Applied Physics for CSE Stream

HKBK College of Engineering

Name of the Faculty : Dr. Chandrakumar. K (Professor & HOD)

: Dr. Mohsina Taj (Associate Professor)
: Mrs. Chethana. N (Assistant Professor)
: Mr. Raja P (Assistant Professor)
: Dr. Karuna Kumari (Assistant Professor)

Department: Physics
Subject: Applied Physics for CSE Stream
Subject Code: BPHYS102/202
Applied Physics for CSE Stream

MODULE 1
Lasers and Optical Fibers

Introduction:
Gordon Gould:
Gordon Gould (July 17, 1920 – September 16, 2005)
was an American physicist who is sometimes credited
with the invention of the laser and the optical amplifier.
(Credit for the invention of the laser is disputed, since
Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow were the first to
publish the theory and Theodore Maiman was the first
to build a working laser). Gould is best known for his
thirty-year fight with the United States Patent and
Trademark Office to obtain patents for the laser and
related technologies. He also fought with laser
manufacturers in court battles to enforce the patents
he subsequently did obtain.

Course syllabus:
LASER: Characteristic properties of a LASER beam, Interaction of Radiation with Matter,
Einstein’s A and B Coefficients and Expression for Energy Density (Derivation), Laser
Action, Population Inversion, Metastable State, Requisites of a laser system, Semiconductor
Diode Laser, Applications: Bar code scanner, Laser Printer, Laser Cooling(Qualitative),
Numerical Problems.

Optical Fiber: Principle and Structure, Propagation of Light, Acceptance angle and
Numerical Aperture (NA), Derivation of Expression for NA, Modes of Propagation, RI
Profile, Classification of Optical Fibers, Attenuation and Fiber Losses, Applications: Fiber
Optic networking, Fiber Optic Communication. Numerical Problems

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LASERS

1.1. INTRODUCTION:

The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It
is a device which amplifies light. It has properties like coherence, uni-directionality,
mono-chromaticity, focusability etc.

1.2. INTERACTION OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION WITH MATTER:

Radiation interacts with matter under appropriate conditions. The interaction leads to
transition of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the transition
is from lower state to higher state it absorbs the incident energy. If the transition is
from higher state to lower state it emits a part of its energy.
If ∆E is the difference between the two energy levels,
Then ∆E = (E2 - E1) Joule
Max Planck suggested that if an electromagnetic radiation whose frequency  has
precisely the value,
γ =∆E/h= (E2 - E1)/h Hz.

Three types of interactions, which are possible: Induced absorption

Spontaneous emission
Stimulated emission

1.2.1. Induced Absorption:

Fig1. The schematic diagram for Induced Adsorption

Let E1 and E2 be the two energy levels of an atom, in which E2 > E1. When a photon of energy
h = (E2 – E1) is incident on an atom at level E1, the atom goes to a higher energy level by
absorbing the energy of the incident photon. The transition from the lower energy level to
the higher energy level, i.e. the excited state is called induced absorption and it is
represented as
Atom + Photon → Atom*

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1.2.2. Spontaneous Emission:

Fig 2: Schematic diagram for the Spontaneous Emission

The emission of a photon by the transition of an atom from a higher energy state to a lower
energy state without the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous emission.
The process is represented as
Atom* → Atom + Photon
The photons emitted in spontaneous emission may not have same direction and phase
similarities. It is incoherent.
Ex: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.

1.2.3. Stimulated Emission:

Fig 3: Schematic diagram for Stimulated Emission

Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by an atom under the influence of a
incident photon due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a lower
energy state.

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The photon thus emitted is called stimulated photon and will have the same phase, energy
and direction of movement as that of the incident photon called the stimulation photon.
The process is represented as,
Atom* + Photon → Atom + 2 Photons

1.3. Einstein’s A & B Coefficients: -

Consider two energy states E 1 and E2 of a system of atom. Let there be N 1 number of atoms
with energy E1 and N2 number atoms with energy E2 per unit volume of the system. N1 and
N2 are called the number density of atoms in the states E 1 and E2 respectively.

