DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES (PHYSICS)

PH3256 – PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

UNIT I ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Classical free electron theory – Expression for electrical conductivity – Thermal conductivity,
expression – Wiedemann-Franz law – Success and failures – electrons in metals – Particle in a
three dimensional box – degenerate states – Fermi- Dirac statistics – Density of energy states –
Electron in periodic potential – Energy bands in solids – tight binding approximation – Electron
effective mass – concept of hole.
UNIT II SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
Intrinsic Semiconductors – Energy band diagram – direct and indirect band gap semiconductors
– Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors – extrinsic semiconductors – Carrier
concentration in N-type & P-type semiconductors – Variation of carrier concentration with
temperature – variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration – Carrier
transport in Semiconductor: random motion, drift, mobility and diffusion – Hall effect and
devices – Ohmic contacts – Schottky diode.
UNIT III MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Magnetic dipole moment – atomic magnetic moments- magnetic permeability and susceptibility
– Magnetic material classification: diamagnetism – paramagnetism – ferromagnetism –
antiferromagnetism – ferrimagnetism – Ferromagnetism: origin and exchange interaction-
saturation magnetization and Curie temperature – Domain Theory- M versus H behaviour – Hard
and soft magnetic materials – examples and uses-– Magnetic principle in computer data storage –
Magnetic hard disc (GMR sensor).
UNIT IV OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Classification of optical materials – carrier generation and recombination processes – Absorption
emission and scattering of light in metals, insulators and semiconductors (concepts only) – photo
current in a P-N diode – solar cell – LED – Organic LED – Laser diodes – Optical data storage
techniques.
UNIT V NANODEVICES AND QUANTUM COMPUTING
Introduction – quantum confinement – quantum structures: quantum wells, wires and dots ––
band gap of nanomaterials. Tunneling – Single electron phenomena: Coulomb blockade –
resonant-tunneling diode – single electron transistor – quantum cellular automata – Quantum
system for information processing – quantum states – classical bits – quantum bits or qubits –
CNOT gate – multiple qubits – Bloch sphere – quantum gates – advantage of quantum
computing over classical computing.
 UNIT – I
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
 The conducting materials are generally metals and their alloys. These materials are used
for conducting electricity and heat.
 It has high electrical and thermal conductivity due to the presence of free electrons.
 The conducting property of a solid is not a function of total number of the electrons in the
metal, but it is due to the number of Valence Electrons so called Free Electrons or
conduction electrons.
CONDUCTORS
Low resistive materials are generally called conducting materials. The metals and their
alloys show the high electrical conductivity in the order of 10 8 Ω-1 m-1.Hence, they are called
conductors.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
OHM’S LAW
When an electric current (I) flow through a conductor and V is the potential difference,
𝐕 𝛂 𝐈; 𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
Where I is the current in ampere

unit 1.docx
R is the resistance to the current flow in ohm
V is the voltage in volt.
CURRENT DENSITY
It is the ratio between the current flowing through the conductor and area of cross section
of the conductor.
𝐼
𝐽 = 𝐴; Unit :Am-2
RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY AND DRIFT VELOCITY
If n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume, Q is the total charges and l is the
length of the conductor.
𝑸 𝒏𝒆𝑨𝒍
Current I = =
𝒕 𝒕
𝒍
Vd =𝐭
I = nAeVd
𝐼
The current density J =
𝐴

Therefore J = neVd----------------- (1)

