3.10 and highlighters. One student highlights key ideas and
the other (using a different colour) any words they don't understand.
 Using the text as a source of ideas, they draw a spider chart with ‘changes of state’ at the centre, surrounded
by aspects relating to it. They could include the names of changes, how they come about and applications.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 102 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

 Work with groups of students who have difficulty with reading to support them in decoding the text and
accessing the ideas.

Consolidate and apply

 Now ask the students to attempt the tasks in the Student Book. They might do this individually or
collaboratively – in either case, encourage them to identify and record their ideas.
 Ask them to present their responses to various tasks, either orally or by displaying their work.

Extend
 For students able to progress further, the later tasks give opportunities for extension work.

Plenary
How did you do? Ask the students the following questions to reflect on how well they responded to the tasks:
What did they find easy to do? What was hard? What do they still not understand about the particle model and
changes of state? Provide the students with some overall feedback, indicating ideas that they have grasped
effectively and those that may need developing further.

Likely responses and next steps in learning

1. This task gives the students an opportunity to recall information about liquids and solids. They should include
ideas about the particles’ arrangements, energy and forces, and how these affect the properties. The hand
warmer is hard when it is solid and strong, but very flexible when it is a liquid. The differences in energy
between the particles should be compared, and the comparative strength of the intermolecular forces.
2. This task involves describing what happens when a liquid becomes a solid and vice versa. Accurate particle
diagrams should be drawn – all the particles the same size, and all particles in the liquid touching. The
students should discuss the energy transfers taking place – when a liquid changes to a solid, energy is
transferred by heat to the surroundings. This heat transfer is how the hand warmer works – useful heat
energy is transferred.
3. a) This task requires students to engage with the text. They need to explain that as the sodium acetate
changes from liquid to solid, energy must be transferred by heat because particles in a liquid have more
energy than particles in a solid. So energy must be transferred away to the surroundings for a change in state
to occur.
b) The students should also appreciate that once a hand warmer has become solid, there is no more transfer
of heat. It needs to be ‘turned’ back into a liquid. For this energy is required, so the solid’s particles can gain
energy to be turned into a liquid again.
4. a) Here the students need to appreciate that in an iron–oxygen hand warmer a chemical change takes place
to make iron oxide – this reaction transfers heat to the surroundings. This is an irreversible change, with new
bonds being formed between oxygen and iron. This should be shown in the particle diagrams.
With calcium chloride and water, energy is transferred by heat to the surroundings as the calcium chloride
dissolves. This is a reversible change – the particle diagram needs to reflect this.
b) Iron–oxygen disadvantages: the students may realise that this is a slow reaction and that not a great deal
of heat is transferred. The iron and oxygen must be kept separate until heat is required. Once the iron has
reacted, it has ‘gone’ and there is no more and it must be discarded. Heat transfer ceases when the reaction
stops.
Iron–oxygen advantages: there are no problems activating the reaction – heat is transferred as soon as the
reactants come into contact with each other.
Calcium chloride and water disadvantages: separate containers are needed for the calcium chloride and
water. Once the calcium chloride has dissolved it must be discarded and no further heat transfer is possible.
Calcium chloride and water advantages: a lot of heat energy can be transferred by this change, making it
suitable for keeping drinks hot.
Sodium acetate disadvantages: a metal disc is needed to activate the change; eventually this will run out.
The change will only transfer energy over an hour or so.
Sodium acetate advantages: the pack can be re-heated to form a liquid and reused several times.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 103 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.11 Explaining the density of solids and liquids

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Use the particle model to explain density differences between solids and liquids.
 Use the particle model to explain anomalies between ice and water.
Learning outcomes
 Make predictions about floating and sinking using ideas about density. [O1]
 Calculate the densities of solids and liquids. [O2]
 Use the particle model to explain factors relating to density. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use equations
 Working scientifically: record evidence
 Learner development: collaborate effectively
Resources needed equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.11;
Technician’s notes 2.3.11

Digital resources Quick starter; Slideshow: What is density?; Interactive activity: Drag the items to the correct
group – density less or greater than water?

Common misconceptions Density is the same as mass. A big object will sink, but a small object will float.

Key vocabulary density, mass, volume, float

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Tell the students you are going to put two identically sized cans of cola into containers of water – one is
normal cola, the other is diet cola. What do they predict will happen? Note the predictions of selected
students. In the demonstration the diet cola is found to float, and the normal cola sinks. Ask the students to
discuss in pairs what is happening and to propose a hypothesis. [O1]
 Show the students a range of objects in task 1 of Worksheet 2.3.11. Recap ideas about floating and sinking
from other chapters. Ask the students to make predictions about what will sink and float and to explain why.
Review the idea that density depends on mass and volume. Demonstrate whether the objects float or sink.
[O1]

Challenge and develop

 Use the Student Book to define the term density and find out how it can be calculated. [O2]
 Ask the students to use task 2 of Worksheet 2.3.11 to calculate the density of solid and molten iron and to
compare them. Can they explain the difference in density of the solid state and the liquid state? Students
should identify that the density of water is anomalous. [O1&2]
 Show the students the setup for putting an ice cube into ice cold water at about 4 °C and a chocolate square
into melted chocolate. Working in pairs, ask the students to predict what will happen and to use the particle
model to explain this. Do the demonstrations at the same time – the ice floats and the chocolate sinks. Ask
the students to suggest a possible explanation. [O1&3]
 Discuss the particle model for ice and water from the Student Book. Explore the structure of ice compared
with that of most solids. The particles have a regular structure, but there are spaces between the molecules
of ice. Use the Student Book to help the students to identify that the ice molecules have special

