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Article: Differentiation menu

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Copyright c 1995–1997 D. P. Story

Last Revision Date: 4/18/1997
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 Differentiation
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Motivating the concept
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Instantaneous Velocity
2.3. Tangent to a Curve
2.4. Rate of Change
3. The Definition of Derivative
3.1. The Derivative Defined
3.2. The Derivative as a Numerical Value
3.3. The Derivative as a Function
3.4. Continuity and Differentiation Related
3.5. One-Sided Differentiability
3.6. Non differentiability
4. Differentiation Notation
4.1. The Prime Notation
Table of Contents (continued)

4.2. The Leibniz Notation

5. Three Fundamental Interpretations
5.1. Tangent Lines
5.2. Velocity
5.3. Rate of Change
6. Some Basic Differentiation Rules
6.1. The Derivative of a Constant
6.2. The Power Rule
7. The Algebra of Differentiable Functions
7.1. The Algebraic Structure
7.2. The Homogeneous Property of Derivative
7.3. The Additive Property of Derivative
7.4. The Product Rule
7.5. The Quotient Rule
7.6. The Extended Power Rule: Junior Grade
7.7. The Differential Notation
7.8. Practicing the Mechanics
8. The Rule of Chains
8.1. Chaining with Leibniz
Table of Contents (continued)

8.2. The Power Rule Revisited

9. The Trigonometric Functions
9.1. Development of Trig Formulas
9.2. The Chain Rule Revisited
10. Higher Order Derivatives
11. Implicit Differentiation
11.1. Statement of the Problem
11.2. The Technique Explained
11.3. Higher-Order Derivatives
12. The Extreme and the Mean
12.1. Extrema: Introductory Concepts
12.2. The Extreme Value Theorem
12.3. The Mean Value Theorem
12.4. Criteria for Monotonicity
13. Presentation of the Theory
1. Introduction
Prerequisite: Limits, Continuity.

2. Motivating the concept

2.1. Introduction
The term differentiability concerns the study of the limit,
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim . (1)
h→0 h
This limit insinuates itself into a variety of physical settings. In the
following sections, we introduce several situations in which (1) arises
“naturally.”
Section 2: Motivating the concept

2.2. Instantaneous Velocity

Short Summary: Let P be a particle moving along an axis of real
numbers and let this axis be called the s-axis. At any given time t,
the particle P holds a unique position on the s-axis. The position of
the particle is then characterized by the value on the number scale
of the point at which P resides at the given time. This relationship
between time, t, and the position of the particle on the s-axis defines
a functional relationship.
Define a function to by
s = f (t) = The position of the particle P at time t.
At any time t, the instantaneous velocity of the particle P is given by
f (t + h) − f (t)
v(t) = lim . (2)
h→0 h
Thus, instantaneous velocity, (2), is defined by kind of limit given in
(1).
For a more detailed discussion of this topic, Click here.
Section 2: Motivating the concept

2.3. Tangent to a Curve

Short Summary. In this section we discuss the Fundamental Prob-
lem of Differential Calculus: Given a function, y = f (x), and a point,
P ( a, f (a) ), on the graph of the function, define and calculate the
equation of the line tangent to the graph at the given point. It turns
out that the slope, m tan , of the line tangent to the graph at the point
P ( a, f (a) ) is given by
f (a + h) − f (a)
m tan = lim (3)
h→0 h
But this limit is precisely the same kind of limit given in (1).
Click here to learn more (including some interesting graphics).

2.4. Rate of Change

Short Summary. In many applied settings we have two competing
variables x and y that are related (y = f (x)), and we are interested in
how changes in one variable, x say, affect changes in the other variable,
y. In particular, we are interested in measuring how fast y changes
Section 2: Motivating the concept

with respect to unit changes in the x. This rate of change of y with

respect to x is given by
dx f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim . (4)
dy h→0 h
Click here for a more verbose discussion of this topic.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

3. The Definition of Derivative

In this section we formally define the derivative of a function and
develop some of the very important mechanical skills.

3.1. The Derivative Defined

A definition is usually the jumping off point of any mathematical
study, and we are not different.

Definition 3.1. Let f be a function and a ∈ Dom(f ) such that f is

defined in an open interval containing a. We say that f is differentiable
at x = a provided
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim exists. (1)
h→0 h
In this case, define the derivative, f 0 (a), to be

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim (2)
h→0 h
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Definition Notes: Think of the requirement that f be defined in an

open interval containing a as necessary for the two-sided limit (1) to
exist.
Difference Quotient. The ratio
f (a + h) − f (a)
(3)
h
is called the difference quotient. Within the context of applications
(see velocity, tangency, and rate of change), the difference quotient
itself has physical or geometric interpretation. The student is encour-
aged to read the above referenced articles for more detail.
The definition, as stated can be rewritten using other variables.
Let x = a + h, then h = x − a. Now, intuitively, h → 0 is equivalent
to x → a since x = a + h, and h → 0. Thus, (2) is sometimes written
as
f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim (4)
x→a x−a
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

You guessed it, the ratio

f (x) − f (a)
x−a
is called the difference quotient.
Interpretations: In the section Motivating the Concept, we introduced
differentiation indirectly, through three applications: Velocity, Tan-
gent Line, and Rate of Change. Throughout these notes, the second
interpretation of derivative will be utilized to illustrate the concepts.

Let y = f (x) be a function and a ∈ Dom(f ) such that f 0 (a)

exists. Then f 0 (a) is interpreted as the slope of the line tan-
gent to graph of f at the point ( a, f (a) ). The equation of
the tangent line is given by
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a).
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Example 3.1. (Skill Level 0) Let f (x) = 3x2 , and a = 1.

a. Find the difference quotient of f .
b. Find f 0 (a).
The next example is meant to verify the assertion in the highlighted
box concerning the equation of the tangent line.
Example 3.2. If f has a derivative at x = a, show that the equation
for the line tangent to the graph of f at x = a is given by
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a). (5)

Example 3.3. (Continued from Example 3.1) For f (x) = 3x2 , find
the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at the point on the
graph corresponding to x = 1.
Strategy: Let’s plot some strategy on how to evaluate the limit (2) in
the definition of derivative. As h goes to 0, both the numerator and
denominator go to 0. You’ll recall my famous Empirical Observation.
This is still our guide for reasoning and simplifying the difference
quotient.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Let’s specialize the Empirical Observation to limits of the difference

quotient.

Differentiation Strategy.
When trying to evalulate the limit of the difference quotient
f (a + h) − f (a)
lim ,
h→0 h
you must develop, through algebraic manipulation, a factor
of h in the numerator. The factor of h in the numerator and
h in the denominator can and must be cancelled. Hopefully,
the limit can then be evaluated.

This Differentiation Strategy can generally be carried out when the

function f is an algebraic function. When we take up the topic of
differentiating trigonometric functions, the problem is not so simple
as described in the Strategy. Later, then exponential, logarithmic, and
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

other types of more complex functions are studied, the advice about
factoring and cancelling out the ‘h’ is no longer practical.
Exercise 3.1. Consider the function f (x) = 5x2 −2. Keeping in mind
the Differentiation Strategy, and the techniques of Example 3.1,
a. Find the difference quotient at a = 1.
b. Calculate f 0 (a).
c. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at x = 1.
If you’re are a beginner, take out a sheet of paper and write out my
solution to Example 3.1 and line by line, make appropriate changes
in the argument — here, we have a slightly different function.
In the next two sections, we present more sample calculations of
derivatives.

3.2. The Derivative as a Numerical Value

In this section we exhibit additional examples and techniques. Oh,
there are some exercises for you too so you won’t feel left out.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Example 3.4. (A Sample Calculation) Find the derivative of f (x) =

x2 at x = 2.
Example 3.5. (Calculation of Tangent Line) Consider the function
f (x) = x2 , find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at
the point corresponding to x = 2.
√
Example 3.6. (Skill Level 1) Consider the function f (x) = 2x.
Find f 0 (3)
In the upcoming section Some Basic Differentiation Rules, we obtain
rules for finding derivatives without invoking the limit definition of
derivative. The basic definition still must hold the predominate posi-
tion. If you encounter a function not covered by the rules (admittedly,
this will be very infrequent until you advance to a high level in your
studies), you will have to resort to the definition to evaluate deriva-
tives.
The next example is provided for your additional education. We want
to differentiate a more pathological function. Read it if you dare.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Example 3.7. (Skill Level 5) Define the function

 2
x if x is a rational number
f (x) =
0 otherwise
Show that f 0 (0) exists, and f 0 (0) = 0.
Summary: Before we leave, let’s summarize the major points to date.
The derivative of a function f at a particular point x = a is
given by
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim . (6)
h→0 h

If a is a numerical value (as opposed to a symbolic quantity)

then f 0 (a) is a numerical value. The interpretation of this numerical
value is two-fold: (1) it is the slope of the line tangent to the graph of
f at x = a. See Example 3.5. And (2), f 0 (a) is a measure of the rate
of change of the dependent variable with respect to the independent
variable. More on this later.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

3.3. The Derivative as a Function

One gets a little tired of calculating the derivative as a numerical
value. If we calculate a derivative a one value of x, then need the
derivative at another value of x, we must rework the (2) all over
again, sigh!
In Definition 3.1, if we allow a to be a mathematical variable then we
may look upon f 0 as a function. In the definition just cited, replace the
letter a with the more traditional symbol for a mathematical variable
x to get
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim . (7)
h→0 h
Now, f 0 is referred to the derivative of f .
Domain Analysis: The domain of the derivative f 0 of f is
f (x + h) − f (x)
Dom(f 0 ) = { x ∈ Dom(f ) | lim exits }.
h→0 h
In general, Dom(f 0 ) 6= Dom(f ), but of course Dom(f 0 ) ⊆ Dom(f ).
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

For a given value a ∈ Dom(f 0 ), the numerical value f 0 (a) represents

derivative information only about a, whereas, the derivative function
contains derivative information about all a ∈ Dom(f 0 ).
Example 3.8. Consider the function f (x) = x2 . Show that the de-
rivative f 0 of f is given by f 0 (x) = 2x.
Exercise 3.2. Consider the function f (x) = 5x2 − 2. Show that the
derivative function is given by f 0 (x) = 10x. (Hint: Follow the pattern
outline in the solution to Example 3.8.)
√
Example 3.9. (Skill Level 1) Consider the function f (x) = 2x.
Find the derivative function, f 0 .
√
Exercise 3.3. For f (x) = 3x, find f 0 (x).
1
Exercise 3.4. Here is a little trickier one. For f (x) = √ , find f 0 (x).
x
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

3.4. Continuity and Differentiation Related

Below we state the relationship between the function properties of
continuity and differentiability.

Theorem 3.2. Let f be a differentiable function at a ∈ Dom(f ).

Then, f is continuous at a ∈ Dom(f ).

Proof. Let f 0 (a) denote the derivative of f at x = a. Then using the

alternate definition of derivative given in equation (4), we have
f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim . (8)
x→a x−a
We want to prove
lim f (x) = f (a). (9)
x→a
We want to relate what we know, (8), with what we want to know
(prove), (9). The relationship is
f (x) − f (a)
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a). (10)
x−a
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Therefore,
 
f (x) − f (a)
lim f (x) = lim f (a) + (x − a)
x→a x→a x−a
 
f (x) − f (a)
= f (a) + lim (x − a)
x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a)
= f (a) + lim lim (x − a)
x→a x−a x→a
= f (a) + f 0 (a)(0)
= f (a).
We have used, in several of the lines, standards facts concerning the
Algebra of Limits. 

The next statement is a logical equivalent to Theorem 3.2 and is

sometimes useful in arguing that a given function is not differentiable.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Corollary 3.3. If f is discontinuous at x = a, then f is not differ-

entiable at x = a.