Case of Induced absorption:

Fig 4: Schematic diagram for Induced absorption

In this case the atom in E1 level absorb radiations of frequency γ = (E2-E1)/h and get excited
to E2 level.
The rate of absorption depends on number density of lower energy state and the energy
density Uγ
Rate of absorption ∝ N1Uγ
Rate of absorption = B12N1Uγ
Where ‘B12’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein Coefficient of induced
absorption.

Case of Spontaneous Emission:

Fig 5: Schematic diagram for induced absorption

In this case, the atom undergoes downward transition from E 2 to E1 spontaneously, i.e., by
itself without the help of external agency. It is independent of energy density.

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Spontaneous emission depends on N2 which is the number of atoms present in the higher
level.
Rate of spontaneous emission ∝ N2
Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2
Where, ‘A21’ is the proportionality constant and is called Einstein coefficient of
spontaneous emission

Case of Stimulated Emission:

Fig 6: Schematic diagram for Stimulated Emission

The rate of stimulated emission depends on N2 and the energy density Uγ

Rate of stimulated emission ∝ N2Uγ
Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Uγ
Where ‘B21’ is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s Coefficient of stimulated
emission.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission
B12N1Uγ= A21N2 + B21N2Uγ

Uγ (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2

𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝛾 =
(𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 )

Multiply and divide the denomination by B21N2

1 A21 N2
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑈𝛾 = [ ]
B21 N2 ( 12 N1 ) − 1
B
B21 N2

A21 1
= [ ] → (1)
B N
B21 ( 12 1 ) − 1
B21 N2

By Boltzmann’s law,
N2=N1 e-hγ/kT

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i.e., N1/N2 = ehγ/kT

Eqn. (1) becomes

A21 1
𝑈𝛾 = [ ℎ𝛾 ] → (2)
B21 B12 [ ⁄𝑘𝑇 ]
( 𝑒 ) −1
B21
By Planck’s law,

8𝜋ℎ𝛾 3 1
𝑈𝛾 = [ ℎ𝛾⁄ ] → (3)
𝑐3
(𝑒 [ 𝑘𝑇] ) − 1

Comparing equation (2) & (3)

A21 8𝜋ℎ𝛾 3 B12

= 3
& = 1 𝑖. 𝑒. , B12 = B21
B21 𝑐 B21

It implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of

stimulated emission. Because of the above identity the subscripts could be dropped and A21 and
B21 can be simply represented as A &B
𝐴 1
𝑈𝛾 = [ ℎ𝛾⁄
]
B
𝑒 ( 𝐾𝑇 ) −1

1.4. Condition for LASER Action:

Population inversion and the metastable state are the two conditions required for laser
action.
Under normal conditions at thermal equilibrium in the atomic system there is more
number of atoms in the ground state than in the excited state. Hence the probability of
absorption is more than that of stimulated emission. The number of atoms in each energy
state is given by Boltzmann statistical law as N2/N1 = e-h/KT
This equation implies that the population is maximum in the ground state and decreases
exponentially as one goes to the higher energy state i.e., N2< N1.
Hence stimulation emission is very weak under thermal equilibrium condition.
But for amplification N2 has to be greater than N1
Therefore, the required conditions are: Population Inversion and Metastable state

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1.4.1 Population Inversion:

Fig 7: Schematic diagram for Population Inversion: 1. Atoms are more in the lower energy state (Ground
state) 2. The atoms move from E1 to E3 (absorption) 3. Transfer of Atoms from E3 to E2 (More atoms is in
excited states more than ground state).

“The situation in which the number of atoms in the higher energy state exceeds that in the
lower energy state is known as population inversion”.

1.4.2. Meta Stable State:

It is the state where the atoms get excited and remains in the excited state for longer time than the
normal state.

Fig 8: Schematic diagram for metastable state

This state plays an important role in lasing action. In metastable state, atoms stay of the
order of 10-3 to 10-2 second. This property helps in achieving the population inversion in
the following way.
Consider 3 energy levels E1, E2, & E3 of a quantum system, such that E3>E2>E1, Let E1 be the
ground state, E2 be the Meta stable state & E3 be the excited state respectively. Let the

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atoms are excited (pumped) from E1 to E3 state. The atoms from E3 state undergo non-
radiative transitions to E2 states rapidly.
Since E2 is a metastable state, those atoms which get into that state stay there over a very
long duration ie., 10-3 sec. Because of which the population of E 2 state increases steadily.
Under these conditions a stage will be reached where in the population of E 2 state
overtakes that of E1, which is known as population inversion.
Once the population of E2 exceeds E1, the stimulated emissions outnumber the
spontaneous emissions, & soon stimulated photons, all identical in respect of phase,
wavelength & direction, grow to a very large number which build up the laser light. The
process which leads to emission of stimulated photons after establishing the population
inversion is often referred to as Lasing. Hence the condition for laser action is achieved by
means of population inversion with the help of a metastable state.

