Section 8.

4 Vectors 491

Section 8.4 Vectors

A woman leaves home, walks 3 miles north, then 2 miles southeast. How far is she from
home, and in which direction would she need to walk to return home? How far has she
walked by the time she gets home?

This question may seem familiar – indeed we did a similar problem with a boat in the
first section of this chapter. In that section, we solved the problem using triangles. In
this section, we will investigate another way to approach the problem using vectors, a
geometric entity that indicates both a distance and a direction. We will begin our
investigation using a purely geometric view of vectors.

A Geometric View of Vectors

Vector
A vector is an object that has both a length and a direction.

Geometrically, a vector can be represented by an arrow that has a fixed length and
indicates a direction. If, starting at the point A, a vector, which means “carrier” in

Latin, moves toward point B, we write AB to represent the vector.

A vector may also be indicated using a single letter in boldface type, like u, or by

capping the letter representing the vector with an arrow, like u .

Example 1
Find a vector that represents the movement from the point P(-1, 2) to the point Q(3,3)

By drawing an arrow from the first point to the second,


we can construct a vector PQ . Q
P

Using this geometric representation of vectors, we can visualize the addition and scaling
of vectors.
 
To add vectors, we envision a sum of two movements. To find u + v , we first draw the
  
vector u , then from the end of u we drawn the vector v . This corresponds to the notion
that first we move along the first vector, and then from that end position we move along
 
the second vector. The sum u + v is the new vector that travels directly from the
 
beginning of u to the end of v in a straight path.
492 Chapter 8

Adding Vectors Geometrically


To add vectors geometrically, draw v starting from the end of 
    v
u . The sum u + v is the vector from the beginning of u to the

end of v .
  
u u +v

Example 2
 
Given the two vectors shown below, draw u + v


 v
u

v
 
We draw v starting from the end of u , then draw in the sum 
    u  
u + v from the beginning of u to the end of v . u +v

Notice that path of the walking woman from the beginning of the section could be
visualized as the sum of two vectors. The resulting sum vector would indicate her end
position relative to home.

Try it Now

1. Draw a vector, v , that travels from the origin to the point (3, 5).

Note that although vectors can exist anywhere in the plane, if we put the starting point at
the origin it is easy to understand its size and direction relative to other vectors.
   
To scale vectors by a constant, such as 3u , we can imagine adding u + u + u . The result
will be a vector three times as long in the same direction as the original vector. If we

were to scale a vector by a negative number, such as − u , we can envision this as the
  
opposite of u ; the vector so that u + (−u ) returns us to the starting point. This vector
 
− u would point in the opposite direction as u but have the same length.

Another way to think about scaling a vector is to maintain its direction and multiply its

length by a constant, so that 3u would point in the same direction but will be 3 times as
long.
 Section 8.4 Vectors 493

Scaling a Vector Geometrically

To geometrically scale a vector by a constant, scale the length of the vector by the
constant.

Scaling a vector by a negative constant will reverse the direction of the vector.

Example 3
   
Given the vector shown, draw 3u , − u , and − 2u . u

 
The vector 3u will be three times as long. The vector − u will have the same length

but point in the opposite direction. The vector − 2u will point in the opposite direction
and be twice as long.

 
3u  −2u
−u

By combining scaling and addition, we can find the difference between vectors
   
geometrically as well, since u − v = u + (−v ) .

Example 4
 
Given the vectors shown, draw u − v


 v 
u −v

u
 
  u −v
From the end of u we draw − v , then draw in the result.


Notice that the sum and difference of two vectors are the two   v
  u −v 
diagonals of a parallelogram with the vectors u and v as   u
edges. u +v

u 
v

Try it Now
 
2. Using vector v from Try it Now #1, draw − 2v .
494 Chapter 8

Component Form of Vectors

While the geometric interpretation of vectors gives us an intuitive understanding of
vectors, it does not provide us a convenient way to do calculations. For that, we need a
handy way to represent vectors. Since a vector involves a length and direction, it would
be logical to want to represent a vector using a length and an angle θ, usually measured
from standard position.

u
θ

Magnitude and Direction of a Vector

 
A vector u can be described by its magnitude, or length, u , and an angle θ.
A vector with length 1 is called unit vector.

While this is very reasonable, and a common way to describe vectors, it is often more
convenient for calculations to represent a vector by horizontal and vertical components.