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 104 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

intermolecular forces between them which keep them in this arrangement. (There is no need to discuss
hydrogen bonding in any depth at this stage.) [O1&3]

Explain
 Working in pairs, ask the students to make 3D models of ice crystals and gold. They should explain how
they are different, why the density of liquid gold is less than that of solid gold, and why ice is less dense than
cold water but more dense than hot water. [O1&3]
Consolidate and apply
 Ask the students to show their models and share their explanations. [O1&3]
 Ask them to look at the graph (Figure 2.3.11c in the Student Book) showing how the density of ice changes
with temperature. Ask them to draw particle models for each of the points where the shape of the graph
changes in the worksheet. They should sketch what the graph will look like for a solid like gold. [O3]
 They should answer the questions in task 3 of Worksheet 2.3.11 and also the Student Book questions. [O1,
2&3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to find out about hydrogen bonding and how it accounts for the
anomalous behaviour of ice and water. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Life on Earth Ask the students to think of ways that this anomalous behaviour of ice and water affects life on
Earth, and other physical processes such as freeze–thaw action.
Spread the word Ask them to share two things they have learned with three other people.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. a) the paper floats on top of the syrup
b) the iron sinks in the alcohol
c) the brick will float within the liquid; and not on top; they have the same density
d) the baby oil floats on top of the water; they are immiscible liquids
2. there are fewer particles dissolved using sweeteners; so it is less dense
3. The particles of the hot liquid have more energy; and so move further apart. This means the particles are less closely
packed; and the hot liquid is less dense than the colder liquid; causing the hotter liquid to rise.
4. There are more dissolved salts in the Dead Sea water; so it is more dense than a human body; so the body floats.
5. a) 4 °C b) 0 °C
6. Ice is less dense than cold water; and so floats on top. This slows down the freezing process for the water at the
bottom; and it remains liquid until it is so cold that the whole body of water freezes. Fish can therefore survive at the
bottom of the lake while the water remains as a liquid.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.11

1. a) Float – wood, plastic, oil; Sink – brick, metal (most), glass, marble, honey (and then dissolve)
b) They have a density higher than 1.0 g/cm3. c) They have a density lower than 1.0 g/cm3.
d) mass; volume
2. a) 7.9 g/cm3 b) 7.0 g/cm3
c) the liquid has a bigger volume; because its particles have more energy; and move more freely taking up more space;
the mass stays the same
d) Ice is a solid but it is less dense than liquid water at a higher temperature of 4 °C; normal solids are more dense than
their liquids.
3. a) Appropriate particle diagrams showing at A the particles of solid ice taking up more space than the particles at B,
which will take up the smallest space. Particles at C will take up the largest space for the same number of particles.
b) Sketch should show that gold has a much higher density than water (about 20 times more dense) and that the
density decreases slightly with increased temperature. The density changes in a solid are much less marked than in a
liquid.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 105 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.12 Explaining the density of gases

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Use the particle model to explain differences in the densities of gases.
 Evaluate a method of measuring density.
Learning outcomes
 Link the density of a gas with its uses – e.g. helium, carbon dioxide, argon. [O1]
 Use the particle model to explain differences in the densities of gases. [O2]
 Use the Periodic Table and an investigation to calculate the densities of gases. [O3]

Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use equations
 Working scientifically: evaluate methods
 Learner development: collaborate effectively
Resources needed equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.12a;
Worksheet 2.3.12b; Practical sheet 2.3.12; Technician’s notes 2.3.12

Digital resources Quick starter; Interactive activity: Place the gases in order, from highest to lowest density at
standard room temperature; Video

Common misconceptions All gases float. All gases are less dense than air. There is no difference in the
density of gases.

Key vocabulary density, mass, volume

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Show a video that illustrates the differences in the densities of different gases – for example that found at the
RSC website www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry when you search in the resources for ‘bubbles that float and sink’.
 Use three different balloons – one filled with helium, another with air and the third with carbon dioxide – to
explore differences in the densities of these gases. Consider the chemical formula of the gases, in
conjunction with the Periodic table. Using task 1 of Worksheet 2.3.12a, ask the students to work out the
molecular mass of each. Ask them to relate the molecular mass to their observations and the data about
density. [O1, 2&3]
 Discuss how the different densities of gases are used in different applications. [O1]

Challenge and develop

 Demonstrate the diving raisins experiment using Technician’s notes 2.3.12. The students should write an
explanation using a particle model. Question them about the processes in terms of density and mass. What
would they expect to happen to the mass of the lemonade bottle over time? Would this mass change occur
more or less quickly without the raisins? [O2]
 The students can now measure the density of carbon dioxide using the procedure on Practical sheet 2.3.12.
There are a number of potential areas for error in the investigation – the students should focus on
identifying these. They should try to minimise the errors as far as they can and aim to obtain a reliable
value for the density of carbon dioxide. [O2&3]
 Take feedback from across the class and write down all the obtained values for the density of carbon dioxide.
Provide them with the accepted value of 2 g/l. Examine the experimental setup together and identify and
discuss all the possible sources of error. Explore how the students attempted to minimise their errors. Ask

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 106 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

them to write an explanation of how they would change their investigation to improve the accuracy of their
measurements. [O3]

Explain
 Discuss the applications of gases in different situations such as air balloons and fire extinguishers, and the
use of chlorine in war – use the second section of the topic in the Student Book. Ask the students to draw
particle diagrams to explain how the property of density is being applied in each case. [O1&2]