1.5. Requisites for laser system:

The following are the requisites of a laser system

1. An excitation source for pumping action.
2. An active medium which supports population inversion and
3. A laser cavity.

Fig 9: Three major components of Laser 1. Pumping medium 2. Active medium 3. Laser cavity

1.5.1 Pumping:
It is the process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level. It can be
achieved by different methods.
EX: Optical pumping, Electric Discharge, forward bias current, etc

1.5.2. Active medium for population inversion:

The quantum system between whose energy levels the pumping & the lasing action occur,
is called an active system. A part of the input energy is absorbed by the active medium in

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which population inversion occurs at a certain stage. After this stage the medium attains
capability to issue laser light.

1.5.3. Laser cavity:

A laser cavity is formed by an active medium bounded by two mirrors. The laser cavity
provides the feedback necessary to tap certain permissible part of laser energy from the
active medium.
A laser device consists of an active medium bound between 2 mirrors. The mirrors reflect
the photons to & fro through the active medium. A photon moving in a particular direction
represents a light wave moving in the same direction. Thus the two mirrors along with the
active medium form a cavity inside which two types of wave exists, one type comprises of
waves moving to the right & the other moving to the left.

1.6. Gallium-Arsenide Laser: Semiconductor laser:

A Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction device that emits
coherent light when it is forward biased. In the case of germanium and silicon based diodes,
this energy is released in the form of heat because of recombination of carriers take place
through interaction with the atoms of the crystal. But in the case of GaAs, the energy is
released in the form of photons as the atoms of the crystal are not involved in the release
of energy. The wavelength of the emitted photon depends upon the activation energy of
the crystal.

Fig 10. Schematic diagram for Gallium Arsenide Semiconducting Laser

1.6.1. Construction:
A schematic diagram of semiconductor laser is as shown in the figure. The diode is very
small size with sides of the order of 1mm. The junction lies in a horizontal plane. The n-
section is formed by doping with tellurium whereas the p-section, is obtained by doping
with zinc. The doping concentration is of the order of 1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3. The

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top and bottom surfaces are metalized and ohmic contacts are provided for external
connection. The front and rear faces are polished. The polished faces constitute the laser
cavity. The other two faces are roughened to prevent lasing action in that direction. The
active region consists of a layer of about 1m thickness.

1.6.2. Working:
The energy band diagram of heavily doped pn-junction is as shown unbiased condition. At
thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level is uniform across the junction. Because of very high
doping on n-side, Fermi level is pushed into the conduction band and electrons occupy the
portion of the conduction band lying below the Fermi level. On P-side, the Fermi level lies
within the valence band and holes occupy the portion of the valence band that lies above
the Fermi level. When the junction is forward biased electrons and holes are injected into
the junction region in high concentrations. At low forward current, the electron-holes
recombination results in spontaneous emission of photons and the junction acts as a LED.
As the forward current is increased gradually and when it reaches a threshold value the
carrier concentration in the junction region there will be large concentrations of electrons
within the band. As a result, condition of population inversion is attained in the narrow
region. This narrow zone in which population inversion occurs is called as an active region,
at that stage a photon emitted spontaneously triggers stimulated emission. This stimulated
electron-hole recombination produces coherent radiation.

Fig 11. Energy level diagram of p-n junction diode laser (a) Before biasing (b) After biasing. The stimulated
electron-hole recombination causes emission of coherent radiation of very narrow bandwidth. At room
temperature, GaAs laser emits light of wavelength 9000A0 and GaAsP laser radiates at 6500A0.