Proof. Suppose f is not continuous at x = a. Then either f is differ-

entiable at x = a, or f is not differentiable at x = a. (The latter is
the conclusion we are going for.)
Suppose the contrary, that is, assume that f is differentiable at x = a.
Then by Theorem 3.2, f is continuous at x = a; but this contradicts
the initial assumption that we were working a function that is not
continuous at x = a. Therefore, f cannot be differentiable at x = a
(for otherwise, we are faced with contradictory assertions). 

Example 3.10. Show that the function

 2
x x≤0
f (x) =
x+1 x>0
is not differentiable at x = 0.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

3.5. One-Sided Differentiability

Let f (x) be a function. Then f 0 (x) is defined by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim , (11)
h→0 h
provided the limit in (11) exists. Now from general theory, a (two-
sided) limit exists if and only if both
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim− (12)
h→0 h
and
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim+ (13)
h→0 h
exist.
For several reasons, it is convenient to give names to the limits (12)
and (13).
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Definition 3.4. Let f be defined in an interval I, and let x ∈ I.

(1) Define the left-hand derivative of f at x by

0 f (x + h) − f (x)
f− (x) = lim . (14)
h→0− h
provided the limit exists.
(2) Define the right-hand derivative of f at x by

0 f (x + h) − f (x)
f+ (x) = lim . (15)
h→0+ h
provided the limit exists.

Definition Notes: For the left-hand derivative, the function f needs to

be defined in an interval to the left of x. For the right-hand derivative,
f must be defined in an interval to the right of x.
Based on my remarks preceding the definition, we can now state . . .
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

Theorem 3.5. Let f be a function defined in an open interval con-

taining x, then f 0 (x) exists if and only if f−
0 0
(x) and f+ (x) both exist
0 0
and f− (x) = f+ (x). In this case,
f 0 (x) = f−
0 0
(x) = f+ (x).

Theorem Notes: We are simply saying the derivative exists at x if and

only if the left-hand derivative equals the right-hand derivative at x.
Turning things around, the theorem states that f 0 (x) does not
0 0
exist if and only if either f− (x) d.n.e., or f+ (x) d.n.e., or, if they both
0 0
do exist, f− (x) 6= f+ (x). This statement is logically equivalent to the
theorem. It gives a formal way of arguing that a particular derivative
does not exist. See below.
Applications: There are two immediate applications to the concept of
the one-sided derivative.
1. Use Theorem 3.5 as a device to prove or disprove a function is
differentiable.
2. Enables us to have a derivative concept at an endpoint of an
interval in which a function is defined.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

With regards to (1), the next two examples show how Theorem 3.5
can be used to show a derivative does or does not exist.
Example 3.11. Define a function by f (x) = |x|. Prove that f does
not have a derivative at x = 0.
The next example illustrates how Theorem 3.5 can be used to show a
derivative exists.
Example 3.12. Define a function

0 x<0
f (x) =
x2 x≥0
Prove the f 0 (0) exists and f 0 (0) = 0.

3.6. Non differentiability

Discontinuous Functions. One way a function may fail to be dif-
ferentiable at a particular point is for it not to be continuous there.
(See Corollary 3.3.) Example 3.10 was an example of this type of
nondifferentiability already encountered.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

More interesting examples of nondifferentiability are taken up next.

It is “easy” not to have a derivative if the function is not even contin-
uous. If the function is continuous, how can a function avoid having
a derivative?
Functions with Corners. A continuous function having a sharp
corner will not have a derivative. A function f is said to have a corner
0 0
at x = a provided f− (a) and f+ (a) both exist a finite numbers, but
0 0
f− (a) 6= f+ (a). (16)
Recall, the symbolisms used refer to the left-hand derivative and the
right-hand derivative.
An example of a function having a corner is f (x) = |x|. Earlier, in
Example 3.11, we showed that the |x| function did not have a de-
0 0
rivative at x = 0 by arguing that f− (0) = −1 and f+ (0) = 1. Thus,
for the function f (x) = |x|, (16) is satisfied.
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

You can create functions with sharp corners by piecing together other
functions. For example,
 2
x x≤0
f (x) = (17)
x x>0
I have pieced two functions together so that where they meet, at x = 0,
the form a continuous function there.
Exercise 3.5. Show that the function defined in (17) is not differ-
entiable at x = 0.
Another example, not obtained by piecing functions together, is
f (x) = x2/3 . (18)

Example 3.13. Show that the function defined in (18) is not differ-
entiable at x = 0.
Functions with Vertical Tangents. Some functions have tangent
lines, but the tangent line is vertical. A vertical line either has no
slope or has infinite slope depending on your philosophical point of
Section 3: The Definition of Derivative

view. Let’s agree to say that a function f has a vertical tangent at

x = a if either
0 0
f− (a) = f+ (a) = −∞
or,
0 0
f− (a) = f+ (a) = +∞ (19)
An example of a function having a vertical tangent line is
f (x) = x1/3 . (20)

Exercise 3.6. Show that the function in (20) has a vertical tangent
at x = 0
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

4. Differentiation Notation
Before we continue with the development of differentiation rules, let’s
introduce some important notation.
As we are in a primitive state, we don’t have a lot of examples to
which to refer. Recall that if f (x) = x2 , then f 0 (x) = 2x. I’ll use this
example to illustrate the notations.

4.1. The Prime Notation

This is the notation you have been using. The rule for this notation
is

Prime Notation Rule

When you take the derivative of a function, the name of the
derivative function is same as the parent function but with
a superscript of a ‘prime’ (0 ) post-fixed.
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

Thus the derivative of f is f 0 . The derivative of g is g 0 , the derivative

of h is h0 . The derivative of W is W 0 . Do you get the picture?
Exercise 4.1. What is the notation for the derivative of f 0 ?
Taking this one step further. If f is a function with derivative f 0 ,
then the variable symbol used for f is also used for f 0 . Thus, if f is a
function of x, so is f 0 . If g is a function of t, so is g 0 .

f (x) = x2 f 0 (x) = 2x
g(t) = t2 g 0 (t) = 2t
W (s) = s2 W 0 (s) = 2s
L0 (w) = w2 L00 (w) = 2w
Now, here’s the twist. In our discussion on notation, we noted that
often, function are defined anonymously — they have no names; in
this case, we use the dependent variable as the name of the function.
Therefore, The Prime Notation Rule still holds. For example, if the
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

function is given anonymously, y = x2 , then y 0 is the (anonymous)

name of the derivative function: y 0 = 2x.
Area, A, of a square whose sides have length s is given by A = s2 .
The derivative function is A0 = 2s.
More examples,

w = v2 w0 = 2v
q 0 = x2 q 00 = 2x
l00 = y 2 l000 = 2y

Numerical Calculations: The prime notation has a problem: It doesn’t

have an explicit argument. When making numerical evaluations, two
approaches are used: force an argument, make up a new notation.
Let’s illustrate,
Force an argument,
y = x2 y 0 = 2x y 0 (3) = 6.
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

Make up a new notation,

y = x2 y 0 = 2x y 0 |x=3 = 6.

The prime notation has another problem. Some functions has several
symbolics in their definition. For example, if we define a function
w = s2 t3 , then you might ask, quite rightly, what the independent
variable is. Should we consider s is independent variable and t as a
constant, or should we consider t the independent variable and s as
a constant? This is an important question since the calculation of
the derivative depends on what you consider to be the independent
variable.
In the next section, we introduce a notation, that, as a built-in feature,
tells you what the independent variable is.
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

4.2. The Leibniz Notation

The Leibniz is a very useful and powerful notation for differentiation.
You should make every attempt to understand the notation and utilize
it correctly.
Let y = f (x) = x2 . The Leibniz notation for the derivative of f is any
of the following:
dy df
= 2x = 2x.
dx dx
In general, if y = f (x), then we write
dy the derivative of y with re-
=
dx spect to x
df the derivative of f with re-
=
dx spect to x
The notation contains within it the name of the dependent variable
y (or the name of the function f , your option), and a specification of
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

the independent variable x. Thus,

dw the derivative of w with re-
=
ds spect to s
dV the derivative of V with re-
=
dr spect to r
Here are some quick examples that will look familiar to you.
dy
y = x2 = 2x
dx
dw
w = t2 = 2t
dt
dq
q = l2 = 2l
dl
dA
A = s2 = 2s
ds
I hope you see the pattern. This notation will be used throughout the
rest of these tutorials and the rest of your Calculus course.
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

For y = x2 , the symbol y represents the value x2 . Rather than writing

dy/dx, we quite often write
d x2
= 2x. (1)
dx
The translation of (1) is “The derivative of the function x2 , with
respect to x is the function 2x.”
Evalulation. The Leibniz notation one of the problems as the prime
notation: No explicit argument. Traditionally, we evaluate derivatives
utilizing the notation:
dy dy
y = x2 = 2x = 6.
dx dx x=3

Notes of Origin of the Notation. The Leibniz Notation has origin

in how you represent the definition of derivative.
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

The ∆-convention: Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. The

definition of f 0 (x) is
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim . (2)
h→0 h
Leibniz did not use the h notation; instead he used ∆x. Think of ∆x
as representing a small change in the value of x. Replace the letter h
by the symbol ∆x in (2) to obtain
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim . (3)
∆x→0 ∆x
The numerator in (3) is the difference of two y-values. Let
∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x),
then (3) becomes
∆y
f 0 (x) = lim . (4)
∆x→0 ∆x
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

Leibniz then denoted the limit of the difference quotient

dy ∆y
= lim . (5)
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
where,
∆x = an independent variable
∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x)

Difference quotient is
∆y f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= .
∆x ∆x
For additional details, read the section Rate of Change, if you haven’t
done so already.
d/dx as an Operator. The Leibniz notation is sometimes called an
operator. The symbol
d
dx
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

then represents the operation of differentiation. To differentiate a func-

tion y = x2 , for example, we apply the differentiation operator to the
function:

y = x2

d
Apply to both sides of the equation,
dx
d d 2
y= x
dx dx
or,
dy d x2
= . (6)
dx dx
The left-hand side of (6) becomes a symbol for the derivative of the
function, while the right-hand side is a derivative problem of an ex-
plicit function of x. Equation (6) then becomes
dy
= 2x.
dx
Section 4: Differentiation Notation

Upon the evaluation of the right-hand side of (6) yields the proper
notation and answer to the problem of finding the derivative of the
function y = x2 .
As you go through these notes you will see the role of d/dx as an
operator quite often. The technique of implicit differentiation utilizes
this “operator” point of view extensively.
Section 5: Three Fundamental Interpretations

5. Three Fundamental Interpretations

Now that we have developed the concept of the derivative, studied the
notation and worked on the mechanics of computation, it is time to
look again at the fundamental interpretations of the derivative. These
interpretations will play in important role throughout the rest of the
Calculus sequence . . . and beyond.

5.1. Tangent Lines

The Tangent Line Problem was one of the problems used to motivate
the concept of the limit of a function. Let us review this problem and
state its solution in terms of derivative notation.
Problem. Given a function y = f (x) and a point a ∈ Dom(f ). The
problem is to calculate the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f
at the point P ( a, f (a) ).
Section 5: Three Fundamental Interpretations

Solution. The slope of the line tangent to the graph of f at the point
P ( a, f (a) ) is given by f 0 (a), i.e.
the slope of the line tangent to the graph
f 0 (a) =
of f at the point P ( a, f (a) ).

This information can be parlayed into the equation of the tangent line.
Problem. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of y =
f (x) at the point P ( a, f (a) ).
Solution. The equation of the line tangent to the graph of y = f (x)
at the point P ( a, f (a) ) is given by
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a).