Component Form of a Vector

The component form of a vector represents the vector using two components.

u = x, y indicates the vector represents a displacement of x units horizontally and y
units vertically.

u
y
θ
x

Notice how we can see the magnitude of the vector as the length of the hypotenuse of a
right triangle, or in polar form as the radius, r.

Alternate Notation for Vector Components

 
Sometimes you may see vectors written as the combination of unit vectors i and j ,
   
where i points the right and j points up. In other words, i = 1,0 and j = 0,1 .

   
In this notation, the vector u = 3,−4 would be written as u = 3i − 4 j since both
indicate a displacement of 3 units to the right, and 4 units down.


While it can be convenient to think of the vector u = x, y as an arrow from the origin to
the point (x, y), be sure to remember that most vectors can be situated anywhere in the
plane, and simply indicate a displacement (change in position) rather than a position.
 Section 8.4 Vectors 495

It is common to need to convert from a magnitude and angle to the component form of
the vector and vice versa. Happily, this process is identical to converting from polar
coordinates to Cartesian coordinates, or from the polar form of complex numbers to the
a+bi form.

Example 5
Find the component form of a vector with length 7 at an angle of 135 degrees.

Using the conversion formulas x = r cos(θ ) and y = r sin(θ ) , we can find the
components
7 2
x = 7 cos(135°) = −
2
7 2
y = 7 sin(135°) =
2

7 2 7 2
This vector can be written in component form as − , .
2 2

Example 6

Find the magnitude and angle θ representing the vector u = 3,−2 .

First we can find the magnitude by remembering the relationship between x, y and r:
r 2 = 3 2 + (−2) 2 = 13
r = 13

Second we can find the angle. Using the tangent,

−2
tan(θ ) =
3
 2
θ = tan −1  −  ≈ −33.69° , or written as a coterminal positive angle, 326.31°, because
 3
we know our point lies in the 4th quadrant.

Try it Now

3. Using vector v from Try it Now #1, the vector that travels from the origin to the
point (3, 5), find the components, magnitude and angle θ that represent this vector.
496 Chapter 8

In addition to representing distance movements, vectors are commonly used in physics

and engineering to represent any quantity that has both direction and magnitude,
including velocities and forces.

Example 7
An object is launched with initial velocity 200 meters per second at an angle of 30
degrees. Find the initial horizontal and vertical velocities.

By viewing the initial velocity as a vector, we can resolve the vector into horizontal and
vertical components.
3
x = 200 cos(30°) = 200 ⋅ ≈ 173.205 m/sec 200 m/s
2 100 m/s
30°
1
y = 200 sin(30°) = 200 ⋅ = 100 m/sec 173 m/s
2

This tells us that, absent wind resistance, the object will travel horizontally at about 173
meters each second. Gravity will cause the vertical velocity to change over time – we’ll
leave a discussion of that to physics or calculus classes.

Adding and Scaling Vectors in Component Form

To add vectors in component form, we can simply add the corresponding components.
To scale a vector by a constant, we scale each component by that constant.

Combining Vectors in Component Form

To add, subtract, or scale vectors in component form
 
If u = u1 ,u 2 , v = v1 , v 2 , and c is any constant, then
 
u + v = u1 + v1 , u 2 + v 2
 
u − v = u1 − v1 , u 2 − v 2

cu = cu1 , cu 2

Example 8
    
Given u = 3,−2 and v = − 1,4 , find a new vector w = 3u − 2v
Using the vectors given,
  
w = 3u − 2v
= 3 3,−2 − 2 − 1,4 Scale each vector
= 9,−6 − − 2,8 Subtract corresponding components
= 11,−14
 Section 8.4 Vectors 497

By representing vectors in component form, we can find the resulting displacement

vector after a multitude of movements without needing to draw a lot of complicated non-
right triangles. For a simple example, we revisit the problem from the opening of the
section. The general procedure we will follow is:
1) Convert vectors to component form
2) Add the components of the vectors
3) Convert back to length and direction if needed to suit the context of the question

Example 9
A woman leaves home, walks 3 miles north, then 2 miles southeast. How far is she
from home, and what direction would she need to walk to return home? How far has
she walked by the time she gets home?

Let’s begin by understanding the question in a little more depth.

When we use vectors to describe a traveling direction, we often N
NW NE
position things so north points in the upward direction, east
points to the right, and so on, as pictured here. W E

Consequently, travelling NW, SW, NE or SE, means we are SW SE

travelling through the quadrant bordered by the given directions S
at a 45 degree angle.

