Quaid-e-Awam

University of Engineering &

Technology Nawabshah

Modulation
and Modulation Techniques
Analog Modulation

 Pulse Code Modulation Lecture Notes:

 Analogue to Digital Conversion Communications Systems
 Quantizing by
Dr. Abdul Sattar Saand
 Encoding
 Introduction
 Digital communications is the transfer of information in digital
form.
 In general, this field includes the transfer of analog signals
using digital techniques and the transfer of digital data using
digital and/or analog techniques. It is difficult to separate the
two topics totally because of their interrelationships.
 The move to digital and/or data communications is due to
several factors.
 It is occurring despite the increased complexity and bandwidth
necessary for transmission.
 Noise performance is one of two major advantages.

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Abdul Sattar Saand
 Pulse Code Modulation-PCM
 Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is the most common technique used today in
digital communications for representing an analog signal by a digital word.
PCM is used in many applications, such as your
 Telephone system,

 Digital audio recording (DAT or digital audio tape),

 CD laser disks,

 Digitized video special effects,

 Voice mail,

 Digital video, and many other applications.

 PCM techniques and applications are a primary building block for many of
today's advanced communications systems.

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Engr. Abdul Sattar Saand
 Pulse code modulation (PCM)
 DEFINITION: Pulse code modulation (PCM) is
essentially analog-to-digital conversion of a special type
where the information contained in the instantaneous
samples of an analog signal is represented by digital
words in a serial bit stream.
 The advantages of PCM are:
• Relatively inexpensive digital circuitry may be used extensively.
• PCM signals derived from all types of analog sources may be
merged with data signals and transmitted over a common high-
speed digital communication system.
• In long-distance digital telephone systems requiring repeaters, a
clean PCM waveform can be regenerated at the output of each
repeater, where the input consists of a noisy PCM waveform.
• The noise performance of a digital system can be superior to that
of an analog system.
• The probability of error for the system output can be reduced
even further by the use of appropriate coding techniques.
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Engr. Abdul Sattar Saand
 Sampling, Quantizing, and Encoding
 The PCM signal is generated by carrying out three basic
operations:
1. Sampling
2. Quantizing
3. Encoding
1. Sampling operation generates a flat-top PAM signal.
2. Quantizing operation approximates the analog values by
using a finite number of levels. This operation is considered
in 3 steps
a) Uniform Quantizer
b) Quantization Error
c) Quantized PAM signal output
3. PCM signal is obtained from the quantized PAM signal by
encoding each quantized sample value into a digital word.
 Analog to Digital Conversion
 The Analog-to-digital Converter
(ADC) performs three functions:
Analog
Input
 Sampling
Signal  Makes the signal discrete in
time.
 If the analog input has a
Sample bandwidth of W Hz, then the
minimum sample frequency
such that the signal can be
reconstructed without
distortion.
ADC
Quantize  Quantization
111
110
 Makes the signal discrete in
101 amplitude.
100
011  Round off to one of q discrete
010
001
levels.
Encode 000
 Encode
 Maps the quantized values to
digital words that are  bits
long.
 If the (Nyquist) Sampling Theorem is
Digital Output satisfied, then only quantization
Signal introduces distortion to the system.
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111 111 001 010 011 111 011 Engr. Abdul Sattar Saand
Uniform Quantization
 Most ADC’s use uniform
quantizers.
 The quantization levels
of a uniform quantizer
are equally spaced apart.
 Uniform quantizers are
optimal when the input
distribution is uniform.
When all values within
the Dynamic Range of
the quantizer are equally
likely.
Quantization Example
Analogue signal

Sampling TIMING

Quantization levels.
Quantized to 5-levels

Quantization levels
Quantized 10-levels
 Sample-and-hold (S/H) circuit
 Pulse-code modulation is a technique for conve1ting the analog signals into
a digital representation. The PCM architecture consists of a sample-and-
hold (S/H) circuit and a system for converting the sample
 First, the analog signal is input into a sample-and-hold circuit. At fixed
time intervals, the analog signal is sampled and held at a fixed voltage level
until the circuitry inside the converter has time to complete the conversion
process of generating a binary value.

Block diagram of the PCM process.

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Dr. Abdul Sattar Saand
 Pulse Code Modulation

 PCM is a method of converting an analog signal

into a digital signal. (A/D conversion)
 The amplitude of Analog signal can take any
value over a continuous range i.e. it can take on
an infinite values.
 Digital signal amplitude can take on finite values.
 Analog signal can be converted into digital by
sampling and quantizing.
Cont.
Cont.

 The amplitude of analog signal m(t) lie in the range (-

mp, mp) and is partitioned into L sub-intervals each of
magnitude 2mp/L
Binary pulse codes
 Quantizing
 Digital signals come from variety of sources e.g.
computer
 Some sources are analog but are converted into digital
form by variety of techniques such as PCM and DM
 For quantizing , we limit the amplitude of m(t) to a
range(-mp, mp) as shown in the previous slides
 This amplitude is uniformly divided into L subintervals
and each interval is ,
Cont.

 A sample value is approximated by the mid point of the

interval
 The quantized samples are coded and transmitted as
binary pulses
 At the receiver some pulses will be detected incorrectly
 There are two types of errors
 Quantization error

 Pulse detection error

 In almost all practical schemes, the pulse detection error

is very small compared to the quantization error and can
be ignored
Encoding
 The output of the quantizer is one of M possible signal
levels.
 If we want to use a binary transmission system, then we need to
map each quantized sample into an n bit binary word.

 Encoding is the process of representing each quantized

sample by an  bit code word.
 The mapping is one-to-one so there is no distortion introduced by
encoding.
 Some mappings are better than others.
 A Gray code gives the best end-to-end performance.
 The weakness of Gray codes is poor performance when the
sign bit (MSB) is received in error.
 Gray Codes

 With gray codes adjacent samples differ only in one bit

position.
 Example (3 bit quantization):
XQ Natural coding Gray Coding
+7 111 110
+5 110 111
+3 101 101
+1 100 100
-1 011 000
-3 010 001
-5 001 011
-7 000 010
 With this gray code, a single bit error will result in an
amplitude error of only 2.
 Unless the MSB is in error.
 PCM encoding example

Levels are encoded

using this table

Table: Quantization levels with belonging code words

Chart 2. Process of restoring a signal.

Chart 1. Quantization and digitalization of a signal. PCM encoded signal in binary form:
Signal is quantized in 11 time points & 8 quantization 101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010 101
Total of 33 bits were used to encode a signal
segments.
PCM Transmission System
TDM

 When each channel has Rb bits/sec bit rate and N such channels
are multiplexed, total bit rate = NRb (assuming no added bits)
 Before Multiplexing the bit period = Tb
 After Multiplexing the bit period = Tb/N

 Timing and bit rate would change if you have any added bits
North American PCM Telephony
 Twenty four T1 carriers (64kb/s) are multiplexed to generate one DS1
carrier (1.544 Mb/s)
Each channel has 8 bits – 24 Channels

 Each frame has 24 X 8 = 192 information bits

 Frame time = 1/8000 = 125 μs.
 T1 System Signalling Format

193 framing bits plus more signalling bits final bit rate = 1.544 Mb/s
North American Digital Hierarchy
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Engr. Abdul Sattar Saand
 Review Questions- Assignment No.2 Due date ………….

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Engr. Abdul Sattar Saand