5.2. Velocity
Suppose a particle moves in a straight line. Call this straight line the
s-axis, which will be a real number line. At any time t, the particle,
Section 5: Three Fundamental Interpretations

P , holds a certain position, s, on the s-axis. This establishes position,

s, as a function of time, t. Symbolically represent this relationship by
s = f (t).
We have seen in equation (2) of section 2.2, that the instantaneous
velocity of the particle at time t is given by
f (t + h) − f (t)
v(t) = lim .
h→0 h
A close comparison of this defining equation with the definition of
derivative shows that
ds
v(t) = = f 0 (t). (1)
dt
That is instantaneous velocity is the first derivative of position with
respect to time. This last phrase is important.
Section 5: Three Fundamental Interpretations

Instantaneous velocity of a particle is the derivative of its

position with respect to time. That is, if
the position of the particle at time t on
s = f (t) =
the s-axis, an axis of real numbers
then,
ds
v(t) = = f 0 (t).
dt

5.3. Rate of Change

One of the “generic” interpretations of the derivative is the rate of
change interpretation. This topic was extensively discussed in Sec-
tion 2.4. The reader is asked to review that section as well as the
section entitled Rate of Change. In that section, the rate of change
Section 5: Three Fundamental Interpretations

interpretation was taken up as a problem that motivates the study of

the more fundamental concept of the limit of a function.
Let y = f (x) define y as a function of x. According to the discussion,
as summarized in Section 2.4 above, the rate at which y (that is, the
values of the function f ) change with respect to x is given by (see (4)
f (x + h) − f (x)
lim .
h→0 h
Comparing this expression with the definition of derivative, we see
that
dy The (instantaneous) rate at which the y
= f 0 (x) = variable changes per unit change in the
dx
variable x.
Section 6: Some Basic Differentiation Rules

6. Some Basic Differentiation Rules

One doesn’t want to put in any more time calculating derivatives from
the definition than is needed to understand what a derivative is. We’ll
now turn to a systemic development of come standard differentiation
formulas.

6.1. The Derivative of a Constant

Let’s begin with the trivial, then move on to the sublime.

Theorem 6.1. Let c ∈ R be a fixed constant. Define the function

f (x) = c, for x ∈ R. Then f is differentiable, and
f 0 (x) = c x ∈ R.

Proof. The proof consists of a simple calculation.

f (x) = c
f (x + h) = c
f (x + h) − f (x) = c − c = 0.
Section 6: Some Basic Differentiation Rules

The difference quotient,

f (x + h) − f (x)
=0 for all h.
h
Therefore,
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim = lim 0 = 0.
h→0 h h→0

We have shown that if f (x) = c, then f 0 (x) = 0, for all x ∈ R. 

Comments: The graph of the constant function, f (x) = c is a horizon-

tal line. At any given point P ( x, f (x) ), the slope of the line tangent
to the graph of f is 0; therefore, it should not be surprising to you
that f 0 (x) = 0, for one of the interpretation of f 0 (x) is that it is the
slope of the line tangent to the graph of f a the point P ( x, f (x) ).
In terms of the Leibniz notation, the above theorem can be written
more eloquently as
dc
=0 (1)
dx
Section 6: Some Basic Differentiation Rules

Derivative of a Constant.
d
The derivative of a constant, c, is zero: c=0
dx

For example, if f (x) = 5, then f 0 (x) = 0. In Leibniz notation,

d5
=0
dx

d5
Exercise 6.1. Calculate .
dx x=123.45

6.2. The Power Rule

A power function is a function of the form:
(some function)constant
Section 6: Some Basic Differentiation Rules

Examples of power functions are elementary ones,

√
y = x2 w = s−23 z = q = q 1/2 ,
and more complex ones,
 17
2 3 4 1 + 2x
y = (x + 1) w = sin (x) W = .
cos(x)
In each of these, we have a base function, raised to a fixed exponent.
In this section, we learn how to differentiate the elementary ones; that
is a function of the form
y = xn .

Theorem 6.2. (The Power Rule: Junior Grade)Consider the func-

tion f (x) = xn , for some n ∈ N, the set of natural numbers. Then
f 0 (x) = nxn−1 x ∈ R. (2)

Proof.
Section 6: Some Basic Differentiation Rules

Before looking a examples, let’s rewrite the Power Rule in Leibniz

Notation.

The Power Rule JG.

Let n ∈ N, i.e. n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , then
d xn
= nxn−1 .
dx

Example 6.1. Solve each of the following:

d x4 d x123 d s5 d w10
.
dx dx ds dw
Example 6.2. The proof of the Power Rule is hyper-referenced, in
this example, we will exhibit the technique of proof by deriving the
formula for a particular case. Problem. Derive the derivative, from
the definition, of f (x) = x4 .
Section 6: Some Basic Differentiation Rules

Have you gotten the feeling that our rules are still limited? We can’t
do a whole lot yet. In the next section we will make considerable
progress in that regard.

7. The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

7.1. The Algebraic Structure
We now come to a section of these notes with a familiar title. I have
been stressing the algebraic structure of many of the concepts we
encounter in Calculus. The following theorem I include as a structural
statement, the operational versions are stated afterwards.

Theorem 7.1. (The Algebra of Differentiable Functions)Let f and

g be defined in an interval containing x = a, and let both f and g be
differentiable at x = a. Finally let c ∈ R be a constant. Then each of
the functions are also differentiable at x = a as well:
f
cf f + g f − g f g , provided g 0 (a) 6= 0.
g
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Proof.
Theorem Notes: You can see that combining differentiable function
through addition, subtraction, multiplication, division all yield func-
tions that are differentiable. Spoken differently, if f and g both have
tangent lines at x = a, then so does cf , f ± g, f g, and f /g, the latter
is true provided g 0 (a) 6= 0.
The natural question we address throughout the rest of this section
is how do we make calculations. Given that we know
f (a), f 0 (a), g(a), g 0 (a), (1)
how can we use this information to calculate
(cf )0 (a), (f + g)0 (a), (f g)0 (a), (f /g)0 (a)?
Stay tuned for the answers.

7.2. The Homogeneous Property of Derivative

In this section we study how differentiation interacts with multiplies
of functions.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Theorem 7.2. (Homogeneity of the Derivative) Let u = f (x) be

differentiable at x = a, then
(cf )0 (a) = cf 0 (a).

Proof.
The Leibniz Notation is used most frequently to express these formu-
las. Let’s develop the proper notation.
d(cf )
(cf )0 (a) =
dx
df
cf 0 (a) = c
dx
Equating the two,
d(cf ) df
=c
dx dx
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Note that I have cleverly let u = f (x) in the statement of Theorem 7.2.
Now if we replace the name f of the function with the dependent
variable we get,
d(cu) du
=c
dx dx
Let’s elevate this formula to the stature of a boxed in equation.

Homogeneity of Differentiability.
Let u be a differentiable function of x, then
d(cu) du
=c
dx dx

We can now increment the level of difficulty a microscopic bit.

Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Example 7.1. Differentiate each of the following.

d 4x6 d 21s3 d 5 4
w .
dx ds dw 4
7.3. The Additive Property of Derivative
This section describes how to calculate the derivative of the sum of
two functions.

Theorem 7.3. (The Additive Property)Let u = f (x) and v = g(x)

be differentiable at x = a. Then
(f + g)0 (a) = f 0 (a) + g 0 (a). (2)

Proof.
The Leibniz notation is used quite often when manipulating complex
functions. Equation (2) may be rewritten as
d df dg
(f + g) = + . (3)
dx dx dx
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

A variation of (3) utilizes dependent variables to name the functions.

Let u = f (x) and v = g(x) then
d du dv
(u + v) = + (4)
dx dx dx

The Additive Property of Derivative:

Let u and v be a differentiable functions of x, then
d du dv
(u + v) = +
dx dx dx

d
Example 7.2. (With Attributions) Calculate (3x4 − 6x5 ).
dx
d
Example 7.3. Calculate 3 csc(w) − 5 cot(w).
dw
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

d 5 2 3
Exercise 7.1. Calculate 4s − 3 s .
ds
Exercise 7.2. Consider the function in the Exercise 7.1, i.e., w =
4s5 − (2/3)s3 .
a. Find all values of s at which the tangent line is horizontal.
b. Find all values of s at which the tangent line is parallel to the
line w = 120s + 3.
dw
Begin by writing down the derivative, , from the solution of Ex-
ds
ercise 7.1. Formulate, in terms of setting up certain equations, how
to solve each part — and solve.

7.4. The Product Rule

We explain how to calculate the derivative of the product of two
functions.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Theorem 7.4. Let u = f (x) and v = g(x) be differentiable at x = a,

then
(f g)0 (a) = f (a)g 0 (a) + g(a)f 0 (a). (5)

Proof.
The Leibniz notation is important to master.
d(f g) dg df
=f +g . (6)
dx dx dx
Finally, if we denote u = f (x) and v = g(x), then (6) becomes,
d(uv) dv du
=u +v . (7)
dx dx dx
Thus,
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

The Produce Rule:

Let u and v be differentiable functions of x, then
d(uv) dv du
=u +v .
dx dx dx

d 3
Example 7.4. (With Attributions) Calculate x (2x9 − 12).
dx
dy
Exercise 7.3. For y = x12 (1 + x2 ), find using the Product Rule.
dx
Work your answer out first and simplify before looking.

7.5. The Quotient Rule

We learn to calculate the derivative of the quotient of two functions.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Theorem 7.5. Let u = f (x) and v = g(x) be differentiable at x = a,

then
g(a)f 0 (a) − f (a)g 0 (a)
(f /g)0 (a) = , (8)
[g 0 (a)]2
provided g(a) 6= 0.

Proof.
Designating u = f (x) and v = g(x), in Leibniz notation the Quotient
Rule becomes
du dv
d u v −u
= dx 2 dx (9)
dx v v
provided v 6= 0.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

The Quotient Rule:

Let u and v be differentiable functions of x, then
du dv
d u v −u
= dx 2 dx v 6= 0.
dx v v

d 3x3 − 2x
Example 7.5. (With Attributions) Calculate .
dx 4 − 5x2
s2 d
Example 7.6. For w = 4
, find w.
3s − 2 ds
Solve the problem first, use good techniques, and simplify before look-
ing at the answer — please!
d 7x6
Exercise 7.4. Calculate . (Hint: Quotient Rule.)
dx 6x8 − 1
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

7.6. The Extended Power Rule: Junior Grade

With the aid of the Quotient Rule, and a little common sense, we can
extend the Power Rule.
Consider a function of the form y = xn , where n is a negative in-
teger, n = −1, −2, −3, . . . . We want to calculate the derivative of
this function. Before we get started, please meditate on the following
statement: If n is a negative integer, −n is a positive integer.
Calculate,
d xn d 1
=
dx dx x−n
d1 d
x−n − (1) x−n
= dx dx / Quot. Rule
(x−n )2
0 − (−n)(x−n−1 )
= (10)
x−2n
−n−1
nx
=
x−2n
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

= nx−n−1 x2n
= nxn−1 ,
where, in line (10), we have applied our Power Rule to x−n . This is
permissible since −n is a positive integer and our current power rule
would then apply.
Thus, we have shown that if n ∈ Z is a negative integer, then
d xn
= nxn−1 (11)
dx
This formula has exactly the same form as our (old) Power Rule.
At this point, it is traditional to do a little hand waving. The power
rule, which is valid for integer exponents is, in fact, valid for all frac-
tional exponents as well. I’ll go ahead and raise the banner on this
form of the power rule so we (read you) can begin practicing.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Extended The Power Rule: JG.