1.6.3. Advantages of semiconductor laser:

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1. They are compact

2. They are efficient
3. They are highly stable

1.7. APPLICATION OF LASERS:

1.7.1. BAR CODE SCANNERS:

A barcode is a printed series of parallel bars or lines of varying width that is used for
entering data into a computer system.
A barcode scanner/ reader are a device with lights, lenses and a sensor that decodes
and captures the information contained in barcodes. Laser scanners use a laser beam
as a light source and typically employ oscillating mirrors or rotating prisms to scan
the laser beam back and forth across the barcode. A photodiode then measures the
reflected light from the barcode. An analog signal into a digital signal.

Fig 12. Schematic representation of the working principle of Laser BAR CODE Scanner.

1.7.2. LASER PRINTING:

Laser printers are digital printing devices that are used to create high quality text
and graphics on plain printer. A diode laser is used in the process of printing in
LASER printer.

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Fig 13: Schematic representation of working principle of Laser Printing.

The laser printing process involves 9 key steps.

1. The data required to be printed is transferred from the computer to the laser
printer. This is usually via an ethernet cable or wirelessly if the printer has
wireless capabilities.
2. The printer then has to reach the required temperature via the heating of the
corona wire. This wire once heated, passes an electrical static charge to the drum
unit.
3. The drum unit, now positively charged, is ready to receive the laser beam and
begin the data transfer process directly onto the drum.
4. Once the laser is activated, the beam reflects off a moving mirror unit which
directs the beam directly onto the drum unit.
5. In the areas where the beam hits the drum, the charge is changed from negative
to positive. The negatively charged areas now represent where toner particles
will adhere to the drum and be directly transferred onto the paper.
6. The ink roller now begins to coat the drum with toner. Toner is comprised of
microscopic ink particles which, now positively charged, adhere to the
negatively charged areas on the drum unit.
7. A positively charged sheet of paper is now passed close to the drum, attracting
the negatively charged toner particles onto the page.
8. The paper, now containing the inked content, is passed into the fuser unit where
the rollers fuse the toner particles to the paper.
9. The page is then passed through to the other side of the copier, and you now
have one successful printout!

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1.7.3. LASER COOLING:

Laser cooling is the use of dissipative light forces for reducing the random motion
and thus the temperature of small particles, typically atoms or ions. Depending on
the mechanism used, the temperature achieved can be in the milli kelvin, micro
kelvin, or even nano kelvin regime.

Fig 14: Schematic representation of working principle of Laser Cooling.

If an atom is traveling toward a laser beam and absorbs a photon from the laser, it will be
E h
slowed by the fact that the photon has momentum p = = . It would take a large
c λ
number of such absorptions to cool the sodium atoms to near 0K. The following are the
types of laser cooling
• Doppler Cooling.
• Sisyphus Cooling.

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Optical Fibers
1.8. Total Internal Reflection:
When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of refraction also
increases. For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical angle”, the refracted ray
grazes the surface separating the media or the angle of refraction is equal to 90°. If the angle
of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the light ray is reflected back to the same
medium. This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.

In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is reflected
back.

XX1 is the surface separating medium of refractive index n1 and medium of refractive index
n2, n1 > n2.

AO and OA1 are incident and refracted rays. θ 1 and θ2 are angle of incidence and angle of
refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OB1 is the refracted ray which
grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater than θc is totally reflected
back along OC1.

Fig 15. The ray diagram of Total Internal Reflection.

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From Snell’s law,

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2

For total internal reflection,

θ1=θc and θ2=90°

n1sinθc = n2 (because sin90°=1)

θc= sin--1(n2/n1)

In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy.

The entire energy is returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal
reflection.

1.9. Construction and working of Optical Fiber:

They are used in optical communication. It works on the principle of Total internal
reflection (TIR).

Optical fiber is made from transparent materials. It is cylindrical in shape. The inner
cylindrical part is called as core of refractive index n 1. The outer part is called as cladding
of refractive index n2, n1>n2. There is continuity between core and cladding. Cladding is
enclosed inside a polyurethane jacket. Number of such fibers is grouped to form a cable.

Fig 16. Schematic diagram for Construction of Optical Fibre.

The light entering through one end of core strikes the interface of the core and cladding
with angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes total internal reflection. After
series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core. Thus the optical fiber
works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp bends in the fiber because
at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal reflection.