With this in mind, we begin by converting each vector to components.

A walk 3 miles north would, in components, be 0,3 .
A walk of 2 miles southeast would be at an angle of 45° South of East, or measuring
from standard position the angle would be 315°.

Converting to components, we choose to use the standard position angle so that we do

not have to worry about whether the signs are negative or positive; they will work out
automatically.
2 − 2
2 cos(315°), 2 sin(315°) = 2 ⋅ , 2⋅ ≈ 1.414, − 1.414
2 2

Adding these vectors gives the sum of the movements in component 2

form 3
0,3 + 1.414,−1.414 = 1.414,1.586

To find how far she is from home and the direction she would need to walk to return
home, we could find the magnitude and angle of this vector.

Length = 1.414 2 + 1.586 2 = 2.125

498 Chapter 8

To find the angle, we can use the tangent

1.586
tan(θ ) =
1.414
 1.586 
θ = tan −1   = 48.273° north of east
 1.414 

Of course, this is the angle from her starting point to her ending point. To return home,
she would need to head the opposite direction, which we could either describe as
180°+48.273° = 228.273° measured in standard position, or as 48.273° south of west (or
41.727° west of south).

She has walked a total distance of 3 + 2 + 2.125 = 7.125 miles.

Keep in mind that total distance travelled is not the same as the length of the resulting
displacement vector or the “return” vector.

Try it Now
4. In a scavenger hunt, directions are given to find a buried treasure. From a starting
point at a flag pole you must walk 30 feet east, turn 30 degrees to the north and
travel 50 feet, and then turn due south and travel 75 feet. Sketch a picture of these
vectors, find their components, and calculate how far and in what direction you
must travel to go directly to the treasure from the flag pole without following the
map.

While using vectors is not much faster than using law of cosines with only two
movements, when combining three or more movements, forces, or other vector
quantities, using vectors quickly becomes much more efficient than trying to use
triangles.

Example 10
Three forces are acting on an object as shown below, each measured in Newtons (N).
What force must be exerted to keep the object in equilibrium (where the sum of the
forces is zero)?
6N
7N 30°

300°
4N

We start by resolving each vector into components.

 Section 8.4 Vectors 499

The first vector with magnitude 6 Newtons at an angle of 30 degrees will have
components
3 1
6 cos(30°), 6 sin(30°) = 6 ⋅ ,6⋅ = 3 3, 3
2 2

The second vector is only in the horizontal direction, so can be written as − 7, 0 .

The third vector with magnitude 4 Newtons at an angle of 300 degrees will have
components
1 − 3
4 cos(300°), 4 sin(300°) = 4 ⋅ , 4 ⋅ = 2, − 2 3
2 2

To keep the object in equilibrium, we need to find a force vector x, y so the sum of
the four vectors is the zero vector, 0,0 .
3 3, 3 + −7, 0 + 2, − 2 3 + x, y = 0, 0 Add component-wise

3 3 − 7 + 2, 3 + 0 − 2 3 + x, y =0, 0 Simplify

3 3 − 5, 3 − 2 3 + x, y =0, 0 Solve

x, y = 0, 0 − 3 3 − 5, 3 − 2 3

x, y = −3 3 + 5, − 3 + 2 3 ≈ −0.196, 0.464

This vector gives in components the force that would need to be applied to keep the
object in equilibrium. If desired, we could find the magnitude of this force and
direction it would need to be applied in.
Magnitude = (−0.196) 2 + 0.464 2 = 0.504 N
Angle:
0.464
tan(θ ) =
− 0.196
 0.464 
θ = tan −1   = −67.089° .
 − 0.196 
This is in the wrong quadrant, so we adjust by finding the next angle with the same
tangent value by adding a full period of tangent:
θ = −67.089° + 180° = 112.911°

To keep the object in equilibrium, a force of 0.504 Newtons would need to be applied at
an angle of 112.911°.
500 Chapter 8

Important Topics of This Section

Vectors, magnitude (length) & direction
Addition of vectors
Scaling of vectors
Components of vectors
Vectors as velocity
Vectors as forces
Adding & Scaling vectors in component form
Total distance travelled vs. total displacement

Try it Now Answers


v


−2v

1 2.
 5
3. v = 3, 5 magnitude = 34 θ = tan −1   = 59.04°
3

4. 50 ft
30 ft
75 ft

  
v1 = 30, 0 v 2 = 50 cos(30°), 50 sin(30°) v3 = 0, − 75

v f = 30 + 50 cos(30°), 50 sin(30°) − 75 = 73.301, − 50
Magnitude = 88.73 feet at an angle of 34.3° south of east.
 Section 8.4 Vectors 501

Section 8.4 Exercises

Write the vector shown in component form.