Let r ∈ Q, the set of all rational numbers, then
d xr
= rxr−1 .
dx

It is this formula that will be our working formula. The Power Rule
needs to be memorized. You must train yourself to recognize power
functions, and you must have the ability to utilize the formula correctly
— most important!
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Here are some quick visual examples.

d x−3 d x1/2 1
= −3x−4 = x−1/2
dx dx 2
−1/2 7/3
ds 1 dw 7
= − s−3/2 = w4/3
ds 2 dw 3
Visually scan these examples. Do you see the pattern of solution in
each? Verbalize each example: the derivative of x−3 is the exponent
−3 times x raised to one less power x−4 . Thus we get
d x−3
= −3x−4 .
dx
d 5
Example 7.7. (Skill Level 1) Calculate .
dx x4
d √
Example 7.8. (Skill Level 1) Calculate x x.
dx
d 6
Exercise 7.5. Calculate √ .
dx x2 x
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

d x2 + 1
Exercise 7.6. (Skill Level 1) Calculate √ .
dx x
d x2 + 1
Example 7.9. (Skill Level 1) Calculate √ .
dx x + 1

7.7. The Differential Notation

Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. We have seen that the
notation
dy
= f 0 (x) (12)
dx
is the Leibniz notation for the derivative of the function f with respect
to the variable x. Up to this point the notation was taken as a whole
— a single unit; however, the notation itself suggests some sort of
division process. In this section we shall explore this observation.
We want to take (12), uncouple the numerator from the denominator,
enabling us to think of (12) as a ratio rather than a single unit of
notation. To do this, we do the obvious: We make a definition!
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function of x. Then x is the inde-

pendent variable and y is the dependent variable. Define a new inde-
pendent variable to be represented by the symbol dx. The variable
dx is called the differential of x. Now we want to define a dependent
variable called dy. The variable dy will be dependent since its value
will depend on the value of dx. The value we choose for dy is exactly
the one that will make the ratio of dy by dx equal to f 0 (x). More
explicitly, for a given value of x and a given value of dx, we want to
the value of dy to be
dy = f 0 (x) dx. (13)
If the value of dy is calculated by the equation in (13), then, for dx 6= 0,
dy
= f 0 (x).
dx
That is, if dy has the value, dy = f 0 (x) dx, then, naturally, the ratio
of dy by dx is exactly f 0 (x) — as desired. Let us formalize these
ruminations into a definition.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Definition 7.6. Let y = f (x) be a differential function of x. Define

dx to be an independent variable, and define dy to be a dependent
variable such that
dy = f 0 (x) dx. (14)
The variable dx is called the differential of x, and dy is called the
differential of y. Alternately, we also write,
df = f 0 (x) dx.
In this case, we say that df is the differential of the function f .
Definition Notes: Of course, dy and df are the same quantity. The dy
version is used most often for named functions as well as anonymous
functions.
The differential, given in (14), has several interpretations and
applications. We will eventually explore them all. At this point, we
present the differential as a uncoupled version of the Leibniz derivative
notation.
As usual, the choice of the letters to designate the independent
and dependent variables is unimportant; what is important is the
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

concept of the relationship between the differential of the independent

variable and the differential of the dependent variable. For example,
suppose s = g(w); this statement asserts that s is considered the
dependent variable, and w the independent variable. Therefore, (14)
defines
ds = g 0 (w) dw.
Additional comments will be made in this regard later.
Calculation. Now we explore the simple act of calculation. Here are
a number of quick visual examples:
1. y = x3 =⇒ dy = 3x2 dx.
2. w = s5 =⇒ dw = 5s4 ds.
3. A = πr2 =⇒ dA = 2πr dr.
4. q = sin(v) =⇒ dq = cos(v) dv.
3
5. f (x) = x3/2 =⇒ df = x1/2 dx.
2
As you can see, the act of calculating a differential is the height of
triviality—given that you can differentiate the functional relationship.
In all cases, the new “differential variables” are set up so that their
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

ratio is always the derivative of the function. Take as an example, (1)

above:
dy
y = x3 =⇒ dy = 3x2 dx =⇒ = 3x2 ,
dx
the latter equation is representative of the derivative of y = x3 , as we
have seen.
By the way, can use the differential notation to display and calculate
derivatives as well. We can write,
d x3 = 3x2 dx.
This equation makes the statement that the derivative of the function
x3 is 3x2 , because, when we divide both sides of the equation by dx
we get
d x3
= 3x2 .
dx
Similarly, the statement
d sin(x) = cos(x) dx
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

should be interpreted as equivalent to the formula for the derivative

of the sine function:
d
d sin(x) = cos(x) dx ⇐⇒ sin(x) = cos(x).
dx
√ 4
Exercise 7.7. Let y = x7 , w = s, V = πr3 . Calculate dy, dw,
3
and dV .
Algebraic Properties of the differential. Because the differential
is just the derivative, with the “dx” cleared out of the denominator,
one would expect that the differential has properties similar to the
properties of derivative — and you would be right.
Let u and v be differentiable functions of some (unspecified) indepen-
dent variable.
1. (Homogeneity Property) For any constant c ∈ R,
d(cu) = cdu.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

2. (Additive Rule)
d(u + v) = du + dv.

3. (Produce Rule)
d(uv) = u dv + v du.

4. (Quotient Rule)
u v du − u dv
d = .
v v2
These are identical to their derivative counterparts; however, they
have the advantage that they are more compact and it isn’t necessary
to explicitly specify the independent variable. This differential nota-
tion is used quite extensively in differential equations, a course, some
day, you may take.
Example 7.10. Calculate d(x2 sin(x)).
√
Exercise 7.8. Calculate d(x x).
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions
 
x2
Exercise 7.9. Calculate d .
x2 + 1
The language of differentials can be used to pose questions that are
meant to aggravate the minds of freshmen.
Exercise 7.10. I’m thinking of a function y of x having the property
dy = x4 dx. What function am I thinking of . . . I’ll bet you’ll never,
never guess!
Simple Interpretation. Rise over Run.
When the independent variable is not given a value, the differential
serves very well as an alternate notation to the usual differentiation
notation. Thus,
dy
= f 0 (x) is equivalent to dy = f 0 (x) dx,
dx
but, just as the derivative can be evaluated numerically, so can the
differential. The interpretation of the differential comes, naturally,
from that of the derivative.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Take a concrete example to illustrate the concept. Let

dy
y = f (x) = x2 f 0 (x) =
= 2x dy = 2x dx.
dx
Now, evaluate each of these at x = 3:
dy
x = 3 =⇒ y = f (2) = 9 f 0 (3) =
=6 dy = 6 dx.
dx
Now f 0 (3) = 6 is interpreted as the slope of the line tangent to the
graph of f at the point corresponding to x = 3: that’s the point ( 3, 9 ).
So the slope of the tangent line is m = 6.
Recall. Let’s unarchive our straight line knowledge. Recall, that one
interpretation of the slope, m, of any line is that
rise
m= . (15)
run
Slope is calculated as rise over run. That is, if we start at a point
on the line, and move horizontally (“run”) a certain amount, to get
back to the line, we must move vertically (“rise”) a certain amount.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Whatever we “run,” we must “rise” in such a way that (15). Given

the amount of “run,” how much do we “rise”? The answer is,
run = m(rise). (16)
Rather than using the silly notation of “rise” and “run,” let’s use dif-
ferent symbolisms. When we move horizontally, we are moving parallel
to the x-axis, let the amount of “run” be designated by dx. When we
“rise” we are moving vertically, hence parallel to the y-axis, so let me
designate “rise” by the symbol dy. Thus,
dx = rise
dy = run
Replacing these new symbols into equation (16) we get
dy = m dx. (17)
End of Recall.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Now, we put these recollections and new notation back into context of
our discussion. The function f (x) = x2 had f 0 (x) = 2x, and f 0 (3) = 6.
The slope of the tangent line is m = 6. For this line, (17) becomes,
dy = 6 dx.
This equation is (1) the differential of the function at x = 3, (2) this
equation tells us that if we move dx in the x-direction, then to get
back to the (tangent) line we must move dy in the y-direction. In
particular, if we put, dx = 2, that is, if we start at any point on
the tangent line, and move dx = 2 units to the right, then we must
move dy = 6(2) = 12 units vertically upwards to get back to the
line. Similarly, a value of dx = −3 means that we are moving 3 units
horizontally to the left, in this case, dy = 6(−3) = −18; this means
we must move 18 units vertically downward to get to the line.
Final Interpretation. Having seen the interpretation of dy and dx, let’s
formalize this in abstract. Given,
dy = f 0 (x) dx,
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

then on the tangent line corresponding to the value of x, if we “run”

away from the tangent line by an amount of dx (positive or negative),
then dy is the amount of “rise” we must make to get back to the
tangent line.
√
Exercise 7.11. Consider y = x.
a. Find the differential of y.
b. Find the differential of y corresponding to x = 4.
c. How much does the tangent line rise if we were to move from
x = 4 to x = 4.1?
d. How much does the tangent line rise if were to move from x = 4
to x = 3.8.
There is another easy interpretation of dy = f 0 (x) dx, when x has been
given a numerical value, say, x = a: dy = f 0 (a) dx. This interpretation
is in regards to the equation of the tangent line.
Example 7.11. Let y = x2 . Then as we have seen, dy = 2x dx.
For x = 3, this differential becomes dy = 6 dx. Can you interpret
dy = 6 dx as the equation of the line tangent to y = x2 at x = 3?
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

Exercise 7.12. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph
of y = x3 at the point on the graph corresponding to x = 1. Use the
techniques of Example 7.11.
Section Summary. Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function.
We have defined the differential of f as
dy = f 0 (x) dx
On the face of this, this differential notation is an alternate notation
to the derivative notation.
The utility of the differential, is that enables us to think of the
Leibniz notation, dy/dx, as a ratio: the differential of y divided by
the differential of x. This allows us to manipulate derivative concepts
algebraically.
The differential satisfies the same rules of combining functions as
the derivative does. See Properties. These properties can be exploited
to calculate differential in same way as derivatives.
The simplest interpretation of
dy = f 0 (x) dx
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

is the “rise over the run” interpretation. If we are on some tangent

line to the graph of f , and we move an amount of dx parallel to the
x-axis, then we must move dy parallel to the y-axis to get back to the
tangent line.
Another interpretation of
dy = f 0 (x) dx
is that it represents the equation of the tangent line, where the xy-axis
system has been translated to the point of tangency, and the name of
the new axis system is the dx dy-axis system. See Example 7.11 for
details.