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Fig 17. The ray diagram for the representation of working principle of optical fibre.

1.10. Angle of Acceptance and Numerical Aperture:

Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θ0’ enters into the fiber. Let ‘θ1’ be the angle of
refraction for the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at a critical angle (90˚- θ1) at B
grazes the interface between core and cladding along BC. If the angle of incidence is greater
than critical angle, it undergoes total internal reflection. Thus θ 0 is called the waveguide
acceptance angle and sinθ0 is called the numerical aperture.

Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the medium, core and cladding respectively.

Fig 18: The ray diagram representation for the acceptance angle and Numerical aperture.

From Snell’s law,

nosinθ0= n1sinθ1 → (1)

At B the angle of incidence is (90o- θ1)

From Snell’s law,

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n1sin(90o-θ1) = n2 sin90o

n1cosθ1 = n2

cosθ1 = n2 / n1 → (2)

From eqn (1)

n1
Sin0 = sin 1
n0
n1
sin 𝜃0 = no
√1 − cos 2 θ1 → (3)

Using eqn (2) in (3)

n1 n22
Sin 0 = 1− 2
n0 n1

√n21 −n22
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃0 = ⇢ (4)
no

The surrounding medium is air, no = 1

Sin 0 = n12 − n22

Where sinθi is called numerical aperture.

N.A= √n12 − n22

Therefore, for any angle of incidence equal to θi equal to or less than θ0, the incident ray is
able to propagate.

θi<θ0

Sini  Sin0

sinθi < √n12 − n22

sinθi < N. A is the condition for propagation.

1.11. Fractional Index Change:

“It is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and cladding to the
refractive index of the core of an optical fiber”.

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𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∆=
𝑛1

1.11.1. Relation between N.A and Δ:

n1 −n2
Consider Δ = n1

n1 − n2 = n1
We have

N.A = √n12 − n22 = √(n1 + n2 )(n1 − n2 )

Considering n1≈n2

= √(n1 + n2 )Δn1

N. A = √2n12 Δ

N. A = n1 √2Δ

Increase in the value of Δ increases N.A

It enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot be increased very much
because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.

1.12. Types of optical fibers:

In an optical fiber the refractive index of cladding is uniform and the refractive index of
core may be uniform or may vary in a particular way such that the refractive index
decreases from the axis, radically.

Following are the different types of fibers:

1. Single mode fiber
2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber

1.12.1. Single mode fiber:

Refractive index of core and cladding has uniform value; there is an increase in refractive
index from cladding to core. They are used in submarine.

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Fig 19: The Geometry, Refractive index profile and ray diagram representation for Single mode fiber.

1.12.2. Step index multimode fiber:

It is similar to single mode fiber but core has large diameter. It can propagate large
number of modes as shown in figure. Laser or LED is used as a source of light. It has an
application in data links.

Fig 20: The Geometry, Refractive index profile and ray diagram representation for Index multimode fiber.

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1.12.3. Graded index multimode fiber:

It is also called GRIN. The refractive index of core decreases from the axis towards the core
cladding interface. The refractive index profile is shown in figure. The incident rays bends
and takes a periodic path along the axis. The rays have different paths with same period.
Laser or LED is used as a source of light. It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone
trunk between central offices.

Fig 21: The Geometry, Refractive index profile and ray diagram representation for Graded-Index
multimode fiber.

1.13. Signal attenuation in optical fibers:

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a fiber. It is expressed in
decibel/kilometer [dB/km].A fiber with lower attenuation will allow more power to reach
its receiver than a fiber with higher attenuation. If Pin is the input power and Pout is the
output power after passing through a fiber of length ‘L’, the mean attenuation constant or
coefficient ‘α’ of the fiber, in units of db/km is given by

10 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝛼=− log10 [ ] dB/km
𝐿 𝑃𝑖𝑛

Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.