In terms of electrical conductivity σ
J=σE ----------------- (2)
𝒏𝒆𝐕𝐝
From equation (1) and (2) σ= 𝑬
 The properties of conductors, semiconductors and insulators are explain by the following
three theories
 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY (CFE)
 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY (QFE)
 ZONE THEORY (or) BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS
(i) Classical free electron theory
It is a macroscopic theory, proposed by Drude and Lorentz in1900. According to this
theory, the free electrons are mainly responsible for electrical conduction in metals. This theory
obeys laws of classical mechanics.
(ii) Quantum free electron theory
It is a microscopic theory, proposed by sommerfeld in 1928. According to this theory, the
electrons in a metals move in a constant potential. This theory obeys laws of quantum
mechanics.
(iii) Zone theory or band theory of solids
Bloch proposed this theory in the year 1928.
According to this theory, the free electrons move in a
periodic potential. This theory explains electrical
conductivity based on the energy bands.
Postulates of the theory
Drude assumed that the free electrons in a metal form
an electron gas. These free electrons move randomly in all possible directions just like the gas
molecules in a container.
 In the absence of electrical field When an electrical field is not applied, the free electrons
move everywhere in a random manner. They
collide with other free electrons and positive ion
core. This collision is known as elastic collision.
 In the presence of electric field When the
electrical field is applied, the electrons get some
amount of energy from the applied electric field
and they begin to move towards the positive
potential. (In the opposite direction to the
applied electric field).
 Since electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas,
they obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases.
 The velocities of free electrons and energy in a metal obey the classical Maxwell-
Boltzmann law of distribution of velocities.
 The free electrons move in a completely uniform (constant) potential field due to ions
fixed in the lattice.
  When an electric field is applied to the metal, the free electrons are accelerated in the
direction opposite to the direction of applied electric field (towards positive terminal of
the source).
a) Drift velocity (𝒗𝒅 ): It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electrons in a
𝝀
metal in a particular direction by the application of an electrical field.𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉 .
𝒄
b) Mean free path (𝜆):The average distance travelled by a free electron between any two
successive collisions is known as mean free path. It is the product of drift velocity (𝒗𝒅 ) of
free electron and collision time (𝝉𝒄 ). 𝛌 = 𝒗𝒅 𝝉𝒄
c) Collision time(𝝉𝒄 ): The average time taken by a free electron between any two successive
𝛌
collisions is knownas collision time. 𝛕𝐜 = 𝒗
𝒅
d) Relaxation time (𝛕): The average time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium
position from its disturbed position due to the application of an external electrical field is
called relaxation time. It is approximately equal to 10 -14 second.
EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL
Definition: The amount of electrical charge conducted (Q) per unit time across unit area (A) of a
solid per unit applied electric field (E) is called the electrical conductivity. It is denoted by σ. It is
given by
𝛔 = 𝐐⁄𝐭𝐀𝐄
2
If t = 1second E = 1 volt, A = 1 metre
𝛔 = 𝐐
𝛔 = 𝐐 / 𝐭𝐀𝐄 = 𝐉 / 𝐄
Where J is the current density and it is given by 𝑄 / 𝑡𝐴. Also 𝐉 =
𝛔 𝐄.
Derivation
We know in the absence of external electric field, the
motion of electrons in a metal moves randomly in all directions.
When electric field (E) is applied to electron of charge ‘e’ of a metallic rod, the electron moves
in opposite direction to the applied field with velocity𝒗𝒅 .This velocity is known as drift velocity.
Lorentz force acting on the electron is𝑭𝑳 = 𝒆𝑬 ⟶ (𝟏)
Due to the applied field,theelectron gains acceleration ‘a’.
From Newton’s second law of motion, the frictional or opposing force on the electron is
Fr=mass of the electron (m)×acceleration (a)
𝑭𝒓 = 𝒎𝒂 ⟶ (2)
When the system is in steady state, Lorentz force is equal and opposite to the frictional force
𝑭 𝒓 = 𝑭𝑳
From eq(1)and (2), we have 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑒𝐸
𝑒𝐸
𝑎= ⟶ (3)
𝑚
But, the accelerated electron collides with positive ion core and the other free electrons. Hence it
loses kinetic energy and velocity. Thus, after each collision, the velocity of electron increases