7.8. Practicing the Mechanics

In this section we practice the mechanics of differentiation. But first,
I would offer some advice.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

How to Differentiate.
When you look at the function to be differentiated, you must
first ask yourself a series of questions. Is this a power function? (If
yes, apply the Power Rule.) Is this function a sum or difference of two
functions? (If yes, apply the Additive Rule.) Is this function a product
of two functions? (If yes, apply the Product Rule.) Is this function
a quotient of two functions? (If yes, apply the Quotient Rule.) No
matter how complicated the functions become, at each stage of the
differentiation process, this classification can be made. Make it.
Before differentiating, always look at the function to be oper-
ated on. Possibly do some algebraic manipulation for the purpose of
simplification or for the purpose of preparing√the function for differen-
tiation. For example, the function f (x) = x x is indeed a product of
two functions, as per item (a) above, but it would be silly to apply the
product rule. The reason for this is the function f can be rewritten as
√
f (x) = x x = xx1/2 = x3/2 .
This function can be more easily and efficiently differentiated when
treated as a power function.
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

As you apply the rules, verbalize them. This will help you re-
member them. These formulas must be memorized! (Sorry, DP S)
Until you become a master of differentiation, do not apply more
than one rule per step. (You are a master when you do not have to
look in the back of the book for the answer.)
Apply the rules carefully and methodically. Use correct notation
— very important.
Always practice your algebra. Simplify your answer.
Accumulate a history of problem solving. The more problems you
solve, the greater your history of problem solving. Having a history
of problem solving enables you to tackle new problems with more
confidence and authority.
See patterns in the sand. Many problems are just repetitions
of the same basic problem. Do not treat each problem as a unique
problem you have never seen before. Create memory pointers: try to
associate problem types so you can use your past experience to guide
you on each new quest. For example (trivial): If you first differentiate
y = x2 to get y 0 = 2x, and then you differentiate y = x3 to get
y 0 = 3x2 , and then you differentiate y = x4 to get y 0 = 4x3 , and
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

then you are asked to differentiate y = x5 wouldn’t you say, “I have

already done this problem!” All the above mentioned problems are,
in fact, the same problem over and over again; they are all just power
functions, they are all solve using the power rule. Over and over again.
How to do Homework.
When you work on problems at home, use plenty of paper, give
yourself plenty of room to do each problem. Do not squeeze your
work into a small space (or a large space). Write horizontally across
the sheet of paper. Write neatly. Get control of your hand.
When doing your homework, do not be sloppy or lazy. Solve a
problem as though your job depended on it. Use correct notation. I
have seen many students homework, quite generally, it is unorganized,
incomplete, and not written very well. Every point in part (a) is vio-
lated. Sometimes the attitude of the student is “I’ll do it this way for
my personal use, but on the test, I’ll be neat and do things correctly.”
I’m sorry, it doesn’t work that way. On a test, you will solve problems
exactly the same way you solved problems at home — only there is
no back of the book to provide answers to guide your thinking and
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

steps; and there is no solution manuals to use; and, o.k., there are no
hyper-links to the solutions either.
Do all problems as if I am looking over your shoulder, and you
want to impress me.
I used to solve problems in a scrap sheet of paper, then transfer
them neatly into a notebook. This gave me the opportunity to rewrite
the problem neatly and in an organized way, but it also allowed me
to rethink my solution, and to recheck my calculations.
How do we solve problems? One way is by example. Where do I
get examples, you ask? Your textbook provides examples, read them.
Quite often, examples in each section of a textbook illustrate how to
solve different problem types that appear in the exercise section. Any
notes obtained during class sessions provide a valuable resource of
examples. Reread your notes; be aware of the examples done in class.
These notes represent a large number of examples; many solutions
exhaustively worked out for you.
But wait. The point of the previous paragraph needs to be ex-
tended. Not only do these examples provide solutions to problem
types, but also provide illustrations of good style, correct notation,
Section 7: The Algebra of Differentiable Functions

fine organization, and well thought out presentation. These features

are important to your instructor, and to you, it is hoped.
Other Advice.
Take pride in your work. Take the attitude that each problem
has something to teach you. Adopt the personal philosophy: “I want
to do all things correctly and with good technique.” “I want to un-
derstand why things are as they are.”
Study and work for the purpose of understanding the ideas and
mastering the techniques, rather than to learn enough to get by. Our
country needs people who are competent. Teaching yourself to solve
problems yourself, studying for comprehension all go toward this goal.
Work hard. Put in 100%. This is necessary in order to find
out what you are intellectually capable of doing. Isn’t that what you
should be working towards?
Enough of such advice. Let’s bring on the examples!
w

Click here to continue.
Verbalizations

The Power Rule JG.

Let n ∈ N, i.e. n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , then
d xn
= nxn−1 .
dx
The derivative of x raised to a power, is that power times x
raised to one less power.
Verbalizations

Homogeneity of Differentiability.

d(cu) du
=c
dx dx
The derivative of a constant times a function is that constant
times the derivative of the function.
Verbalizations

The Additive Property of Derivative

d du dv
(u + v) = +
dx dx dx
The derivative of the sum of two functions is the sum of the
derivatives.
Verbalizations

The Produce Rule

d(uv) dv du
=u +v .
dx dx dx
The derivative of a product is the first times the derivative of
the second, plus the second times the derivative of the first.
Verbalizations

The Quotient Rule

du dv
d u v −u
= dx 2 dx v 6= 0.
dx v v
The derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the
derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the
derivative of the denominator, all divided by the denomina-
tor squared.
Verbalizations

The Extended Power Rule

Let r ∈ Q, the set of rational numbers, then
d xr
= rxr−1 .
dx
The derivative of x raised to a power, is that power times x
raised to one less power.
Verbalizations

The Chain Rule Let y = f (u) and u = g(x) be differentiable

and compatible for composition, then
dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
The derivative of a composition of two functions is the deriv-
ative of the outer function times the derivative of the inner
function.
Verbalizations

Generalized Power Rule

Let u be a function of x and r ∈ Q, the set of rational
numbers, then
d ur du
= rur−1 .
dx dx
The derivative of a function raised to a power, is the power
times the base function raised to one less power, times the
derivative of the base function.
 Solutions to Exercises
3.1. I’ll follow my own advice, except I’ll cut and paste the solutions,
and make all appropriate changes.
Solution to (a): Calculate the difference quotient. We proceed as fol-
lows.
1. Gather the Needed Information.
f (a + h) − f (a)
Difference Quotient: .
h
The Function and point: f (x) = 5x2 -2, and a = 1.
2. Make Calculations: Build up the difference quotient.

f (a) = f (1) = 3
f (a + h) = f (1 + h) = 5(1 + h)2 − 2
and so,
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

f (a + h) − f (a) = (5(1 + h)2 − 2) − 3

= 5(1 + 2h + h2 ) − 5
= 5 + 10h + 5h2 − 5
= 10h + 5h2 .
Where we have been true to our algebraic roots and simplified the
above expressions in an orderly fashion.
And finally, the difference quotient

f (a + h) − f (a) 10h + 5h2

=
h h
= 10 + 5h.
Thus,
f (a + h) − f (a)
= 10 + 5h, (A-1)
h
we have constructed in a well-organized way, the difference quotient.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Note: I was not satisfied with just “plugging” the function into the
formula (3) and getting the hideous expression
5(1 + h)2 − 2 − 3
.
h
This is the difference quotient but it does not advance the ultimate
problem forward (Part (b)). We would not have been true to our
algebraic roots!
Solution to (b): All the heavy lifting has been down in the separate
step of calculating and simplifying the difference quotient.
Gather Needed Information.
f (a + h) − f (a)
The definition: f 0 (a) = lim .
h→0 h
The Function and Point: f (x) = 5x2 − 2 and a = 1.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Make the Calculations.

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (1) = f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
f (1 + h) − f (1)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 10 + 5h / Part (a), equation (A-1)
h→0
= 10
Thus,
f 0 (1) = 10.
Organized work yields an organized mind.
Solution to (c) We just “plug” our information into the general for-
mula developed in (5). That general formula is
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a).
This is the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at x = a.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Our function is f (x) = 5x2 − 2, our point of interest is x = 1 (this is

our a, i.e. a = 1).
Auxiliary Calculations:
a=1
f (1) = 5(1)2 − 2 = 3
f 0 (1) = 10 from part (b)
The Equation of Tangent Line: Now we have all the “input data” we
need to utilize (5): Taking and inserting this information into (5) we
obtain

y = 3 + 10(x − 1).
or
y = 10x − 7.
This is the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at x = 1.
Exercise Notes: I told you it was a cut and paste job. The point was
that the steps or procedures are the same. We use exactly the same
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

train of thought as in the previous examples. By seeing a consistency,

or a unified method, of solution it is hoped you will enter these prob-
lems with confidence, authority, and a visualization of the sequence
of steps needed to solve the problem.
Of course, not all tangent lines pass through the point P ( 1, 3 );
I hope you don’t jump to that conclusion. I chose the function in
Example 3.1 and the function in this exercise just to confuse you. I
hope you were not! DP S
Exercise 3.1.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

3.2. Here is an outline of details. Recall f (x) = 5x2 − 2.

Difference Quotient:
f (x + h) − f (x) (5(x + h)2 − 2) − (5x2 − 2)
= = 10x + 5h2 .
h h
The Derivative:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
= lim 10x + 5h2
h→0
= 10x
Thus,
f (x) = 5x2 − 2 f 0 (x) = 10x.

Exercise Notes: Are these results consistent with the results of Ex-
ercise 3.1?
Exercise 3.2.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

3.3. Here is an outline of the details.

Difference Quotient:
p √
f (x + h) − f (x) 3(x + h) − 3x
=
h p h
√ p √
3(x + h) − 3x 3(x + h) + 3x
= p √
h 3(x + h) + 3x
3
=p √
3(x + h) + 3x

The Derivative:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
3
= lim p √
h→0 3(x + h) + 3x
3
= √
2 3x
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Thus,
3
f 0 (x) = √ .
2 3x

Domain Analysis: Dom(f 0 ) = ( 0, +∞ ). Exercise 3.3.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

1
3.4. For f (x) = √ , we proceed along standard lines of inquiry.
x
Difference Quotient:
f (x + h) − f (x) 1
= (f (x + h) − f (x))
h h 
1 1 1
= √ −√
h x+h x
√ √ 
1 x− x+h
= √ √
h x x+h
√ √  √ √ 
1 x− x+h x+ x+h
= √ √ √ √
h x x+h x+ x+h
 
1 x − (x + h)
= √ √ √ √
h x x + h( x + x + h)
−1
=√ √ √ √ (A-2)
x x + h( x + x + h)
That was a bit of a bear!
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

The Derivative:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
−1
= lim √ √ √ √ from (A-2)
h→0 x x + h( x + x + h)
−1
= 2 √
x (2 x)
−1
= 2√
2x x
Thus,
1
f 0 (x) = √ .
2x2 x
Exercise Notes: The only difference between this exercise and Exam-
ple 3.9 or Exercise 3.3 is the volume of algebra needed for this
problem. The step were the same, the conjugate trick was used in all
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

problem. The difference is the algebra; therefore, to succeed in Calcu-

lus you must constantly and consistently be improving your algebra!