1.13.1. Absorption: - Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron,
chromium, cobalt and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
During signal processing photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms. The
atoms are excited and de-excite by emitting photons of different characteristics.
Hence it is a loss of energy. The other impurity such as hydroxyl ions (OH)

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causes significant absorption loss. The absorption of photons by fiber material

itself is called intrinsic absorption.
1.13.2. Scattering: When the wavelength of the photon is comparable to the size of the
particle then the scattering takes place. Because of the non-uniformity in
manufacturing, the refractive index changes with length leads to a scattering.
This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. It is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Scattering of photons also
takes place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of
manufacturing.
1.13.3. Radiation losses: Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and
microscopic bends.
(a) Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of
curvature provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that
specification of radius of curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding
interface will not satisfy the condition of TIR. This causes loss of optical
power.

(b) Microscopic bending: Optical power loss in optical fibers is due to non-
uniformity of the optical fibers when they are laid. Non uniformity is due
to manufacturing defects and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber.
The defect due to non-uniformity (microbendings) can be overcome by
introducing optical fiber inside a good strengthen polyurethane jacket.

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1.14. Fiber Optics Communication System:

Fig 22: Block diagram of Optical Fibre Communication

Optical fiber communication system consists of transmitter, information channel and

receiver. Transmitter converts an electrical signal into optical signal. Information channel
carries the signal from transmitter to receiver. The receiver converts optical signal to
electrical form. The block diagram of optical fiber communication system is shown in fig.

• Non-Electrical signal like sound in telecommunication is converted into electrical

signal by transducer.
• The signal is amplified ,modulated and fed into the laser diode or Light emitting
diode which converts electrical signal into light signal.
• The light signal is transmitted through the optical fiber.
• In the receiver, the light is converted into corresponding electrical by the Photo
detector which is amplified by on amplifier.
• The amplified electrical signal is demodulated and is telecommunication is fed to a
speaker which converts it into sound signal.

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1.15. Fiber optic Networking

Fig. 23: Block diagram of Fiber optic networking

• Optical transmission system usually refers to a point-to-point optical link between

a transmitter and a receiver
• Communication network is much more general. It is a communication among a
large number of users at many different locations and with various different types
of services and applications.
• An optical network is a type of data communication network built with optical
fiber technology. Optical fibers are used for passing (transmitting) data as light
pulses between sender and receiver nodes.
• Here an optical transmitter device is used to convert an electrical signal received
from a network node into light pulses, which are then placed on a fiber optic cable
for transport to a receiving device.
• An optical network is less prone to external inference and attenuation and can
achieve substantially higher bandwidth speeds.

1.16. Components of a fiber-optical networking system include:

• Optical transmitter (Laser or LED)– to convert electrical signals into optical pulses
• Multi-mode or single-mode optical fiber – to carry optical signals
• Multiplexer- to receive multiple signal and combine them
• Demultiplexer – to receive single signal (input) and generate multiple signals
(outputs)
• Optical switch - to direct light between ports without an optical-electrical-optical
conversion

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• Optical splitter- to send a signal down different fiber paths (not shown in block
diagram)
• Optical amplifier- to enhance the signal strength

Fig 24. Optical Fibre networking systems

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1.18. Solved Problems

1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a laser if the transition
between them produces light of wavelength 694.3 nm. Assume the ambient
temperature to be 27ºC.

𝑁2 ℎ𝑐
= 𝑒 −(𝐸2−𝐸1 )/𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁1
h = 6.63×10-34 J.s
c = 3×108 m/s
λ = 694.3 nm = 694.3 ×10-9 m
k = 1.38×10-23 J/K
T = 27ºC = 300 K
6.63×10 −34 ×3×108
 𝑁2
=𝑒
−(
694.3×10−9 ×1.38×10−23 ×300
)
𝑁1
 𝑁2
= 8.874 × 10−31
𝑁1

2. A laser beam with power per pulse is 1.0 mW lasts 10 ns. If the number of photons emmitted
per pulse is 3.941×107, calculate the wavelength of laser.
Nhc
E=P×t= λ
 𝜆 = 𝑃𝑡
𝑁ℎ𝑐

N = 3.941×107
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
c = 3×108 m/s
P = 1.0 mW= 1×10-3 W
t = 10 ns =10×10-9 s
 𝜆=
3.941×107 ×6.63×10−34 ×3×108
1×10−3 ×10×10−9
= 7.839×10-7 m
 λ = 7839 Å

