Indian Institute of Information Technology, Lucknow

भारतीय सूचना ौ यो गक सं थान, लखनऊ

(An Institute of National Importance by the Act of Parliament)
a
Classroom Lecture Program
on
Data Communication
(B.Tech 3rd Semester CS/IT/CSAI/CSB)

by

Dr. Ankita Srivastava

Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science
Email ID: [email protected]
Contact Number: 7525088450/7800771853(Watsapp)
 Open System Interconnection (OSI Model)
• The OSI reference model was
developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization for Standardization‘,
in the year 1984.

• The OSI model provides a theoretical

foundation for
understanding network
communication.

• It is divided into seven layers that

work together to carry out
specialized network functions,
allowing for a more systematic
approach to networking.
 OSI Model (Contd..)
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

• Application Layer: Applications create the data.

• Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.

• Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.

• Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.

• Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.

• Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.

• Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
 OSI Model (Contd..)
Physical Layer
• It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.

• The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual
bits from one node to the next.

• Bit Synchronization

• Bit Rate Control

• Physical Topologies Eg: Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical
Layer devices.
• Transmission Mode
 OSI Model (Contd..)
Data Link Layer (DLL)

• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.

• The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer.

• The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

Logical Link Control (LLC)
Media Access Control (MAC)

• Framing
• Physical Addressing
• Error Control
• Flow Control

Examples: Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

 OSI Model (Contd..)
Network Layer
• The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks.

• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available.

• Routing

• Logical Addressing

Eg: Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.
 OSI Model (Contd..)
Transport Layer
• The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network
layer.

• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.

• It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.

• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and
re-transmits the data if an error is found.

• Segmentation and Reassembly

• Service Point Addressing

 OSI Model (Contd..)
Transport Layer
Services Provided by Transport Layer:

1) Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes:

• Connection Establishment
• Data Transfer
• Termination/disconnection

2) Connectionless service

Session Layer
• This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.
 OSI Model (Contd..)
Presentation Layer

• Translation
• Encryption/ Decryption
• Compression

Application Layer

• Network Virtual Terminal(NVT)

• File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM)
• Mail Services
• Directory Services
 TCP/IP Model
• It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the
Internet.

• This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication between
devices.

• TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on
standard protocols.

• Whenever we want to send something

over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the
data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined
at the receiver’s end to form the same
data.
 TCP/IP Model (Contd..)
Application Layer

• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.

• Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

HTTP: Hypertext transfer protocol

SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol
SMTP: Simple mail transfer protocol
DNS: Domain Name System
TELNET: Terminal Network
FTP: File Transfer Protocol
 TCP/IP Model (Contd..)
Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for

error-free, end-to-end delivery of data
from the source host to the destination
host.

• The TCP/IP transport layer protocols

exchange data receipt acknowledgments
and retransmit missing packets to ensure
that packets arrive in order and without
error.

• These protocols receive the data from the

application, divide it into smaller pieces
called packets, add a destination address,
and then pass the packets along to the next
protocol layer, the Internet Network layer.
 TCP/IP Model (Contd..)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the duration of the
transmission.

• TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames. Therefore, it
ensures all the segments/packets must be received and acknowledged before the transmission is
considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.

• At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as segment/packet, and
each segment contains a sequence number which is required for reordering the frames to form an original
message.

• At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on sequence numbers.
 TCP/IP Model (Contd..)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

• It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.

 TCP/IP Model (Contd..)
Internet Layer
• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.

• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and they arrive at the
destination irrespective of the route they take.

• IP Addressing

• Host-to-host communication

• Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.

• Datagrams are data packets which contain adequate header information so that they can be individually
routed by all intermediate network switching devices to the destination.

• Routing
 TCP/IP Model (Contd..)
Network Access Layer

• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the OSI
reference model.

• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.

• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same
network.

• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames transmitted by
the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.

• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
 Data and Signal
• Data is an entity that conveys some meaning based on some mutually agreed up rules/convention
between the sender and receiver.

• Whatever we can interpret is data.

• Signal is an electric, electronic or optical representation of data, which can be sent over a
communication media.

• Data and Signal is of two type: Analog and Digital.

• Analog signal can be simple as well as composite In nature.

 Periodic Signal
❖ A periodic signal is mainly characterized
by three parameters: (a) Amplitude, (b)
Phase & (c) Frequency.

• Amplitude: Represents the values of

signal at different instants of time.
(measured in Volts)

• Frequency: It is inverse of time

period. (measured in Hz)

• Phase: It gives a measure of relative

position of two signals in time.
(measured in degrees or radian)
 Time and Frequency Domain Representation
of Signal
• Oscilloscope is use to see the time domain representation of a signal.

• Any composite signal can be expressed as a combination of simple

sine waves with different amplitudes, phase and frequency.
S(t)= A1 sin(2πf1t+ϴ1)+ A2 sin(2πf2t+ϴ2)+ A3 sin(2πf3t+ϴ3)......

• Eg: S(t)= sin(2πf1t)+ (1/3) sin(2π(3f1)t)

• Fig 3 shows the time domain representation of the combined signal

and the Fourier series shows that the signal has got 2 frequencies,
which is represented by a spectrum analyzer as shown in fig 4.
Time and Frequency Domain Representation of Signal (Contd…)
 Frequency Spectrum & Bandwidth
•
 Bit Interval and Bit Rate
• Bit Interval: It is the time required to send a single bit.

• Bit Rate: It is number of bits per second (bps)

Propagation Time & Wavelength

• Propagation Time: Time required for a signal to travel from one point of transmission medium to
the other.
Propagation Time= Distance / Propagation Speed

• Wavelength: Distance occupied in space by a single period

Wavelength = Propagation Speed * Period = Propagation Speed/ Frequency
 Impairments in the Signal
• To send data, we have to send signal through a communication medium.
• The medium is not ideal. The imperfections cause impairments in the signal.
• Impairments: (a) Attenuation (b) Distortion (c) Noise
• Attenuation: Loss of energy as the signal passes through a medium. (expressed in decibel)
dB= 10 log10(P2/P1)
(where, P2 is the received power and P1 is the transmitted power)
• Whenever the signal level is low, we can increase the level of signal by Amplification.
• Attenuation decided how far the signal can travel without amplification.
 Attenuation (contd…)
Example:
• Let the energy strength or power at point 2 is 1/10 with respect to point 1. Then attenuation in dB is
10log10(1/10) that is – 10 dB. It may be noted that the loss of power is represented by a negative sign.

• On the other hand, let the gain as it passes through an amplifier is hundred times at point three with respect
to point 2. Then the gain in dB is 10log10 (100/1) that is 20 dB, which is positive.

• It may be noted that the signal strength at point 3 with respect to point 1 can be obtained by adding the two
values: (-10) + 20 = 10dB.
 Distortion
• Attenuation of all frequency components are not same. Some frequencies are passed without
attenuation, some are weakened and some are blocked. This leads to distortion.
 Data Rate Limits
How fast the data can be sent over the channel?
• Bandwidth of channel: Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that a medium can pass without a
loss of one half of the power contained in the signal. (without much attenuation)

• Bandwidth of a medium decides the quality of the signal at the other end.
• A digital signal (usually aperiodic) requires a bandwidth from 0 to infinity. So it need a low pass
channel.
• Analog signals requires a bandpass channel.
 Data Rate Limits (Contd..)
• Number of levels used in the signal
• Noise level in the channel