Exercise 3.4.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

3.5. We calculate the left- and right-hand derivatives of

 2
x x≤0
f (x) =
x x>0
Left-hand Derivative:
0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
f− (0) = lim−
h→0 h
2
h
= lim
h→0 − h
= lim h
−
h→0
=0
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Right-hand Derivative:
0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
f+ (0) = lim+
h→0 h
h
= lim
h→0+ h
= lim 1
h→0+
=1
Thus,
0 0
f− (0) = 0 6= 1 = f+ (0).
This means (1) that f is not differentiable at x = 0 (see Theorem
Notes following Theorem 3.5); and (2) that f has a corner at x = 0.
Finally note that the function f is continuous at x = 0 because
f (0) = 0 = lim f (x) = lim f (x).
− x→0 +
x→0
Exercise 3.5.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

3.6. Begin by calculating the left-hand derivative at x = 0.

Left-Hand Derivative:
0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
f− (0) = lim−
h→0 h
1/3
h
= lim
h→0− h
1
= lim 2/3
h→0 h
−

= +∞.
The limit is +∞ since the h is squared: h2/3 = (h1/3 )2 ; consequently,
we are taking the limit of a positive quantity, where the denominator
goes to zero.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Right-hand Derivative:
0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
f+ (0) = lim+
h→0 h
h1/3
= lim+
h→0 h
1
= lim 2/3
h→0+ h
= +∞.
0 0
As you can see, the f+ (0) calculation was the same as the f− (0)
calculation.
Thus, we have shown that
0 0
f− (0) = f+ (0) = +∞,
this is my definition of a vertical tangent.
Finally, recall that f (x) = x1/3 is an algebraic function is continuous.
Exercise 3.6.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

4.1. The name of the function is f 0 , the name of the derivative

function is the same as the parent function f 0 with a 0 post-fixed.
This becomes f 00 . Got it? Exercise 4.1.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

6.1. The answer is

d5
= 0.
dx x=123.45
d5
Because the right-hand side of = 0 does not have an ‘x’ in it, the
dx
right-hand side, which is a function of x, must be a constant function
d5
(constantly equal to 0). Therefore, the evaluation of the function
dx
at a particular value of x, will yield 0. Exercise 6.1.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.1. Does your neatly written out solution look like this? Or have
you just scribbled down the answer?
d 5 2 3 d 5 d 2 3
4s − s = 4s − s
ds 3 ds ds 3
d s5 2 d s3
=4 −
ds 3 ds
2
= 4(5s4 ) − (3s2 )
3
= 20s − 2s2
4

= 2s2 (10s2 − 1)
Exercise 7.1.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.2. Let’s look at each part. From the solution to Exercise 7.1, we
have
dw
w = 4s5 − (2/3)s3 = 2s2 (10s2 − 1).
ds
Part (a): We want to find were the tangent line is horizontal. A hori-
zontal line has slope of 0; therefore, we want to find were the slope of
the tangent line is 0. The first derivative of a function is the slope of
the tangent line; therefore, we want to find where the first derivative
of the function is equal to 0. We ask this question by setting up the
equation:
dw
=0 solve for s
ds
2s2 (10s2 − 1) = 0 solve for s
Now if you haven’t completely solved this problem, now that I have
properly formulated it, you finish it off.
Which of the following is the answer to (a)?
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

1 1
(a) s = 2, 0 (b) s = 0 (c) s = ± (d) s = 0, ±
10 10
Part (b): Now we want to find all s at which the tangent line is parallel
to the line w = 120s + 3. Our function, w = 4s5 − (2/3)s3 , defines w
as a function of s; therefore we consider s the independent variable
and w the dependent variable; consequently, for
d
120s + 3 = 120.
ds
So, the line has a constant slope of m = 120. We want to find all
points s at which the slope of the tangent line is 120. We set up the
defining equation
dw
= 120 solve for s
ds
2s2 (10s2 − 1) = 120 solve for s (A-3)
Now if you have not already properly formulated the problem. All you
have to do now is to solve equation (A-3) for s — mere algebra. (I’m
sure you are a master of algebra!)
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Which of the following as the answers to (b)? (Work the problem out
first before daring to peek!)
p 5 p
(a) s = ± 5/2 (b) s = (c) s = 1, −3 (d) s = ± 12/5
2
Don’t give up on this problem. Keep trying to solve equation (A-3).
You never know, the problem may teach you something that later
you can use. Obtain a history of problem solving so that you will have
the experience and confidence to tackle problems encountered in the
future.
Exercise 7.2.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.3. For y = x12 (1 + x2 ), we want to differentiate the product of two

functions. Use the Product Rule, that’s what it is for.
dy d 12
= x (1 + x2 )
dx dx
12
12 d 2 2 dx
=x 1 + x + (1 + x )
dx dx
= x12 (2x) + (1 + x2 )12x11
= 2x11 (x2 + 6(1 + x2 ))
= 2x11 (7x2 + 6)
Thus,
dy
= 2x11 (7x2 + 6).
dx
d
Example Notes: Again, notice the use of the notation to work
dx
through this problem.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

This problem could have been solve more easily as follows:

y = x12 (1 + x2 ) = x12 + x14

y 0 = 12x11 + 14x13 = 2x11 (6 + 7x2 ).
Normally, this would have been the method of solution for this prob-
lem. I required the use of the product rule so you can start getting
practice.
Later, the product rule will become an essential tool for dif-
ferentiation. We have to wait until we can build up our set of rules.

Exercise 7.3.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.4. This is a quotient, so use the Quotient Rule.

d 7x6 d x6
=7 / Homogen.
dx 6x8 − 1 dx 6x8 − 1
d x6 d
(6x8 − 1) − x6 (6x8 − 1)
=7 dx dx / Quot.
(6x8 − 1)2
(6x8 − 1)(6x5 ) − x6 (48x7 )
=7
(6x8 − 1)2
6x5 (6x8 − 1 − 8x8 )
=7
(6x8 − 1)2
42x5 (2x8 + 1)
=− .
(6x8 − 1)2
Thus,
d 7x6 42x5 (2x8 + 1)
= − .
dx 6x8 − 1 (6x8 − 1)2
Exercise 7.4.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.5. Let’s hope you learned your lessons from the previous examples.
Note that
6
√ = 6x−5/2 .
x2 x
Thus,
d 6 d
√ = (6x−5/2 )
dx x2 x dx
5
= (6)(− )x−7/2
2
−7/2
= −15x
15
= − 7/2
x
15
= − 3√ .
x x
Finally,
d 6 15
√ = − 3√ .
dx x x
2 x x
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

I hope you didn’t use the quotient rule. Exercise 7.5.

Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.6. Again, we can avoid the quotient rule.

x2 + 1 x2 1
√ =√ +√
x x x
2
x 1
= 1/2 + 1/2
x x
= x + x−1/2
3/2

If you are an algebraic wizard, the above steps would be instantaneous.

Now we can differentiate
d x2 + 1 d 3/2
√ = x + x−1/2
dx x dx
3 1
= x1/2 − x−3/2
2 2
1
= x−3/2 (3x2 − 1).
2
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Make sure you understand the last algebraic step, I factored out the
quantity (1/2)x−3/2 . It is important that you constantly improve your
algebra.
d x2 + 1 1
√ = x−3/2 (3x2 − 1).
dx x 2
Exercise 7.6.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.7. Based on the definitions of each function, we automatically,

classify each variable as independent or dependent.
1
dy = 7x6 dx dw = √ ds dV = 4πr2 dr.
2 x
Exercise 7.7.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.8. I hope you didn’t use the product rule!

√ 3 3√
d(x x) = dx3/2 = x1/2 dx = x dx,
2 2
use the power rule! Exercise 7.8.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.9. This is the differential of a quotient.

 
x2 (x2 + 1) dx2 − x2 d(x2 + 1)
d ( 2 =
x +1 (x2 + 1)2
(x2 + 1)(2x dx) − x2 (2x dx)
=
(x2 + 1)2
2x(x2 + 1) − 2x3
= dx
(x2 + 1)2
2x
= 2 dx
(x + 1)2
These are virtually the same details you would have generated had
the problem been to calculate
d x2
dx x2 + 1
and the answer would have been the same, after dividing through by
dx. Exercise 7.9.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.10. Hummm! A function whose differential looks like dy = x4 dx.

This means
dy
= x4 .
dx
What function gives a derivative of x4 . After many hours of meditation
hopefully, you’ll arrive at something like
1 5
y=
x .
5
You would be right, but this is not the function that I was thinking
of!
I was thinking of the function
1 5
y= x + 17.
5
Are we both right? Say YES!
Differential equations concerns itself with identifying (unknown) func-
tions the only clues to whose identity is that the function satisfy some
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

differential equation: An equation involving differentials or deriva-

tives, like this one
dy = x5 dx.
O.k., this was an easy one. There are harder ones too. Some physical
systems can be described in terms of these differential equations. If we
can solve the differential equation we have characterized the system.
Exercise 7.10.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.11. This is a straight-forward application of the current discussion.

1
Solution to (a): dy = √ dx. This is because
2 x
dy d x1/2 1 1
= = x−1/2 = √ ,
dx dx 2 2 x
by the Power Rule.
Solution to (b): Put x = 4,
1 1
dy = √ dx = dx
2 x x=4 4

Solution to (c): On the tangent line to the graph of y = x2 at x = 4,

move horizontally from x = 4 to x = 4.1. This means we “run” by an
amount of dx = .1. Then
1 1 1
dy = dx = (.1) = .
4 dx=.1 4 40
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

Thus, if we move dx = .1 to the right, we must move up dy = 1/40

(upward) to get to the tangent line.
Solution to (d): On the tangent line to the graph of y = x2 at x = 4,
move horizontally from x = 4 to x = 3.8. This means we “run” by an
amount of dx = 3.8 − 4 = −.2, to the left Then,
1 1 1
dy = dx = (−.2) = − .
4 dx=−.2 4 20
Thus, if we move dx = −.2 to the left, we must move up dy = −1/20
(downward) to get to the tangent line. Exercise 7.11.
Solutions to Exercises (continued)

7.12. First make all routine calculations:

y = x3
dy = 3x2 dx
At x = 1,
y=1
dy = 3 dx (A-4)
The point of tangency is ( x0 , y0 ) = ( 1, 1 ). Transformation equations
are
dx = x − x0 = x − 1
(A-5)
dy = y − y0 = y − 1.
Substituting (A-5) back into (A-4) we get

y − 1 = 3(x − 1).

This is the equation of the line tangent to the graph of y = x3 , at the

point on the graph corresponding to x = 1. Exercise 7.12.
 Solutions to Examples
3.1. This is where we can apply our mechanical skills concerning
functions.
Solution to (a): Calculate the difference quotient. We proceed as fol-
lows.
1. Gather the Needed Information.
f (a + h) − f (a)
Difference Quotient: .
h
The Function and point: f (x) = 3x2 , and a = 1.
2. Make Calculations: Build up the difference quotient.

f (a) = f (1) = 3
f (a + h) = f (1 + h) = 3(1 + h)2
and so,
Solutions to Examples (continued)

f (a + h) − f (a) = 3(1 + h)2 − 3

= 3(1 + 2h + h2 ) − 3
= 3 + 6h + 3h2 − 3
= 6h + 3h2 .
Where we have been true to our algebraic roots and simplified the
above expressions in an orderly fashion.
And finally, the difference quotient

f (a + h) − f (a) 6h + 3h2
=
h h
= 6 + 3h.
Thus,
f (a + h) − f (a)
= 6 + 3h, (S-1)
h
we have constructed in a well-organized way, the difference quotient.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Note: I was not satisfied with just “plugging” the function into the
formula (3) and getting the hideous expression
(1 + h)2 − 3
.
h
This is the difference quotient but it does not advance the ultimate
problem forward (Part (b)). We would not have been true to our
algebraic roots!
Solution to (b): All the heavy lifting has been down in the separate
step of calculating and simplifying the difference quotient.
Gather Needed Information.
f (a + h) − f (a)
The definition: f 0 (a) = lim .
h→0 h
The Function and Point: f (x) = 3x2 and a = 1.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Make the Calculations.

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
f (1 + h) − f (1)
f 0 (1) = lim
h→0 h
= lim 6 + 3h / Part (a), equation (S-1)
h→0
=6
Thus,
f 0 (1) = 6.
Organized work yields an organized mind.
Example 3.1.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.2. We must construct the equation of a straight line. To do this,

we must unarchive our straight line knowledge. Recall, the point-slope
form of the equation of a line:
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ). (S-2)
This is the equation of the line of slope m passing through the point
P ( x0 , y0 ).
Therefore, to construct our line we need a point and a slope.
The Point: We want our line to be tangent to the graph of f at the
point corresponding to x = a? What does that mean? We want our
line to pass through the point ( a, f (a) ).
The Point: P ( a, f (a) ).
The Slope: We want our line to be tangent to the graph of f at the
point corresponding to x = a. The slope of the tangent line of f at
x = a is our interpretation of f 0 (a).
The Slope: m tan = f 0 (a).
Solutions to Examples (continued)

The Equation of Tangent Line: Now we have all the “input data” we
need to utilize (S-2) Taking
( x0 , y0 ) = ( a, f (a) ) m = m tan = f 0 (a),
and inserting this information into (S-2) we obtain

y − f (a) = f 0 (a)(x − a).

or
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a).

This verifies (5). Example 3.2.

Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.3. We just “plug” our information into the general formula devel-
oped in (5). That general formula is
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a).
This is the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at x = a.
Our function is f (x) = 3x2 , our point of interest is x = 1 (this is our
a, i.e. a = 1).
Auxiliary Calculations:
a=1
f (1) = 3(1)2 = 3
f 0 (1) = 6 from Example 3.1
The Equation of Tangent Line: Now we have all the “input data” we
need to utilize (5): Taking and inserting this information into (5) we
obtain

y = 3 + 6(x − 1).
or
Solutions to Examples (continued)

y = 6x − 3.
This is the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at x = 1.
Example 3.3.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.4. We must build up the expression needed to calculate the deriv-

ative from the definition. We refer you to (2). Let h be a symbol that
represents a nonzero number, then
f (a) = f (2) = 4
f (a + h) = f (2 + h) = (2 + h)2
= 4 + 4h + h2
f (a + h) − f (a) = 4 + 4h + h2 − 4
= 4h + h2 .
Thus,
f (a + h) − f (a) 4h + h2
= = 4 + h,
h h
where we have cancelled the common factor of h.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Finally,
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (2) = lim
h→0 h
= lim 4 + h
h→0
= 4.
Thus,
f 0 (2) = 4.
That was simple!
Example Notes: Study the style of presentation, the organization of
this solution. If you are well-organized, methodical, and develop good
habits, then the calculation of the derivative from the definition is
straight forward. Is it something you would like to strive for?
Derivatives at particular values of x, such as x = 2, are fine.
But now, if we wanted the derivative at x = 3 we are out of luck. All
our work is for nothing! We have recalculate everything for the case
Solutions to Examples (continued)

x = 3; to avoid the unpleasant situation, it is best to obtain a general

formula for the derivative at any value of x.
The interpretation of f 0 (2) = 4 is that it is the slope of the line
tangent to the graph of f at x = 2
Example 3.4.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.5. This is a continuation of Example 3.4. From that example,

f 0 (2) = 4. This represents the slope the of the line tangent to the
graph of f at the point x = 2.
Now the find the equation of a line, we need the slope of that line
(m = f 0 (2) = 4), and we need a point on that line. The point on the
line is the point of tangency:
P ( a, f (a) ) = P ( 2, f (2) ) = P ( 2, 4 ).
We now have all the information we need. The point-slope form of the
equation of a line is
y − y0 = m(x − x0 ),
where, the line has slope m and passes through the point ( x0 , y0 ).
Substituting in our data,

y − 4 = 4(x − 2)
or,
y = 4x − 4
is the desired equation. Example 3.5.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.6.
√ Begin with the difference quotient and simplify. Here, f (x) =
2x and a = 3 in the definition.
f (a + h) − f (a) f (3 + h) − f (3)
=
h p h
√
2(3 + h) − 6
= Are you following?
√ h √
6 + 2h − 6
=
√ h √ √ √
6 + 2h − 6 6 + 2h + 6
= √ √
h 6 + 2h + 6
In the last step we utilize the conjugate trick (remember?). The reason
I went for the conjugate trick here is because of the basic Differenti-
ation Strategy. The thing what was guiding my thinking was the goal
of getting rid of the h in the denominator (legally!). The conjugate
trick did the trick!
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Continuing now . . .
√ √ √ √
f (a + h) − f (a) 6 + 2h − 6 6 + 2h + 6
= √ √
h h 6 + 2h + 6
(6 + 2h − 6
= √ √
h( 6 + 2h + 6)
2h
= √ √
h( 6 + 2h + 6)
2
=√ √ cancel the h’s!
6 + 2h + 6
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Success vis–á–vis Differentiation Strategy! And finally,

f (3 + h) − f (3)
f 0 (3) = lim
h→0 h
2
= lim p √
h→0 6 + 2h) + 6
2
=√ √
6+ 6
2
= √
2 6
1
=√ .
6
How’s that for micro-miniature steps!
√ 1
If f (x) = 2x, then f 0 (x) = √ .
6
Example 3.6.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.7. This really isn’t Skill Level 5, it’s easier than that. You just have
to have the courage to do the obvious. Let’s calculate the infamous
difference quotient:
 2
h
f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h)  if h is rational
= = h
h h 
0 if h is irrational
since f (0) = 0 (0 is a rational number). Thus the difference quotient
is then 
f (0 + h) − f (0) h if h is rational
= (S-3)
h 0 if h is irrational
Now, based on the form of the difference quotient, and the fact that
we want to take the limit as h goes to 0, we would postulate that
f 0 (0) = 0. But we must prove this still. We want to prove
f (0 + h) − f (0)
lim = 0.
h→0 h
This is a job for the δ-definition of limit. Let  > 0, and choose δ = .
(Why? Because it works, silly — bottom line.)
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Now suppose h is such that

0 < |h − 0| = |h| < δ.
Either that h is a rational number or a irrational number.
Case 1 : Suppose h is rational, and 0 < |h| < δ. Then
f (0 + h) − f (0)
= |h| < δ = . (S-4)
h
The first equality comes from (S-3).
Case 2 : Suppose h is irrational, and 0 < |h| < δ. Then by (S-3),
f (0 + h) − f (0)
= 0 < . (S-5)
h

Conclusion: From (S-4) and (S-5), either case implies

f (0 + h) − f (0)
<
h
Solutions to Examples (continued)

whenever, 0 < |h| < δ. But this is exactly the definition of what it
means for
f (0 + h) − f (0)
lim =0
h→0 h
But by definition of derivative,
f (0 + h) − f (0)
f 0 (0) = lim = 0.
h→0 h
Thus, we have proved
f 0 (0) = 0.

Example Notes: In fact, x = 0 is the only point at which this function

f has a derivative. That would be interesting to prove, wouldn’t it?
Take that as a challenge. DP
S
Example 3.7.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.8. We must build up the difference quotient, keeping x symbolic.

Initial Calculations:
f (x) = x2
f (x + h) = (x + h)2
= x2 + 2hx + h2
f (x + h) − f (x) = (x2 + 2hx + h2 ) − x2
= 2hx + h2

Difference Quotient:
f (x + h) − f (x) 2hx + h2
=
h h
= 2x + h.
Notice, I have successfully carried out our Differentiation Strategy.
Finally,
Solutions to Examples (continued)

The Derivative:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
= lim 2x + h
h→0
= 2x.
f 0 (x) = 2x.

Example Notes: As you can see, f 0 (x) = 2x is a function whose name

is f 0 . In Example 3.4, we calculated f 0 (2) = 4 for the exact same
function. This taught us something at the time, but if we wanted to
know f 0 (3) we would have to recalculate everything. The charm of the
derivative function is that we don’t have to recalculate each time. We
showed that f 0 (x) = 2x so f 0 (2) = 2(2) = 4, and f 0 (3) = 2(3) = 6.
No pain!
Note also that Dom(f 0 ) = Dom(f ) = R.
Example 3.8.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.9.
√ Begin with the difference quotient and simplify. Here, f (x) =
2x and a = 2 in the definition.
p √
f (x + h) − f (x) 2(x + h) − 2x
=
h √ h √
2x + 2h − 2x
=
√ h √ √ √
2x + 2h − 2x 2x + 2h + 2x
= √ √
h 2x + 2h + 2x
In the last step we utilize the conjugate trick (remember?). Continuing
Solutions to Examples (continued)

now . . .
√ √ √ √
f (x + h) − f (x) 2x + 2h − 2x 2x + 2h + 2x
= √ √
h h 2x + 2h + 2x
(2x + 2h) − 2x
= √ √
h( 2x + 2h + 2x)
2h
= √ √
h( 2x + 2h + 2x)
2
=√ √ cancel the h’s!
2x + 2h + 2x
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Success vis–á–vis Differentiation Strategy! And finally,

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
2
= lim p √
h→0 2x + 2h) + 2x
2
=√ √
2x + 2x
2
= √
2 2x
1
=√ .
2x
√
Thus, the derivative of the function f (x) = 2x is
1
f 0 (x) = √ . (S-6)
2x
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Particular values of the derivative can be obtained by simple evalua-

tion,
1 1 2
f 0 (3) = √ f 0 (2) = f 0 (3/2) = √
6 2 6
Domain Analysis: The domain of the parent function is Dom(f ) =
[ 0, +∞ ), but Dom(f 0 ) = ( 0, +∞ ). Compare the two domains, the
only difference is the exclusion of x = 0 from the Dom(f 0 ). There
are two reasons for this: (1) On technical grounds, the Definition 3.1
requires that if we are to differentiate at x = a, then a is required
to lie in an open interval of the domain of f . This is necessary to
calculate a two-sided limit. But x = 0 is an endpoint of the domain,
and is therefore excluded on technical grounds. One-sided derivatives
address this problem. And (2), when you put x = 0 into the derivative
formula (S-6), you get 0 in the denominator.
Example 3.9.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.10. We will use Corollary 3.3. Argue that f is not continuous at

x = 0.  2
x x≤0
f (x) =
x+1 x>0
Left-hand limit:
lim f (x) = lim x2 = 0 = f (0) (S-7)
x→0− x→0−

Right-hand limit:
lim f (x) = lim x + 1 = 1 6= f (0) (S-8)
x→0+ x→0+

Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist; consequently, f cannot be contin-

x→0
uous. (Other references (S-7) states that f is left-continuous at x = 0,
(S-8) implies that f is not right-continuous at x = 0; therefore f is
not continuous at x = 0.)
Example 3.10.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

0
3.11. We show that the left-hand derivative f− (0) = −1 and the
0
right-hand derivative f+ (0) = 1. It follows then, by Theorem 3.5,
that f 0 (0) does not exist.
First note that if h < 0, f (h) = |h| = −h; and if h > 0, f (h) = |h| = h.
Of course f (0) = |0| = 0.
Left-hand derivative:
0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
f− (0) = lim−
h→0 h
−h
= lim
h→0 − h
= lim −1
h→0−
= −1.
0
As advertised, f− (0) = −1 .
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Right-hand derivative:
0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
f+ (0) = lim+
h→0 h
h
= lim
h→0+ h
= lim 1
h→0+
= 1.
0
Again, f+ (0) = 1 .

We have shown that

0 0
f− (0) = −1 6= 1 = f+ (0),
and conclude, by Theorem 3.5, that f 0 (0) does not exist.
Example 3.11.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

3.12. We reason as follows.

Left-hand derivative:
0 f (0 + h) − f (0)
f− (0) = lim−
h→0 h
= lim− 0
h→0
=0
0
Thus, f− (0) = 0 .

Right-hand derivative: We can compute the right-hand derivative from

its definition, but let me illustrate a different reasoning.
Consider the function g(x) = x2 , x ∈ R. Now, we have shown in
Example 3.8 that g 0 (x) = 2x. Also, f (x) = g(x) for all x ≥ 0.
The right-hand derivative at x = 0 is determined by the value of the
0 0
function to the right of x = 0. Therefore, we conclude f+ (0) = g+ (0)!
Solutions to Examples (continued)

(Think about it.) Apply Theorem 3.5 to the function g to obtain

g 0 (0) = g−
0 0
(0) = g+ (0). We deduce
0 0
f+ (0) = g+ (0) = g 0 (0) = 2(0) = 0.