Consolidate and apply

 Use the Student Book to introduce the observation that if the mass of a sample of a gas is the same as its
molecular mass in grams, the gas will occupy a volume of 22.4 l, regardless of which gas it is. This
observation can be used to calculate the density of gases. Select some higher-attaining students to calculate
the density of different gases – e.g. ammonia (NH3), hydrogen chloride (HCl), nitrogen (N2) and bromine (Br2),
as suggested in task 3 of Worksheet 2.3.12a. [O3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to consider how they would plan to measure the densities of other
gases, using a chamber of fixed volume, a vacuum pump and precise scales. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Density Ask the students to write down at least one difference between the densities of gases and those of
solids and liquids.
Unknown gas Tell them that a previously unknown gas called phloaton has a molecular mass of 52. Ask them
how they would find the density of the gas. Ask them why they could not determine the density of phloaton as a
solid or liquid in this way.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. correctly drawn bar graph; names of gases on x-axis; density on y-axis; appropriate scale
2. carbon dioxide; chlorine
3. helium is lighter than air; does not need to be heated to make it less dense
4. chlorine is denser than air; it filled the trenches instead of floating away
5. a) 32 ÷ 22.4 = 1.4 g/l b) 44 ÷ 22.4 = 2.0 mg/l c) 64 ÷ 22.4 = 2.9 mg/l d) 58 ÷ 22.4 = 2.6 mg/l

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.12a

1. a) hydrogen 2; helium 4; carbon dioxide 44; ammonia 17; chlorine 71
b) the bigger the mass, the higher the density
c) i) chlorine ii) helium iii) carbon dioxide
2. The sketch should show the airship balloon filled with much smaller particles of helium; which are much more spread
out than the surrounding air particles. The helium particles are much smaller than the nitrogen and oxygen particles in
the air. The helium is much less dense than air; so the airship floats.
3. a) i) 17 ÷ 22.4 = 0.76 g/l ii) 36.5 ÷ 22.4 = 1.63 g/l iii) 160 ÷ 22.4 = 7.14 g/l
iv) 16 ÷ 22.4 = 0.71 g/l v) 48 ÷ 22.4 = 2.14 g/l
b) In this theoretical calculation of density, it is assumed that the gas particles have no intermolecular forces between
them. This is not true; these can play a small part in causing gases to have a slightly lower volume than expected.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 107 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.13 Explaining concentration and pressure

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Describe what is meant by concentration and pressure.
 Use the particle model to explain differences in concentration and pressure.
Learning outcomes
 Make liquids of known concentrations. [O1]
 Apply ideas of pressure and concentration to explain different applications. [O2]
 Use ideas about particles to explain differences in concentration and in pressure. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use equations and models
 Working scientifically: develop explanations
 Learner development: collaborate effectively
Resources needed mini-whiteboards; equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes;
Worksheet 2.3.13; Practical sheet 2.3.13; Technician’s notes 2.3.13

Digital resources Quick starter; Slideshow: Working out concentration - A fizzy drink example

Common misconceptions Pressure is a force. Liquids are either concentrated or dilute.

Key vocabulary concentration, concentrated, dilute, pressure, kilopascal

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Show the students diluted cordial drinks of different strengths. Give them mini-whiteboards and ask them to
draw the particles of water and the particles of cordial in different colours. Discuss the differences between
them and introduce the term ‘concentration‘ using the ‘What is concentration?’ section in the Student Book.
[O2&3]

Challenge and develop

 Working in pairs, the students follow the instructions on Practical sheet 2.3.13. They will be making solid–
liquid and liquid–liquid solutions of different concentrations. [O1&2]
 Demonstrate how the reaction of a concentrated solution compares with that of a dilute solution (see
Technician’s notes 2.3.13). Show the reaction of hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon using 2 M HCl and
0.5 M HCl. Ask the students to develop an explanation of their observations. [O2&3]
 Discuss the idea of pressure in gases using the ‘Explaining pressure in liquids and gases’ section in the
Student Book. You can use a balloon to show the students that gases exert a pressure. Blow up a balloon
and allow them to feel the balloon at different stages. They should establish that the more particles of air
there are, the higher the pressure they exert. [O2]

Explain
 Demonstrate the collapsing can experiment, using the instructions in Technician’s notes 2.3.13. Ask the
students to work in pairs to draw particle diagrams, explaining what they have observed. [O2&3]

Consolidate and apply

 Ask the students to compare and contrast ideas relating to concentration and then to pressure. How are
they different and how are they similar? [O1, 2&3]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 108 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

 Ask them to answer the questions in the Student Book and on Worksheet 2.3.13. [O1, 2&3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to research deep sea creatures and find out how they are adapted to
withstand such high pressures without imploding. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Learning triangle Ask the students to draw a learning triangle to reflect on their learning – a large triangle with
a smaller inverted triangle that just fits inside it (so they have four triangles). In the outer three they write:
 something they’ve seen
 something they’ve done
 something they’ve discussed.
Then they add to the central triangle something they’ve learned.
Applications Ask the students to think of everyday examples where ideas about concentration and pressure
are applied.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. a; c; b
2. you would add more water; drawings should show more water molecules to cordial molecules after dilution
3. 25 ÷100 = 0.25 g/cm3
4. 10 ÷ (10 + 90) × 100% = 10% volume
5. there are fewer particles so there is less pressure
6. graphs should have the correct axes, and an increasing line, starting from 0

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.13

1. a) the more concentrated acid is reacting more vigorously; producing more bubbles
b) diagrams should show molecules of acid; and water; fewer of water in the dilute solution
2. a) 5 ÷ 20 = 0.25 g/cm3
b) 15 ÷ 25 = 0.6 g/cm3
c) 10 ÷ (10 + 200) = 0.05 g/cm3
d) 5 ÷ (5 + 5) = 0.5 g/cm3
3. drawing to show that there are more air particles outside the can, producing a higher pressure as they collide with the
sides of the can

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 109 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.14 Exploring diffusion

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Use the particle model to explain observations involving diffusion.
Learning outcomes
 Describe how diffusion occurs in liquids and gases. [O1]
 Explain observations relating to diffusion in terms of particles. [O2]
 Make predictions, using ideas about particles, relating to factors affecting the rate of diffusion. [O3]

Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use models
 Working scientifically: develop explanations
 Learner development: communicate effectively
Resources needed equipment and resources as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.14;
Practical sheet 2.3.14; Technician’s notes 2.3.14

Digital resources Quick starter; Slideshow: Observing diffusion with bromine gas; Interactive activity: Drag the
items to the correct group – speeds up or slows down diffusion of particles; Hangman: Key vocabulary game

Common misconceptions Diffusion occurs in solids.