1. 2.
    
Given the vectors shown, sketch u + v , u − v , and 2u .

3. 4.
 
Write each vector below as a combination of the vectors u and v from question #3.

5. 6.

From the given magnitude and direction in standard position, write the vector in
component form.
7. Magnitude: 6, Direction: 45° 8. Magnitude: 10, Direction: 120°
9. Magnitude: 8, Direction: 220° 10. Magnitude: 7, Direction: 305°

Find the magnitude and direction of the vector.

11. 0, 4 12. − 3, 0 13. 6, 5 14. 3, 7
15. − 2,1 16. − 10,13 17. 2, − 5 18. 8, − 4
19. − 4, − 6 20. − 1, 9

     
Using the vectors given, compute u + v , u − v , and 2u − 3v .
   
21. u = 2, − 3 , v = 1, 5 22. u = − 3, 4 , v = − 2,1
502 Chapter 8

23. A woman leaves home and walks 3 miles west, then 2 miles southwest. How far
from home is she, and in what direction must she walk to head directly home?

24. A boat leaves the marina and sails 6 miles north, then 2 miles northeast. How far
from the marina is the boat, and in what direction must it sail to head directly back to
the marina?

25. A person starts walking from home and walks 4 miles east, 2 miles southeast, 5 miles
south, 4 miles southwest, and 2 miles east. How far have they walked? If they
walked straight home, how far would they have to walk?

26. A person starts walking from home and walks 4 miles east, 7 miles southeast, 6 miles
south, 5 miles southwest, and 3 miles east. How far have they walked? If they
walked straight home, how far would they have to walk?

  
27. Three forces act on an object: F1 = − 8, − 5 , F2 = 0,1 , F3 = 4, − 7 . Find the net
force acting on the object.

  
28. Three forces act on an object: F1 = 2, 5 , F2 = 8, 3 , F3 = 0, − 7 . Find the net force
acting on the object.

29. A person starts walking from home and walks 3 miles at 20° north of west, then 5
miles at 10° west of south, then 4 miles at 15° north of east. If they walked straight
home, how far would they have to walk, and in what direction?

30. A person starts walking from home and walks 6 miles at 40° north of east, then 2
miles at 15° east of south, then 5 miles at 30° south of west. If they walked straight
home, how far would they have to walk, and in what direction?

31. An airplane is heading north at an airspeed of 600 km/hr, but there is a wind blowing
from the southwest at 80 km/hr. How many degrees off course will the plane end up
flying, and what is the plane’s speed relative to the ground?

32. An airplane is heading north at an airspeed of 500 km/hr, but there is a wind blowing
from the northwest at 50 km/hr. How many degrees off course will the plane end up
flying, and what is the plane’s speed relative to the ground?

33. An airplane needs to head due north, but there is a wind blowing from the southwest
at 60 km/hr. The plane flies with an airspeed of 550 km/hr. To end up flying due
north, the pilot will need to fly the plane how many degrees west of north?
 Section 8.4 Vectors 503

34. An airplane needs to head due north, but there is a wind blowing from the northwest
at 80 km/hr. The plane flies with an airspeed of 500 km/hr. To end up flying due
north, the pilot will need to fly the plane how many degrees west of north?

35. As part of a video game, the point (5, 7) is rotated counterclockwise about the origin
through an angle of 35 degrees. Find the new coordinates of this point.

36. As part of a video game, the point (7, 3) is rotated counterclockwise about the origin
through an angle of 40 degrees. Find the new coordinates of this point.

37. Two children are throwing a ball back and forth straight across the back seat of a car.
The ball is being thrown 10 mph relative to the car, and the car is travelling 25 mph
down the road. If one child doesn't catch the ball and it flies out the window, in what
direction does the ball fly (ignoring wind resistance)?

38. Two children are throwing a ball back and forth straight across the back seat of a car.
The ball is being thrown 8 mph relative to the car, and the car is travelling 45 mph
down the road. If one child doesn't catch the ball and it flies out the window, in what
direction does the ball fly (ignoring wind resistance)?