3. The average output power of laser source emmiting a laser beam of wavelength 633 nm is
5 mW. Find the number of photons emmitted per second by the laser source.
Nhc
E=P×t= λ
Ptλ
N = hc
P = 5 mW = 5×10-3 W
t =1s
λ = 633 nm = 633×10-9 m
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
c = 3×108 m/s
 5×10−3×1×633×10−9
𝑁 = 6.625×10−34×3×108
 N = 1.592×1016

4. The angle of acceptance of an optical fibre is 30º when kept in air. Find the angle of
acceptance when it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.
In air,
𝑁. 𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑎 )𝑎𝑖𝑟

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 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = sin 30

 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 0.5
In medium of refractive index n0
𝑛0 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑎 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
 1.33 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑎 = 0.5
 ∅𝑎 = 22.08º

The refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.50 and 1.48 respectively in an optical fiber. Find
the numerical aperture and angle of acceptance.
𝑁. 𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.48
N.A = √1.502 − 1.482
 N.A = 0.244
Angle of acceptance θ0= sin-1(N.A) = sin-10.244
 θ0 = 14.123º

5. The attenuation of light in an optical fibre is estimated as 2.2 dB/km. what fractional initial
intensity remains after 2 km and 6km?
The attenuation in dB is
10 p 
 = − log10  out 
L  pin 

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝛼𝐿
= 10[ 10 ]
𝑃𝑖𝑛
For a length of 2 km,
 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= (10)
−4.4⁄
10
𝑃𝑖𝑛
 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 0.363
𝑃𝑖𝑛
 Pout = 0.363 Pin

For 6 km,
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 −13.2⁄
𝑃𝑖𝑛
= (10) 10 = 0.048
 Pout = 0.048 Pin

6. A fibre 500 m long has an input power of 8.6 mW and output power 7.5 mW. What is the
loss specification in cable?
10 p 
 = − log10  out 
L  pin 

Pin = 8.6 mW
Pout = 7.5 mW
 8.6
α = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (7.5)
10 p 
 =− log10  out 
 L  pin 
α = -- 0.5944 dB
Length of cable L = 500 m = 0.5 km

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𝑃 0.5944
Loss specification is 𝛼 = 𝐿 =
𝐿 0.5
 α = 1.1888 dB/km
7. An optical fibre of 600 mts long has input power of 120 mW which emerges out with power
of 90 mW. Find attenuation in the fibre.
The attenuation is given by,

𝑃
α = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑃 𝑖𝑛 ) in dB
𝑜𝑢𝑡
Pin = 120 mW, Pout = 90mW
 120
α = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 90 )
 α = --1.25 dB

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1.19. Question bank

LASERS
1. Define LASER and discuss the interaction of radiation with matter for the induced
absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.
2. Explain the term
(i) Resonant cavity
(ii) Stimulated emission
(iii) Metastable state
3. Derive an expression for energy density interms of Einstein’s coefficients in laser action.
4. Explain the requisites of a laser system.
5. Derive the expression for energy density of radiation in terms of Einstein coefficients.
Arrive at the general expression after comparing with Planck’s equation.
6. Discuss the condition required for laser action.
7. Explain
(i) Metastable state
(ii) Optical pumping
(iii) Active medium
8. Obtain the expression for Energy Density using Einstein’s A and B coefficients and thus
conclude on B12=B21.
9. Illustrate the construction and working of Semiconductor LASER with a neat sketch and
energy level diagram also mention its applications.
10. Discuss the applications of LASER in bar-code scanner and LASER Cooling.

OPTICAL FIBERS
1. Explain the principle of optical fibre.
2. Explain the principle and working of optical fibres.
3. Explain the terms:
(i) Angle of acceptance
(ii) Numerical aperture
(iii) Fractional index change
(iv) Mode of propagation
4. Define Acceptance angle and Numerical Aperture and hence derive an expression for NA
in terms of RIs core, cladding and surrounding.
5. Derive an expression for numerical aperture in an optical fiber.
6. Explain types of optical fibres.
7. Explain the different types of optical fibre.
8. Discuss the types of optical fibers based on Modes of Propagation and RI profile.
9. What is attenuation? Explain any two factors contributing to the fibre loss.
10. Describe attenuation and explain the various fiber losses.
11. Discuss Point to Point communication using optical fibers.

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