0
Thus, f+ (0) = 0 .
0 0
We have shown that f− (0) = 0 = f+ (0) and so conclude that f 0 (0)
exists and
f 0 (0) = 0.
Example 3.12.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

0 0
3.13. It is easy to show that f− (0) = −∞ and f+ (0) = +∞.
Difference Quotient: We are interested in the case of x = 0 in the
formula for the difference quotient:
f (x + h) − f (x) f (h) + f (0)
=
h h
2/3
h
= = h−1/3
h
1
= 1/3 (S-9)
h
Left-hand Derivative: The left-hand derivative is the left-hand limit
of the difference quotient, from (S-9)
0 1
f− (0) = lim− = −∞.
h→0 h1/3
This calculation is enough to show that f is not differentiable at
x = 0 because, for differentiable functions, the left-hand derivative
is required to be finite.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Right-hand Derivative: The right-hand derivative is the right-hand

limit of the difference quotient, from (S-9),
0 1
f+ (0) = lim = +∞.
h→0+ h1/3
Example 3.13.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

6.1. In light of the Power Rule, this is the height of triviality!

d x4 3 d x123
= 4x = 123x122
dx dx
d s5 d w 10
= 5x4 = 10w9
ds dw
When you do problems, use correct notation. Don’t be lazy. Pretend
that I am looking over your shoulder watching your work. Be neat.
Be organized. Example 6.1.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

6.2. There is no big secret to this “proof.” We just use standard

techniques.
f (x) = x4
f (x + h) = (x + h)4
f (x + h) − f (x) = (x + h)4 − x4
= x4 + 4x3 h + 6x2 h2 + 4xh3 + h4 − x4
= 4x3 h + 6x2 h2 + 4xh3 + h4 (S-10)
The difference quotient is
f (x + h) − f (x)
= 4x3 + 6x2 h + 4xh2 + h3 ,
h
where I have already cancelled out the h in the denominator with the
common factor of h in the numerator (S-10) — forgive me for doing
it behind your back.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Finally,
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
= lim 4x + 6x2 h + 4xh2 + h3
3
h→0
3
= 4x .
Thus we have shown that for f (x) = x4 , f 0 (x) = 4x3 . You’ll note that
this formula is consistent with the general formula of the power rule.
Example 6.2.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.1. A simple application of the Power Rule

d 4x6 d x6
=4 = 4(6x5 ) = 24x5
dx dx
d 21s3 d s3
= 21 = 21(3s2 ) = 63s2
ds ds
d 54 w4 5 d w4 5
= = (4w3 ) = 5w3 ,
dw 4 dw 4
where we have used the Homogeneous Property and the Power Rule
in each calculation.
Example Notes: Notice how the Leibniz notation is used to work
through this problem. In the above links, I have referenced the verbal
versions of the rules. Each time you use a formula, verbalize! Your
audio output is fed back into your audio sensors — the result: You
hear yourself speaking the formula. Through this device, you will au-
tomatically memorize these important formulas.

Example 7.1.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.2. Proceed as follows:

d d d
(3x4 − 6x5 ) = (3x4 ) − (6x5 ) / Add. Prop.
dx dx dx
d x4 d x5
=3 −6 / Homogen. Prop.
dx dx
= 3(4x ) − 6(5x4 )
3
/ Power Rule

= 12x3 − 30x4 .
Thus,
d
(3x4 − 6x5 ) = 12x3 − 30x4 .
dx
Example Notes: Notice how the Leibniz notation is used to work
through this more “complicated” problem.
As you are using the different differentiation properties, verbalize
them. The sound goes out the mouth, around your head, and into your
ears. As you do many differentiation problems, verbalizing as you go,
you will soon memorize these important formulas without effort.
Example 7.2.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.3. We use standard techniques . . . do you?

d d d
3 csc(w) − 5 cot(w) = 3 csc(w) − 5 cot(w)
dw dw dw
d d
=3 csc(w) − 5 cot(w)
dw dw
= 3(− csc(w) cot(w)) − 5(− csc2 (w))
= − csc(w)(3 cot(w) + 5 csc(w))
Example Notes: Use the Leibniz notation to help you work through a
problem. Be slow and methodical. Verbalize the rules as you use them
— this will help you remember them.
Example 7.3.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.4. This is the derivative of a product, so we apply the Product

Rule. I want to be true to my own self — I’ll use good algebraic and
calculus methods,

d 3 d d x3
x (2x9 − 12) = x3 (2x9 − 12) + (2x9 − 12) / Prod. Rule
dx dx dx
3 8 9 2
= x (18x ) + (2x − 12)(3x ) / Power Rule
11 2 9
= 18x + 3x (2x − 12)
= 3x2 (6x9 + 2x9 − 12)
= 3x2 (8x9 − 12)
= 12x2 (2x9 − 3).
Thus,
d 3
x (2x9 − 12) = 12x2 (2x9 − 3).
dx
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Example Notes: Use every opportunity to practice your algebra. Sim-

ply multiplying out an algebraic expression does not (necessarily) con-
stitute a simplification. Study the presentation style above. Use the
Leibniz notation to help you work through a long problem. Verbalize
the formulas as you use them.
Example 7.4.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.5. We are asked to differentiate a quotient; therefore, we apply the

Quotient Rule.

d 3x3 d x3
= 3 / Homogen.
dx 4 − 5x2 dx 4 − 5x2
d d
(4 − 5x2 ) (x3 ) − x3 (4 − 5x2 )
=3 dx dx / Quot. Rule
(4 − 5x2 )2
(4 − 5x2 )(3x2 ) − x3 (−10x)
=3 / Add., Power
(4 − 5x2 )2
3x2 (3(4 − 5x2 ) + 10x2 )
=
(4 − 5x2 )2
Thus,
d 3x3 3x2 (12 − 5x2 )
= .
dx 4 − 5x2 (4 − 5x2 )2

Example Notes: Again, note the use of the notation to work through
this problem. Use good notation to help you! Verbalize the formulas as
Solutions to Examples (continued)

you use them. The hyper-links provided above point to the formulas
in their verbalized form. Read them.
Example 7.5.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.6. The variable w is the dependent variable and s is the indepen-

dent variable. Apply the Quotient Rule, and verbalize as we go.
dw d s2
=
ds ds 3s4 − 2
d d
(3s4 − 2) s2 − s2 (3s4 − 2)
= ds ds
(3s4 − 2)2
(3s4 − 2)(2s) − s2 (12s3 )
=
(3s4 − 2)2
2s(3s4 − 2 − 6s4 )
=
(3s4 − 2)2
2s(3s4 + 2)
=− .
(3s4 − 2)2
Throughout, I have used the Power Rule, the Quotient Rule, sprinkled
with a liberal dose of standard algebra. Study the calculus and the
Solutions to Examples (continued)

algebra.
dw 2s(3s4 + 2)
=− .
ds (3s4 − 2)2
Example 7.6.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.7. Students make a big deal out of this kind of problem. Very often
they use the quotient rule.
d5 d x4
d 5 x4 − 5
= dx dx
dx x4 (x4 )2
x4 (0) − 5(4x3 )
=
x8
3
20x
=− 8
x
20
=− 5
x
This yields the right answer but it is not the best and most efficient
way to solve this problem. Don’t do it this way!
Solutions to Examples (continued)

The optimal solution is

d 5 d x−4
=5 / Homogen.
dx x4 dx
= 5(−4)x−5 / Power Rule
20
=− 5
x
This solution is quicker and there is a lesser chance of an error. The
quotient rule is a complicated rule. The more complicated the rule,
the greater chance of error.
Example Lesson: When you have a quotient, and either the numerator
or denominator is a constant, then don’t use the quotient rule. Use
the Power Rule.
Example Notes: This same kind of mistake occurs with a product.
Some students will apply the product rule to the function y = 5x3 .
Technically, there is nothing wrong with doing it that way but doing
so would be wasting a lot of time on a problem that could be done by
inspection y 0 = 15x2 .
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Example 7.7.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

d √
7.8. It is very tempting to use the product rule to evaluate x x;
dx
however, it would be inefficient to do so. The key point here is to
realize that √
x x = xx1/2 = x3/2 .
Then
d √ d x3/2 3 3√
x x= = x1/2 = x.
dx dx 2 2
Example Lesson: When approaching a differentiation problem, look
first at the function to be differentiated. Determine whether there is
a worthwhile simplification before differentiating.
Example 7.8.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.9. Now we will have to use the Quotient Rule.

d x2 + 1 d x2 + 1
√ =
dx x + 1 dx x1/2 + 1
(x1/2 + 1)(2x) − (x2 + 1)(1/2)x−3/2
=
(x1/2 + 1)2
(1/2)x−3/2 (x1/2 + 1)(4x5/2 ) − (x2 + 1)
=
(x1/2 + 1)2
x−3/2 (4x3 + 4x5/2 − x2 − 1)
=
2(x1/2 + 1)2
4x3 + 4x5/2 − x2 − 1
=
2x3/2 (x1/2 + 1)2
√
4x3 + 4x2 x − x2 − 1
= √ √
2x x( x + 1)2
Example 7.9.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.10. The problem is to calculate d(x2 sin(x)). This is the differential

of a product, we’ll use the product rule:
d(x2 sin(x)) = x2 d(sin(x)) + sin(x) dx2
= x2 (cos(x) dx) + sin(x)(2x dx)
= x2 cos(x) dx + 2x sin(x) dx
= (x2 cos(x) + 2x sin(x)) dx
Thus,
d(x2 sin(x)) = (x2 cos(x) + 2x sin(x)) dx.
If we divide both sides by dx, we get
d x2 sin(x)
= x2 cos(x) + 2x sin(x),
dx
which is the correct derivative. Example 7.10.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

7.11. The equation dy = 6 dx can be interpreted as the equation of

the tangent line in the following way.
dy
Derivative: y = x2 , = 2x.
dx
Differential : dy = 2x dx
Point of Tangency:
y = x2 and x = 3 =⇒ y = 3,
Thus, the point of tangency is ( 3, 9 ).
Slope of Tangent Line:
dy
m tan = = 2x|x=3 = 6.
dx x=3

Differential at x = 3: dy = 6 dx.
Now, translate the xy-axis system to the point of tangency: ( 3, 9 ).
Call the new, translated axis system the dx dy-axis system; i.e. call the
Solutions to Examples (continued)

new horizontal axis, dx, and the new vertical axis dy. The equation
of any line through the new origin is
dy = m dx,
where m is the slope of the a line through the new origin.
The tangent line under consideration passes through the point of tan-
gency, ( 3, 9 ), which, by design, is our new origin. The slope of this
line is m = 6, thus, the equation of the tangent line, in our new axis
system, is given by
dy = 6 dx. (S-11)
This represents another interpretation of the differential: It is the
equation of the tangent line, when the xy-axis system is translated to
the point of tangency, and the new axis variables are dx and dy.
If you remember your translation of axis knowledge, then you can
write down the transformation equations: In general, if we move the
Solutions to Examples (continued)

origin from (0, 0) to (x0 , y0 ), and we are calling the new axis dx and
dy, then
dx = x − x0
dy = y − y0
In our case, we have moved the origin to ( x0 , y0 ) = ( 3, 9 ). Thus, the
transformation of axes equations becomes,
dx = x − 3
dy = y − 9
Now if we substitute these equation back into (S-11), we get
y − 9 = 6(x − 3)
or,
y = 9 + 6(x − 3)
These equations are that of the tangent line, back in the original xy-
coordinate system. This can be verifies by “plugging” in the basic
information into the general formula.
Solutions to Examples (continued)

Summary of Technique. Let y = f 0 (x). Put x = x0 a numerical value.

Then dy = f 0 (x0 ) dx is the equation of the line tangent to the graph
of f , then the xy-axis system is translated to the point of tangency:
( x0 , y0 ), y0 = f (x0 ). The new axis system has axis variables, dx and
dy. The equation of the tangent line can be obtained by taking
dy = f 0 (x0 ) dx,
and translating back to the original xy-axis. To translate back, use
the transformation equations,
dx = x − x0 dy = y − y0 .
Thus,
(y − y0 ) = f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ).
Example 7.11.