until the next collision takes place.
Average drift velocity of electron is = 𝒗𝒅 .
𝒗
If C is collision time, then acceleration. 𝒂 = 𝝉𝒅 ;𝒗𝒅 = 𝒂𝝉 → (4) (∵c=)
𝒆
Sub eq (3) in eq (4), 𝒗𝒅 = ( 𝒎 ) 𝑬 ⟶ (5)
But the current density in terms of drift velocity is 𝑱 = 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒅 → (𝟔)
𝒆
Sub eq (5) in eq (6), we have𝑱 = 𝒏𝒆 ( 𝒎 ) 𝑬
𝑒
According to ohm’s law 𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬, 𝜎𝐸 = 𝑛𝑒 (𝑚 ) 𝐸
𝒏𝒆𝟐 
𝝈=( )
𝒎
This is the expression for electrical conductivity of the metal.
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EXPRESSION FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL
Definition: The amount of heat conducted per unit time through the material having unit area of
cross section per unit temperature gradient.
dT
Q=K
dx
Q – Amount of heat flowing per unit time through unit cross sectional area.
𝑑𝑇
- Temperature gradient
𝑑𝑥
Derivation:
Consider two cross sections A and B of a metal and separated by a distance 𝜆.
Let A be at a high temperature (T) and B at a low temperature (T-dT),
Now, heat flows from A to B by the free electrons
Conduction electron per unit volume = n
Average velocity of the electrons = v
During the movement of the electrons in the metal rod, the elastic collision takes place. Hence,
the electrons near A lose their kinetic energy while electrons near B gain kinetic energy.
3
At A, average kinetic energy of an electron = 2 𝑘𝑇 ----
1 3
------ (1) (Since K.E= 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑘𝑇)
3
At B, average kinetic energy of an electron = 2 𝑘(𝑇 −
𝑑𝑇) ------------- (2)
The excess of kinetic energy carried by the
electron from A to B
3 3
= 2 𝑘𝑇 − 2 𝑘(𝑇 − 𝑑𝑇)
3 3 3 3
= 𝑘𝑇 − 𝑘𝑇 + 𝑘𝑑𝑇 = 𝑘𝑑𝑇--------- (3)
2 2 2 2
 1
Number of electrons crossing per unit area per unit time from A to B = 6 𝑛𝑣 --------- (4)
1 3 1
The excess of energy carried from A to B per unit area in unit time = 6 𝑛𝑣 × 2 𝑘𝑑𝑇 = 4 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇 ---
------ (5)
Similarly, the deficient of energy carried from B to A per unit area per unit time
1
=− 4 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇------- (6)
Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B per unit area per unit time
1 1
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇— (− 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇
4 4
1 1
= 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇 + 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇
4 4
1 1
= ( + ) 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇
4 4
1
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇 --------- (7)
2
But, from the definition of thermal conductivity, the amount of heat conducted per unit area per
unit time
𝑑𝑇
𝑄=𝐾
𝜆
𝑑𝑇
(Since𝑄 = 𝐾 , Here 𝜆 = 𝑑𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑇
𝑛𝑣𝑘𝑑𝑇 = 𝐾
2 𝜆
1
𝐾 = 2 𝑛𝑣𝑘𝜆 --------- (8)
We know that for the metals
𝜆
Relaxation time (𝜏) = collision time (𝜏𝑐 ) i.e 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑐 = 𝑣
𝜏𝑣 = 𝜆--------- (9)
Substituting eqn (9) in eqn (8), we have
𝟏
𝑲 = 𝟐 𝒏𝒗𝟐 𝒌𝝉--------- (10)
The equation (10) is the expression for the thermal conductivity of the metal.
WIEDEMANN – FRANZ LAW
Statement: The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to electrical conductivity ( 𝜎) is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature (T). This ratio is constant for all metals at a given
temperature.
𝐾
∝𝑇
𝜎
𝐾
= 𝐿𝑇
𝜎
Where L is proportionality constant. It is known as Lorentz number. Its value is 2.44 ×
10−8 WΩ𝐾 −2
Derivation
We know that
1
Thermal Conductivity of metal 𝐾 = 2 𝑛𝑣 2 𝑘𝜏--------- (1)
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
Electrical Conductivity of metal 𝜎 = ------------ (2)
𝑚
1 2
Thermal Conductivity 𝐾 2 𝑛𝑣 𝑘𝜏
= =
Electrical Conductivity 𝜎 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝑚
1 2
𝑛𝑣 𝑘𝜏
=2 2 ×𝑚
𝑛𝑒 𝜏
𝐾 1 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑘
=2 --------- (3)
𝜎 𝑒2
1 3
The Kinetic energy of the electron is given by 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑘𝑇 ------- (4)
Substituting eqn (4) in eqn (3) we have
𝐾 3 𝑘𝑇 × 𝑘 3 𝑘 2 𝑇
= =
𝜎 2 𝑒2 2 𝑒2
𝐾 3 𝑘 2
= ( ) 𝑇
𝜎 2 𝑒
𝑲
= 𝑳𝑻
𝝈
3 𝑘 2
Where 𝐿 = 2 ( 𝑒 ) is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number.
𝑲
∝𝑻
𝝈
Thus, it is proved that the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature of the metal.
Success of classical free electron theory
 It is used to verify Ohm’s law.
 It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities of metals.
 It is used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.
 It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