Key vocabulary diffusion, equilibrium, concentration gradient

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Pair talk The students should discuss and write down three things they can remember about diffusion. Use
the Student Book to recap ideas about diffusion. [O1&2]
 Show the students three containers each with a different concentration of cordial. Ask them to predict what
would happen if the solution with the highest concentration was put into the container with the lowest
concentration, so the solutions could mix. [O2&3]

Challenge and develop

 Set up a circus of three different investigations for students to make observations from. Ask the students to
follow the procedures given on Practical sheet 2.3.14 and to record their observations. In Experiment 2,
only allow the students to add the chemicals to the Petri dish if you have given then specific permission –
lead nitrate is TOXIC. If you have any doubts at all about the students using this themselves, add the
chemicals to the Petri dishes yourself. See Technician’s notes 2.3.1.4. When the students have completed
one investigation, they should move on to the next. [O1&2]
 Explore their findings. Ask selected students from different groups to role-play what is happening to the
particles in each of the investigations. [O1&2]
 Discuss different ways in which the rate of diffusion could be increased in each case. [O2&3].

Explain
 Pair work Ask the students to draw annotated particle diagrams to explain the observations in each
investigation. Task 2 of Worksheet 2.3.14 may be used for support here. [O1, 2&3]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 110 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

Consolidate and apply

 Use the ‘Explaining diffusion’ section in the Student Book to discuss the reaction between concentrated
ammonia and hydrochloric acid in a long glass tube. Explore the way the reaction occurs and the part that
diffusion has to play. Discuss why the product is not formed in the centre of the tube. [O1, 2&3]
 Pair talk Ask the students to consider all the different factors affecting the rate of diffusion – task 3 of
Worksheet 2.3.14 will help. Ask them to develop an explanation, using particle diagrams, for why one
particular factor is likely to have the greatest impact on the rate of diffusion. They should explain why the
other factors are likely to have less effect. [O2&3]

Extend
 Tell students able to progress further that chromatography is an example of diffusion. Show them the
chromatogram from their practical investigation. Ask them to draw a particle model of the chromatogram to
explain how diffusion makes this process possible. They can carry out some research to help them. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Diffusion speeds Ask the students to consider all the investigations and demonstrations they have seen in the
lesson. Ask them to rank the investigations/demonstrations in order of where diffusion occurred fastest to where
it occurred slowest. [O2&3]

Answers to Student Book questions

1. making a drink using cordial; the particles diffuse throughout the water; stirring just helps this process
2. there are fewer particles the further away you are from the source; they have spread out
3. the one with the ink in pure water; as it has biggest concentration gradient
4. Coffee in hot water will reach equilibrium first; the water is hot so its particles have more kinetic energy; and will be able
to move faster; compared to the cold water.
5. diffusion would occur much more slowly
6. heat the tube; the particles will gain energy; and move more quickly
7. Ammonia particles are smaller; and will move faster than the hydrochloric acid particles; so they will meet the
hydrochloric acid particles closer to where the latter have diffused from.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.14

1. a) the red food colouring in the hot water diffused further and faster; than the blue colouring in the cold water
b) a yellow solid would form in the water between the two crystals
2. a) The particles in the hot water move faster; and will carry the dissolved food colouring faster; so the red food
colouring will spread further and faster.
b) The crystals dissolve in the water; and diffuse away from the source; because these areas are at a high
concentration. They form closer to the lead nitrate crystal; because its particles are heavier; and will not diffuse as fast
as the potassium iodide particles.
3. a) An increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion; the particles have more energy and so can be carried
further and faster.
b) The bigger the particles, the harder it is to diffuse; and so will not be carried as far. Lead nitrate particles and HCl
particles are the heavier particles; so the initial reactions occurred nearer to them; because they did not diffuse as far.
c) The steeper the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion; a dilute solution of cordial will not diffuse as
fast; as a concentrated solution when put in a beaker of water.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 111 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.15 Conserving mass

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Use the particle model to explain the Law of Conservation of Mass.
Learning outcomes
 Recognise that mass is conserved in all physical processes and chemical reactions. [O1]
 Use mass to find the efficiency of separating sand from salt. [O2]
 Explain what happens to unexpected changes in mass using the particle model. [O3]

Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: consider the quality of evidence
 Working scientifically: record evidence
 Learner development: collaborate effectively
Resources needed equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.15; Practical
sheet 2.3.15a; Practical sheet 2.3.15b; Technician’s notes 2.3.15

Digital resources Quick starter; Interactive activity: Which of the statements about chemical reactions are true,
and which are false?

Common misconceptions When solutions are made, the volumes can just be added to get the total volume.