Failures of classical free electron theory

 Classical theory states that all the free electrons absorb the supplied energy. But, the quantum
theory states that only a few electrons absorb the supplied energy.
 The Electrical conductivity of semiconductor or insulators couldn’t be explained by this
theory.
 The photoelectric effect, Compton Effect and the black body radiation cannot be explained
by the classical free electron theory.
 At low temperature, the electrical conductivity and the thermal conductivity vary in different
ways. Therefore K/σT is not a constant. But in classical free electron theory, it is a constant at all
temperature.
 From the classical free electron theory the value of specific heat of metals is given by 4.5R,
where ‘R’ is called the universal gas constant. But the experimental value of specific heat is
nearly equal to 3R.
 The theoretical value of paramagnetic susceptibility is greater than the experimental value.
Ferromagnetism cannot be explained by this theory.
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Quantum free electron theory
 The potential energy of an electron is uniform or constant throughout the metal.
 The electrons have wave nature.
 The free electrons obey Fermi – Dirac statistics.
Merits
 This theory attracts the electron quantum mechanically rather than classically.
 It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity of
metals, photoelectric effect and Compton Effect.
Demerits
 Even though it explains most of the physical properties of the metals, it fails to state the
difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
 It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall coefficient and some of the transport
properties of metals.
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Electron in metals – Particle in a three dimensional box
 The solution of one-dimensional potential well is
extended for a three-dimensional potential box.
 In a three-dimensional potential box, the particle
(electron) can move in any direction in space.
Therefore, instead of one quantum number n, we have
to use three quantum numbers, nx, ny and nz,
corresponding to the three coordinate axes namelyx,y
and z respectively.
 If a,b,c are the lengths of the box as shown in figure
along x, y and z axes, then
energy of the particle =Ex+Ey+Ez
𝑥𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑦 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝑧 𝑛2 ℎ2
i.e.,𝐸𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 = 8𝑚𝑎 2 + 8𝑚𝑏 2 + 8𝑚𝑐 2

If a=b=c as for a cubical box, then

𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝒏𝒙𝒏𝒚 𝒏𝒛 = 𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐 [𝒏𝟐𝒙 + 𝒏𝟐𝒚 + 𝒏𝟐𝒛 ] ------- (1)
The corresponding normalised wave function of an electron in a cubical box may be
written as
 2 2 2 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
𝜓𝑛𝑥𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧 = √ × × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝟖 𝒏𝒙 𝝅𝒙 𝒏𝒚 𝝅𝒚 𝒏𝒛 𝝅𝒛
𝝍𝒏𝒙𝒏𝒚 𝒏𝒛 = √𝒂𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ------ (2)
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
From the equations (1) and (2), we understand that several combinations of the three quantum
numbers (𝑛𝑥 , 𝑛𝑦 , 𝑛𝑧 ) lead to different energy eigen value and eigen functions.
Example: Suppose a state has quantum numbers,𝑛𝑥 = 1, 𝑛𝑦 = 1, 𝑛𝑧 = 2 then,
𝒏𝟐𝒙 + 𝒏𝟐𝒚 + 𝒏𝟐𝒛 = 𝟔Similarly for a combination 𝑛𝑥 = 1, 𝑛𝑦 = 2, 𝑛𝑧 = 1 and
𝑛𝑥 = 2, 𝑛𝑦 = 1, 𝑛𝑧 = 1 We have 𝒏𝟐𝒙 + 𝒏𝟐𝒚 + 𝒏𝟐𝒛 = 𝟔
𝟔𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝟏𝟏𝟐 = 𝑬𝟏𝟐𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐𝟏𝟏 = 𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐 --------- (3)
The corresponding wave function are written as

𝟖 𝝅𝒙 𝝅𝒚 𝟐𝝅𝒛
𝝍𝟏𝟏𝟐 = √ 𝟑
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

𝟖 𝝅𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒚 𝝅𝒛 -------- (4)

𝝍𝟏𝟐𝟏 = √ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒂𝟑 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

𝟖 𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝝅𝒚 𝝅𝒛
𝝍𝟐𝟏𝟏 = √ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒂𝟑 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

Degenerate States:
(i) Degeneracy:Several combinations of quantum numbers have same energy eigen
value but different eigen functions. Such states energy levels are called
degenerate states. This is known from below equations.
𝟔𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝟏𝟏𝟐 = 𝑬𝟏𝟐𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐𝟏𝟏 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
The corresponding wave function are written as
𝟖 𝝅𝒙 𝝅𝒚 𝟐𝝅𝒛
𝝍𝟏𝟏𝟐 = √ 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

𝟖 𝝅𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒚 𝝅𝒛
𝝍𝟏𝟐𝟏 = √ 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂

𝟖 𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝝅𝒚 𝝅𝒛
𝝍𝟐𝟏𝟏 = √ 𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
(ii) Non-Degeneracy: For various combinations of quantum number if we have same
energy eigen value and same eigen function then such states and energy levels
are called Non-Degenerate states.
For 𝑛𝑥 = 2, 𝑛𝑦 = 2, 𝑛𝑧 = 2
𝟏𝟐𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝟐𝟐𝟐 =
𝟖𝒎𝒂𝟐
and
𝟖 𝟐𝝅𝒙 𝟐𝝅𝒚 𝟐𝝅𝒛
𝝍𝟐𝟐𝟐 = √ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝒂𝟑 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
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FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS
Fermi-Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half integral spin like electrons.
They are known as Fermi particles or Fermions.
FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
Definition:Fermi –Dirac distribution function F(E) represents the probability of an electron
occupying a given energy state.
To find out the energy states actually occupied by the free electron at any temperature (T), we
can apply the Fermi-Dirac statistics. The Fermi-Dirac statistics deals with the particles
(electrons) having half integral spin, named as Fermions.
Thus we can write the Fermi distribution function (i.e) the probability of an electron occupying a
1
given energy state as𝐹(𝐸 ) = 1+𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )/𝑘𝑇
Where EF – Fermi energy, k – Boltzman Constant, T – Temperature.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI FUNCTION
The effect of temperature on Fermi function F(E) are as follows.
Probability of occupation at T = 0 K
The electrons can be filled only upto a maximum energy level called Fermi energy (E F), above
EFall the energy levels will be empty.

Case i:When E <EF, F(E) becomes,

1 1
𝐹 (𝐸 ) =
= =1
1 + 𝑒 −∞ 1
There is 100% chance for the electrons to occupy the energy levels.
Case ii:When E >EF , F(E) becomes,
1 1
𝐹 (𝐸 ) =
= =0
1 + 𝑒∞ ∞
There is 0% chance for the electrons to occupy the energy levels.

Case iii:When E=EF ,F(E) becomes,

1 1 1
𝐹 (𝐸 ) = 0
= = = 0.5
1+𝑒 1+1 2
There is 50% chance for the electrons to occupy the energy levels.
This clearly shows that at 0K all the energy states below 𝐸𝐹0 are filled and above 𝐸𝐹0 is empty.
The Fermi function at 0K can be represented graphically as shown in fig.
The variation curve of F(E) for different energy values shows a step function.
Probability of occupation at T > 0 K (At high temperature)
 When the temperature is raised slowly from absolute zero, the Fermi function smoothly
decreases to zero.
 The electrons lose their quantum mechanical character and the Fermi distribution
function reduces to classical Boltzman distribution.
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DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES
The ability of metal to conduct electricity depends upon
 The number of quantum states and
 Energy levels that are available for the electrons.
Hence it is essential to find the energy states which are available for occupation by the charge
carriers.
Definition: Density of states is defined as the number of energy states per unit volume in an
energy interval E and E+dE.
 It is denoted by Z(E).
No. of energy states in energy interval E and E + dE in a metal piece N(E)dE
Z(E)dE =
Volume of the metal piece (V)

CALCULATION OF DENSITY OF STATES IN METAL

Let us consider a cubical sample with side ‘a’.
Volume of the cube = a3
A sphere is constructed with the quantum numbers nx , ny , nz as three co-ordinate axes in
three dimensional space.
 ‘n’ is the radius vector from origin o to nx , ny , nz in
space.
 ‘E’ is the Energy on the surface of the sphere.
 nx , ny , nz are points in space.
Thus the radius of the sphere n2 = n2x + n2y + n2z .
The sphere is further divided into many shells. Each
shell represents a particular combination of quantum
numbers. Each quantum number (integer) represents one
energy state. Thus, volume of the sphere of radius n is equal
to the number of energy states. In order to calculate the number of states within a small energy
interval E and E+dE, we have to construct two spheres with radii n and n+dn and calculate the
space occupied within these two spheres.
4
No. of energy states within a sphere of radius n = (3) πn3
since nx , ny , nz can have only positive integer values, we have to consider only one octant of the
sphere.
The no. of.available energy states within one octant of the sphere
1 4
of radius n corresponding to energy E = [ πn3 ]
8 3
The no. of.available energy states within one octant of the sphere
1 4
of radius n+dn corresponding to energy E+dE= 8 [3 π(n + dn)3 ]
Thus the number of energy states having energy values between E and E +dE is N(E) dE.
1 4 1 4
N(E)dE = [ π(n + dn)3 ] − [ π(n)3 ] ⟶ (1)
8 3 8 3
π
= [n + dn + 3n2 dn + 3ndn2 − n3 ]
3 3
6
π
=6 × (3n2 dn)
(neglecting the higher power of dn as it is very small)
π
N(E)dE = n2 dn ⟶ (2)
2
The energy of an electron in a cubical metal piece of sides a is given by
1⁄
n2 h 2 2
8ma2 E 8ma2 E 2
E= ⟹ n = ⟹ n = [ ] ⟶ (3)
8ma2 h2 h2
8ma2
on diff. n2 , we get ndn = dE
2h2
 1⁄
π π 8ma2 E 2 8ma2
N(E) dE = n(ndn) = [ ] dE
2 2 h2 2h2
3⁄
π 8ma2 2 1
N(E) dE = [ 2 ] E ⁄2 dE
4 h
According to Pauli’s exclusion principle only two electrons of opposite spin can occupy
each state.
3⁄
π 8ma2 2 1⁄
N(E) dE = 2 × [ 2 ] E 2 dE
4 h
4π 3 1
N(E) dE = 3 (2m) ⁄2 a3 E ⁄2 dE
h
No. of energy states
Density of states =
Volume of the metal piece
3 1
N(E) dE 4π (2m) ⁄2 a3 E ⁄2 dE
Z(E)dE = = 3
V h a3
4π 3 1
Z(E) dE = 3 (2m) ⁄2 E ⁄2 dE
h
This is the expression for the density of states in energy between E and E+dE.
Carrier concentration in metals:
No. of electrons per unit volume in a given energy interval ( nc ) is equal to the Summing
the product of the density of states Z(E)& the occupancy probability F(E).
nc = ∫ Z(E)F(E) dE