Key vocabulary Law of Conservation of Mass, chemical reaction, physical change, efficiency

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Demonstrate mass conservation during changes of state using some ice and wax. Put them in separate
conical flasks with a balloon covering the opening – weigh each flask and record the masses. Heat the flasks
– when all solids are melted, weigh each flask and record its mass. Continue to heat the flasks, until much of
the liquid has evaporated – now weigh the flasks again. Ask the students to draw a conclusion from this
demonstration. [O1]

Challenge and develop

 Group work Ask the students to carry out the experiment on Practical sheet 2.3.15a. They will first make up
different solid–liquid and liquid–liquid solutions, recording the mass and the volume and accounting for
unexpected differences. [O1&3]
 Explore their findings and ask them to account for their observations. Select a small group of students to
role-play their explanations. [O3]
 Now ask students to do the follow-on activity described on Practical sheet 2.3.15b. They are given a mixture
of known mass of sand and salt to separate. They have to plan the separation as carefully as possible and
work out the efficiency of the separation process. [O1&2]

Explain
 Show the students another demonstration. Weigh an effervescent antacid tablet and a conical flask with
some water in it. Add the tablet to the flask, leave to react and then record the mass at the end. Working in
pairs, the students devise an explanation to account for the apparent anomaly. Can they predict the mass
of gas that should have escaped? [O1, O3]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 112 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

Consolidate and apply

 Pair work Working in pairs, the students design a poster to show a way of carrying out the antacid
investigation to show that mass is conserved. If time allows, give them the opportunity to carry this out.
[O1&3]
 Ask the students to attempt the tasks on Worksheet 2.3.15 and answer the Student Book questions. [O1,
2&3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to evaluate their salt separation investigation and make
improvements to the design to make it more efficient. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Describing conservation of mass Ask the students to write a description of the meaning of ‘conservation of
mass’ for some students who have not yet heard of it. They should include some examples in their description.
[O1&3]

Answers to Student Book questions

1. 100 g
2. steam particles will escape into the air; causing the mass to decrease
3. less than 100 cm3 but more than 80 cm3; some sugar particles will occupy the gaps between the water particles
4. 94 g; mass must be conserved; the total mass is the mass of the sugar + the mass of the water.
5. five per cent of the original amount of gold; was not recovered by the process. It could be stuck in the machinery; still
dissolved in the cyanide; or in the sodium hydroxide
6. 10 × 50 ÷ 100 = 5 kg

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.15

1 a) 25 g
b) 20 g
c) i) 58 g ii) no; there will be less
iii) some of the water will evaporate into the air; or condense on the sides of the container
2 a) decanter
b) There are fewer places where oil particles or water particles can be ‘lost’; in the filtration system, water is lost in the
filter; and on the sides of the container; and solids are left on the filter; and cannot be collected easily.
c) 27 ÷ 30 × 100 = 90%
3. Suitable particle diagrams: the decanter showing water particles at its base; the filtration system showing water
particles in the filter paper and on the funnel; solid particles will be on the filter paper and the sides of the funnel.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 113 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.16 Deciding between physical and chemical changes

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Use the particle model to explain the differences between physical and chemical changes.
 Recognise that mass is conserved in all changes.
Learning outcomes
 Describe the features of physical changes and chemical changes. [O1]
 Explain how mass is conserved in all changes. [O2]
 Use the particle model to explain physical changes and chemical changes. [O3]
Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: ask questions
 Working scientifically: interpret evidence
 Learner development: collaborate effectively
Resources needed equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.16; Practical
sheet 2.3.16; Technician’s notes 2.3.16

Digital resources Quick starter; Slideshow: Changes that are easily reversed and changes that are not easily
reversed; Interactive activity: Drag the change into the correct group – physical or chemical change?

Common misconceptions All chemical changes give off gases.

Key vocabulary physical change, reversible, chemical change, exothermic, endothermic

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Demonstrate the three changes outlined in Technician’s notes 2.3.16:
 burning a hydrogen balloon, or showing a video of this
 the ‘elephant toothpaste’ demonstration using hydrogen peroxide
 heating a small amount of iodine in a flask and watching it sublime.
 Ask the students to observe closely and make a list of all their observations. Remind them of the terms
‘physical change’ and ‘chemical change’. Ask them to decide which are physical changes and which are
chemical changes and explain their reasoning. [O1]
 Use the Student Book to recap all the signs of physical changes and of chemical changes. Make the students
aware that some of these signs, like temperature changes, are not definitive in themselves – it is the changes
to the particles themselves which matter the most. [O1]

Challenge and develop

 Working in pairs, ask the students to carry out the different investigations given on Practical sheet 2.3.16.
They should make full observations, stating if changes are physical or chemical. [O1, 2&3]
Higher-attaining students are expected to weigh the chemicals before and after the change to establish that mass is
conserved in all changes.

 Encourage the students to explore their findings and to identify any changes that caused them difficulty.
Select different students to share the particle diagrams they have developed and discuss any
misconceptions. [O3]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 114 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

Explain
 Demonstrate burning steel wool, measuring the mass of the wool before and after the reaction – instructions
are given in Technician’s notes 2.3.16. Ask the students to write an explanation to show why in some
combustion reactions the mass increases after burning. [O2&3]
Higher-attaining students should draw particle diagrams to explain what changes are taking place in the chemical
reactions they have observed. For balanced particle diagrams, provide students with the balanced symbol equations for
the reactions, so they can draw the particle diagrams.
Ask higher-attaining students to also consider why, in the case of solubility, there may be temperature changes involved.
They should use their previous understanding of solubility and forces. [O3]

Consolidate and apply

 Pairs to fours Working in pairs, ask the students to draw a poster about physical and chemical changes,
using particle diagrams to make the differences clear. Ask two pairs to swap posters and use the Student
Book to peer-assess them, identifying two good things and one thing for improvement. [O1, 2&3]
 The students should attempt all the tasks of Worksheet 2.3.16. [O1, 2&3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to investigate the heating of hydrated copper sulphate, and adding of
water to the white product. Can they determine if this is a chemical change or a physical change and explain
what is happening?

Plenary suggestions
Changes at home Ask the students to think of everyday changes they observe at home. Ask them to classify
them as being physical or chemical and to justify their decisions.
Physical or chemical? Ask the students to work in pairs and discuss why is it important to be able to classify
changes as being physical or chemical.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. physical processes – e.g. dissolving; changes of state; making mixtures
chemical changes – e.g. frying an egg; baking a cake; making toast
2. chemical; there is a colour change
3. heating iodine physical; sodium left in air chemical; decomposition of copper carbonate chemical ; melting of water
physical; magnesium reacting with chlorine chemical
4. physical change – no change in the atoms or molecules; chemical change – clear change in the atoms and molecules;
correct word equation
5. physical; the rubber is still rubber; there is no change in the atoms and molecules
6. the sodium chloride can be ‘brought back’ by evaporating the water

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.16

1. a) no; no; yes; no; no; chemical
b) yes, it is being heated; no; no; no; no; physical
c) yes; yes; yes; no; no; chemical
d) yes, it is being burned; yes; yes; yes; yes; chemical
e) no; no; no; no; no; physical
f) yes, it glows; yes; yes; no; no; chemical
g) a little; no; yes; yes; no; chemical
h) a little; yes; yes; no; no; chemical
i) a little; yes; no; no; no; no; physical
2. a) magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide; iron + oxygen  iron oxide
b) the product should be heavier than the metal
3. Appropriate particle diagrams; with the same atoms in the reactants as in the products; clearly showing that different
products have been made.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 115 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.17 Explaining the properties of mixtures

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Use the particle model to explain the properties of mixtures.
Learning outcomes
 Describe different types of colloids. [O1]
 Explain the properties of different colloids using the particle model. [O2]
 Use the particle model to explain the properties of colloids, and how solutions affect melting and boiling
points. [O3]

Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: ask questions
 Working scientifically: design investigations
 Learner development: communicate effectively
Resources needed equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet 2.3.17; Practical
sheet 2.3.17; Technician’s notes 2.3.17

Digital resources Quick starter; Interactive activity: Match the terms about mixtures and changing states to
their correct definition; Video

Common misconceptions Materials are classified as being solids, liquids or gases.

Key vocabulary emulsion, colloid, foam, gel

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Show the students a range of different substances that are hard to classify as solids, liquids or gases – e.g.
toothpaste, jelly, shaving foam, hair gel, mayonnaise, aerosol, fizzy drink, paint, milk and whipped cream. Ask
the students to identify which states of matter are clearly evident in each substance. [O1]
 Introduce the term ‘colloid’, in which one state of matter is dispersed in another. Ask the students to use the
Student Book to identify particular types of colloid in the materials demonstrated. [O1]

Challenge and develop

 Using Practical sheet 2.3.17, and working in pairs, the students will plan an investigation to work out how to
produce the tallest foam using Mentos and diet cola. It would be best to carry out this investigation outside
because the foam produced will shoot upwards creating a mess. With permission, the students could use a
camera or video recorder to measure the height of their foam more accurately. If this investigation is not
possible, effervescent antacid tablets and water could be used as an alternative suitable for the classroom,
carrying out the investigation in a bucket. When their plans have been approved, ask the students to carry
out their investigation. They should identify reasons why some conditions might produce more foam than
others. [O1&2]
 Discuss the term ‘emulsion’. Show the students what happens when washing-up liquid is added to oil and
water that have been separated. Ask them to use the particle diagram (Figure 2.3.17c) in the Student Book to
explain what is happening. [O2&3]

Explain
 Explore what happens to ice when salt is added to it. Show the students different concentrations of salt
solution that have been kept overnight in a freezer and the graph (Figure 2.3.17a) in the Student Book. Ask
the students to discuss their observations and the graph and explain what is happening. [O3]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 116 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

Higher-attaining students should use the particle model to develop an explanation, using ideas from the Student Book.
[O3]

Consolidate and apply

 For each of the materials used at the start of the lesson, ask the students to draw particle models to best
represent each of them. [O2&3]

Extend
 Students able to progress further could investigate the properties of hydrogels. They could find out what the
particle model is like in order to explain hydrogel behaviour. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Properties Ask the students to summarise what properties the particle models for a foam, a gel and an aerosol
can and cannot explain.
Key words Ask them to write definitions of the key words for the lesson.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. −11 °C
2. Adding 15% salt to water means the water will not freeze until it cools to −11 °C; at temperatures lower than −11 °C it
will become ice. This is safer for traffic; because the roads will not be as slippery.
3. the mixture will separate; into two or more layers
4. adding an emulsifier means that all the ingredients will be perfectly mixed throughout; and not end up as layers
5. foams – shaving foam; cleaning foam; gels – toothpaste, hand cleanser; aerosols – inhaler for asthmatics; deodorant
6. A foam should show liquid particles; with gas particles trapped in between. An aerosol should show gas particles, with
liquid or solid particles, in between. A gel should show solid particles; surrounding liquid particles.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.17