4π 3 1 1
nc = ∫ 3
(2m) ⁄2 E ⁄2 (E−EF )⁄
dE
h
1+ e kT
This is the expression for “density of charge carriers” (ie) electrons at any temperature.

Importance of Density of states

 It is used to calculate the number of charge carries per unit volume of the solid.
 Several properties of a metal may be obtained, once the density of states is known.
Expression for Fermi Energy
We know that 0K maximum energy level that can occupied by the electron is
called Fermi energy levelEF .
(i.e.,) at 0 K for E <EF and therefore F (E) = 1.
3⁄
π 8m 2 EF 1⁄ 𝟖𝛑
nc = 2 ( h2 ) ∫0 E 2 dE 𝐧𝐜 = 𝟑𝐡𝟑 (𝟐𝐦𝐄𝐅 )3/2
𝟐⁄
𝐡𝟐 𝟑𝐧 𝟑
On rearranging, we have 𝐄𝐅 = (𝟐𝐦) ( 𝟖𝛑𝐜 )
This is the expression for Fermi Energy of electrons in Solids at absolute Zero
temperature.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ELECTRON IN PERIODIC POTENTIAL
In quantum free electron theory of metals the electrons were assumed to be moving in a
region of constant potential and hence it moves freely about the crystal. But it fails to explain
why some solids behave as conductors, some as insulators and some an semiconductors etc.
Therefore instead of considering an electron to move in a constant potential, In Zone
theory of solids the electrons are assumed to move in a field of periodic potential.
In a metal piece, the positive ions are arranged in a regular and proper order, therefore a
periodic potential (i.e.) the potential field
which varies periodically with the same
period as the lattice, exists in the metal. Also
the potential is minimum near the centre of
positive ions and is maximum between the
centers of ions as shown in fig.
Therefore the potential energy of the
electron near by the centre of positive ion is
maximum and will not be able to move freely, but the electrons which are above these potential
peaks are free to move inside the metal and hence they are termed as free electrons.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS
According to the energy band theory of solids, the free electrons move in a periodic
potential produced by positive ion cores. The electrons are treated as weakly perturbed by the
periodic potential.
In solid sodium, the electrons experience a periodic potential since the atomic
arrangement is periodic.
A simple qualitative explanation of the formation of energy bands in a solid is given
below.
A solid contains an enormous number of atoms packed closely together. Each atom when
isolated has a discrete set of electron energy levels, 1s, 2s, 2p,…
If we imagine the N atoms on the solid to be isolated from one another, they would have
completely coinciding schemes of energy levels.
The energies of electrons within any one isolated atom obey the following conditions.
(i) There are specific electronic energy levels in each atom (fig. a). Electrons cannot
occupy space between these levels.
(ii) Electrons fill the lowest energy levels first. A specific quantity of energy, called a
quantum of energy must be supplied to move an electron to the next higher level.
(iii) Pauli’s, exclusion principle states that no two electrons can occupy the same quantum
state. Not more than two electrons can occupy any one energy level.
 Two electrons shall occupy the same energy level because they have opposite
electron spins (fig. b).
 When the atoms are brought in close proximity to form a solid, the valence electros of
adjacent atoms interact and constitute a single system of electrons common to the
entire crystal, and their outermost electronic orbits overlap.
 Therefore, N electrons will now have to occupy different energy levels, which may be
brought about by the electric forces exerted on each electron by all N nuclei.
 As a result of these forces, each atomic energy level is split up into a large number of
closely spaced energy levels.
 A set of such closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band.
 Consider 11 electrons of a neutral sodium atom, each occupying a specific energy
level as indicated in fig (c). The energy levels of sodium become bands when the
atoms lie close together.
In fig (c), r0 represents the spacing between atoms in solid sodium. When the atoms are part
of a solid, they interact with each other, and the electrons have slightly different energies.
  In an energy band, allowed energies are
almost continuous. These energy bands are
separated by ranges of energies that have no
allowed energy levels.
 These regions are known as forbidden bands
or energy gap (fig. d).
 The amount of splitting is not the same for
different levels. The levels filled by valence electrons are disturbed to a greater
extent, while those filled by electrons of inner shells are disturbed only slightly.
 Fig. (c) Shows the splitting of levels as a function of the distance r between atoms.
 If there are N atoms in a solid, there are N allowed quantum states in each band. Each