1. These will depend on the investigation chosen – one example is given here:
a) type of liquid
b) sparkling water, lemonade, tonic water
c) height of foam
d) use a strip of card marked with measurements attached to a wall by the experiment
e) the number of Mentos; the amount of liquid; the temperature of the liquid
f) This will depend on the investigation chosen – ensure that the control variables are not the same as the independent
or the dependent variables; sensible values have been chosen.
g) foam shooting into eyes; and onto clothes; slipping on the liquid
h) wear eye protection; wear clothing protection; mop up all spillages
2. a) Make the marks on the card as close as possible. Take a photo of the foam at its maximum height so you can
measure the height.
b) Repeat each investigation at least three times. Omit anomalous readings; use the mean height.
3. a) Ask another group to carry out our investigation; see if they obtain the same results.
b) if the results fit a pattern; if the results from the repeat investigations are very similar
c) Any suitable answer – such as use a height sensor to measure the height accurately.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 117 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.18 Using particle models

Lesson overview
Learning objectives
 Use ‘good enough’ particle models to explain different observations.
Learning outcomes
 Use particle models to explain separation processes. [O1]
 Use particle models to explain how the solubilities of solids and gases change with temperature. [O2]
 Explain the effectiveness of different models in explaining chemical changes. [O3]

Skills development
 Thinking scientifically: use models
 Working scientifically: develop explanations
 Learner development: ask questions
Resources needed graph paper; equipment and materials as detailed in the Technician’s notes; Worksheet
2.3.18; Practical sheet 2.3.18a; Practical sheet 2.3.18b; Technician’s notes 2.3.18

Digital resources Quick starter; Slideshow: A look at how sugar dissolves in water; Interactive activity: Place
the events in order of how sugar dissolves in tea; Hangman: Key vocabulary game

Common misconceptions Solids and gases increase in solubility with temperature.

Key vocabulary particle model

Teaching and learning

Engage
 Use the ‘Explaining separation processes’ section in the Student Book to recap the limitations of the standard
particle model.
 Ask the students to reflect on what they have learned in recent lessons and to identify how they have
adapted the particle model in different situations, so that it can be applied to explain a range of phenomena.

Challenge and develop

 Ask the students to look at task 1 of Worksheet 2.3.18a. They will use and adapt the particle model to
explain what is happening in chromatography. [O1]
 Working in pairs, ask them to investigate how the solubilities of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride
change with temperature. They are to draw graphs of their results and compare their findings. They should
follow the instructions in Practical sheet 2.3.18a. [O1&2]
 Working in pairs, the students carry out two chemical changes as described in Practical sheet 2.3.18b.
These are between iron(II) sulfate and sodium hydroxide, and between iron(III) chloride and sodium
hydroxide. They should use the particle model to show what is happening in each reaction. [O3]

Explain
 Working in pairs, the students adapt the particle model to explain the solubility graphs they have obtained
from their investigation. Ask them to share their adapted models and their explanation with the class. [O1&2]
Consolidate and apply
 Ask the students to attempt tasks 2 and 3 of Worksheet 2.3.18 and the questions in the Student Book. [O1,
2&3]

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 118 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

 Ask them to compare the particle models they have used in their different investigations. Explore the idea of
whether one model could be better or worse than another. [O2&3]

Extend
 Ask students able to progress further to consider the strengths and drawbacks of always using particular
symbols to represent particles, instead of just using circles. [O3]

Plenary suggestions
Concept map The students could draw a concept map using the particle model to explain all the properties
about particles they have learnt over the course of the unit.
What do I know? Ask them to write definitions for all the key words used in the lesson.

Answers to Student Book questions

1. The alcohol particles have been given a different colour; so they can be distinguished from the water particles; to see
what is happening to the alcohol particles.
2. Particles of the liquid should be smaller than the particles of the solid. The explanation should show that the particles of
the liquid go through the gaps in the filter paper, but the particles of the insoluble solid are too big to pass through.
3. Diagram should show stronger solute–solute forces between less soluble solutes; and stronger solute–solvent forces
for more soluble solutes.
4. Diagram should show more spaces at higher temperatures; so more solute particles can fill the spaces. Strengths –
shows why more solute can be dissolved; at a higher temperature. Limitations – does not show that the particles have
more energy at a higher temperature.
5. magnesium + hydrochloric acid  magnesium chloride + hydrogen; Mg + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2
Particle diagram should show the correct colours for particles of magnesium; hydrogen and chlorine; hydrogen particles
should be much smaller than magnesium and chlorine; particle diagram should represent the symbol equation given
above.
6. lead nitrate + potassium iodide  lead iodide + potassium nitrate; Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI  PbI2 + 2KNO3
Particle diagram should show the correct colours for the atoms involved; correct particle model to match the symbol
equation above.

Answers to Worksheet 2.3.18

1. A simple way to describe chromatography is to think of the particles as having different sizes. Those that move least
could be the heaviest. This is not strictly true because there are many complicated factors involved. It is, however, a
‘good enough’ model at this stage.
2. a) Check graphs to ensure the data is correctly plotted; temperature on x-axis and solubility on y-axis; appropriate
scale.
b) There is a steep curved line for the ammonium chloride; compared with sodium chloride.
c) Ammonium chloride is much more soluble than the sodium chloride; as temperature increases; ammonium chloride
solubility is affected more by increased temperature; sodium chloride solubility is hardly affected at all.
d) Ammonium chloride is more soluble because the forces between the ammonium chloride particles and water
particles are much stronger than the forces between the sodium chloride particles and water particles. Also the forces
between sodium chloride particles are stronger than the forces between the ammonium chloride particles. As the
temperature increases, the forces between the ammonium chloride particles and water particles become stronger and
between other ammonium chloride particles they become weaker.
e) Any acceptable model to show the above explanation.
3. Relevant colours indicated in the Student Book used; with the correct numbers of atoms represented in the formula and
the symbol equations; should have the same numbers of atoms in the reactants as in the products.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 119 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.19 Checking students' progress