quantum state is occupied by a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins. Thus,
each energy band can be occupied by 2N electrons.
 The valence band consists of a group of states containing the outermost electrons or
valence electrons of an atom. The band formed from atomic energy levels containing
valence electrons is called valence band.
 These electrons have the highest energy. The
band is obviously the highest occupied band.
 Above the valence band, there exists the band
of next higher permitted energies called
conduction band. It is separated from the
valence band by a gap. (fig.). The gap
represents the range of energy which
electrons cannot possess.
 The conduction band corresponds to the first
excited states and it is normally the lowest
unfilled energy band.
 In conduction band, the electrons can move freely and they are generally called
conduction electrons.
According to free electron theory, the potential energy of the electron inside the crystal through
which an electron moves is supposed to be constant (Zero) and so it is completely free to move
throughout the crystal, restrained only by the surface of the crystal.
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS, SEMICODUCTORS AND INSULATORS
On the basis of width of forbidden gap valece
and conduction band the solids are classified into
insulators, semiconductors and conductors.
Insulators
 In case of insulators, the forbidden energy
bandis very wide as shown in the fig (a). Due
to this, electrons cannot jump from valence
 band to conduction band. In insulators, the valence electrons are bound very tightly to
their parent atoms.
 For example, in the case of material like glass, the valence band is completely full at 0K
and the energy gap between valence band and conduction band is of the order of 10 eV.
 Even in the presence of high electric field, the electrons cannot jump from the valence
band to conduction band.
 When a very large energy is supplied, an electron may jump across the forbidden gap.
Increase in temperature also enables some electrons to go to the conduction band.
 This explains why certain insulators become conductors at high temperature. The
resistivity of insulators is of the order of 107 𝛺𝑚(ohm metre).
Semiconductors
 In semiconductors, the forbidden gap is very small as shown in the fig. (b). Germanium
and silicon are the best examples of semiconductors.
 In Germanium, the forbidden gap is of
the order of 0.7 eV while in case of
silicon, it is of the order of 1.1 eV.
 Actually, a semiconductor is one whose
electrical property lies between those of
insulators and conductors. At 0K there
are no free electrons in conduction band
and valence band is completely filled.
 When a small amount of energy is
supplied, the electrons can easily jump
from valence band to conduction band,
since the forbidden gap is very small.
 In semiconductors, the conductivities are
of the order of 102𝛺𝑚.
Conductors
 In case of conductors, there is no
forbidden gap, both valence and
conduction bands overlap each other as
shown in fig. (c).
In conduction band, plenty of free
electrons are available for the process of
electric conduction. The electrons from
valence band freely enter into the
conduction band.
 The most important fact in conductors is
that due to the absence of forbidden gap,
there is no structure to establish holes. The
 total current in conductors is simply the flow of electrons.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tight binding approximation
In solid, ionic cores at fixed lattice locations and free electron gas enveloping these ionic
cores. The ionic cores are ‘tightly bound’ to their lattice locations. The electrons are ‘free’ to run
through the extend of the solid. This is called the ‘free electron approximation’.
There is another approach to modeling materials which starts from opposite position.
In this approach, the atoms are independent to begin with and they are brought together to
build the solid. The electrons are bound to their respective individual atoms to begin with.
In this case the atoms are free to begin with while the electrons are tightly bound to the
atom due to electronic properties of the materials, this approach is referred to as the “Tight
binding approximation’ – highlighting the status of the electrons at the start of the model.
 When the atoms are far apart, all the bound electrons associated with each atom, have
fixed energy levels.
 Building the solid starts using atoms of the same element, the energy levels occupied by
the respective electrons in each atom will be identical.
 As we bring the atoms closed to each other to form the solid, the electrons will still
maintain their original energy levels as long as the interatomic separation is large.
 When the atoms get close enough, the outer shell electrons begin to overlap with each
other.