The ‘Checking your progress’ section in the Student Book indicates the key ideas developed in this chapter and
shows how students progress to more complex levels. It is provided to support students in:
 identifying those ideas
 developing a sense of their current level of understanding
 developing a sense of what the next steps in their learning are.
It is designed to be used either at the end of a chapter to support an overall view of the progress, or alternatively
during the teaching of the chapter. Students can self assess or peer assess using this as a basis.
It would be helpful if students can be encouraged to provide evidence from their understanding or their notes to
support their judgements. In some cases it may be useful to explore the difference in the descriptors for a
particular idea so that students can see what makes for a ‘higher outcome’.
It may be useful with some descriptors to provide examples from the specific work done, such as an experiment
undertaken or an explanation developed and recorded. If marking and feedback use similar ideas and phrases
this will enable students to relate specific marking to a more general sense of progress.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 120 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

To make good progress in understanding science students need to focus on these ideas and skills:

Students who are making Students who are making Students who are making
modest progress will be able to: good progress will be able to: excellent progress will be able to:

Compare the properties of solids, Draw circle diagrams to Use particle diagrams to explain the
liquids and gases. demonstrate the differences differences in energy and forces
between the arrangement of between the particles in different
particles in solids, liquids and states of matter, accounting for
gases, and describe their differences in their properties.
different properties.
Recognise how theories are Use observations to develop Change hypotheses in the light of
developed. hypotheses. new evidence and use this evidence
to develop theories.
Use correct terminology and the Interpret and explain data Use the particle model to explain
particle model to describe changes relating to melting and boiling latent heat and how impurities affect
of state, including evaporation. points. melting and boiling points.
Describe how solids, liquids and Describe applications and Use the particle model to explain
gases behave when heat is problems caused by thermal expansion in solids, liquids and
applied to them. expansion. gases.
Describe a model that can be used Apply and adapt models to Evaluate the strengths and limitations
to represent particles. make them more suitable for of particle models.
use.
Make predictions about floating Use the particle model to Use the particle model to explain
and sinking using ideas about explain the density differences factors relating to density.
density. between gases and calculate
density of solids.
Describe what is meant by the Calculate concentrations of Use ideas about particles to explain
terms ‘concentration’ and solutions. the effects of pressure.
‘pressure’.
Describe how diffusion occurs in Explain observations relating to Make predictions, using ideas about
liquids and gases. diffusion in terms of particles. particles, about factors affecting the
rate of diffusion.
Describe features of physical and Use ideas about particles to Apply the particle model to explain
chemical changes, recognising describe separation processes. physical and chemical changes,
how mass is conserved. taking conservation of mass into
account.
Describe different types of Explain the properties of Evaluate the particle model in its
colloids. different colloids using the ability to explain colloids and their
particle model. properties.
Use particle models to describe Use particle models to explain Evaluate the effectiveness of the
different separation processes. how the solubility of solids and particle model in explaining physical
gases changes with changes.
temperature.

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 121 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

3.20 Answers to Student Book Questions

This table provides answers to the Questions section at the end of Chapter 3 of the Student Book. It also shows
how different questions assess attainment in terms of the focus and style of a question as well as the context.
Question level analysis can indicate students’ proficiency in approaching different aspects of scientific
understanding and different types of answer.

Q Answer Focus Style Context

Physical and chemical changes, mixtures

Solids, liquids gases and changing state

Properties of solids, liquids and gases

Diffusion, pressure and concentration

Knowledge & understanding

Objective test question

Evaluation of evidence

Longer written answer

Short written answer
Marks available

Application

1 b 1 x x x

2 c 1 x x x

3 a 1 x x x

4 d 1 x x x

5  Movement of pollen grains in water under 1 x x x

a microscope
 Movement of many non-living substances
1 x x x
such as talc, when suspended in a liquid

6  Particles gain in kinetic energy and move 1 x x x

further apart
 Viscosity decreases because the particles
1 x x x
have more energy to overcome forces

7  Ice floats on water 1 x x x

 Ice is less dense than water 1 x x x
 Particles in ice have spaces between them 1 x x x
 This is due to strong intermolecular forces 1 x x x

8 d 1 x x x

9 c 1 x x x

10 (i) 1 x x x

11 c 1 x x x

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 122 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014

 Chapter 3: Explaining Physical Changes

Q Answer Focus Style Context

Physical and chemical changes, mixtures

Solids, liquids gases and changing state

Properties of solids, liquids and gases

Diffusion, pressure and concentration

Knowledge & understanding

Objective test question

Evaluation of evidence

Longer written answer

Short written answer
Marks available

Application
12  See if the change was reversible 1 x x x
 Evaporate off the water and see if calcium 1 x x x
chloride crystals were left

13 Any two from: 2 x x x

 concentration = mass ÷ volume
 In 1 litre you need 20 mg of fertiliser
 In 250 cm3 you need 20 ÷ 4 = 5 mg of
fertiliser

14  Aerosols are liquids or solids suspended 1 x x x

in a gas
 When heated, the gas expands and the
1 x x x
particles move further apart with more
energy
1 x x x
 The expansion means there is more
pressure from the gas on the sides of the
container
 Eventually the aerosol will heat enough to 1 x x x
blow the can apart

15 Any two from: 2 x x x

 Butane is easier to change into a liquid
 Butane has a higher boiling point, so it will
change with less pressure
 Less energy needs to be transferred from
the butane to change it into a liquid
Accept converse statements relating to
hydrogen

16 a) Xmenium has a melting point of just over 2 x x x

80 °C and a boiling point of just over 140 °C
b) The melting point is too high to be useful 1 x x x
A salt can be added to lower the melting 1 x x x
point

Total possible: 30 12 12 6 8 10 12 8 7 10 5

Key Stage 3 Science Teacher Pack 2 123 © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2014