 The energy levels of these outer shell electrons are forced to split into energy levels
above and below the energy level of these electrons when they belonged to individual
atoms.
 The splitting of energy levels occurs because electrons obey the pauli’s exclusion
principle.
  Initially only the outer shell electrons overlap, therefore only their levels split. But inner
shell electrons still maintain their energy levels like individual atom.
 If the interatomic separation keeps decreasing even further, progressively more of the
inner shell electron levels will overlap and hence also split.
 At each energy level, the level will split to enough new energy levels (band) so as to
accommodate the electrons of all the atoms in the solid taken together.
 Eg: If a hundred atoms come together, and there is one electron in the outer shell, the
solid will split the energy level to a hundred energy levels. Thus the hundred outer shell
electrons are filled corresponding to the combined solid.
 The tight binding approximation is typically more consistent with the state of the material
in the case of insulators, so it is better suited for modeling insulators.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Effective mass of Electron and Hole
Effective mass of electron
The mass acquired by an electron when it is accelerated in a periodic potential is called effective
mass of an electron. It is denote by m*.
Explanation: When an electron is accelerated by an electrical or magnetic field in periodic
potential, the mass of the electron is not a constant. But, it varies with respect to the field applied.
This varying mass is called effective mass (m*).
Derivation of effective mass of electron
Consider a crystal subjected to an electric field of intensity ‘E’. due to this applied field, the
electron gains a velocity which can be described by a wave vector k.
According to wave mechanics, a particle moving with a velocity v is equivalent to a wave packet
moving with a group velocity vg.
𝑑𝜔
Group velocity with which the electron can travel𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑘 ------- (1)
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
𝜔
𝜈 = 2𝜋 ]
Where ω angular frequency of the electron [
ℎ
ℏ = 2𝜋
K is wave vector
We know that 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜔
𝐸=
2𝜋
𝐸 = ℏ𝜔
𝐸
𝜔= ------- (2)
ℏ
Substituting (2) in (1)
𝑑 𝐸
𝑣𝑔 = ( )
𝑑𝑘 ℏ
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑣𝑔 = ℏ 𝑑𝑘 ------- (3)
The acceleration ‘a’ experienced by the electron is given by
 𝑑(𝑣𝑔 )
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 1 𝑑𝐸
= [ ( )]
𝑑𝑡 ℏ 𝑑𝑘
1 𝑑2 𝐸 𝑑𝑘
= ℏ 𝑑𝑘 2 𝑑𝑡 ------ (4)
Momentum (p) of an electron inside the crystal.
ℎ
p = 𝜆 (From De=Broglie’s equation)
ℎ 2𝜋 2𝜋
p = 2𝜋 = ℏ𝑘 -------------- (5)𝑘 =
𝜆 𝜆
Differentiating the equation (5) with respect to‘t’
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑘
= ℏ 𝑑𝑡 (force acting on the electron)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝐹
(or) 𝐹 = ℏ 𝑑𝑡 (or) =ℏ ------------------ (6)
𝑑𝑡
Substituting (6) in (4)
1 𝑑2 𝐸 𝐹 1 𝑑2 𝐸
𝑎 = ℏ 𝑑𝑘 2 ℏ = ℏ2 𝑑𝑘 2 𝐹 ----------------------- (7)

ℏ2
(or) 𝐹 = [ 𝑑2 𝐸
]𝑎
( 2)
𝑑𝑘

When an electric field is applied, acceleration of the electron due to this field
𝑒𝐸 𝐹
𝑎 = 𝑚∗ = 𝑚∗ (F=eE)
(or) 𝐹 = 𝑚∗ 𝑎 ------- (8)
ℏ2
Comparing the equation (7) and (8) we have𝑚∗ = [ 𝑑2 𝐸
]
( 2)
𝑑𝑘

The above equation indicates that the effective mass of an electron is not a constant,
𝑑2 𝐸
but depends on the value of( 𝑑𝑘 2 ).
Special cases:
𝑑2 𝐸
Case (i) if (𝑑𝑘 2 ) is positive, then 𝑚∗ is also positive.
𝑑2 𝐸
Case (ii) if ( 𝑑𝑘 2 ) is negative, then 𝑚∗ is also negative.
𝑑2 𝐸
Case (iii) if (𝑑𝑘 2 ) is more, then the electron behave as light particle.
𝑑2 𝐸
Case (iv) if ( 𝑑𝑘 2 ) is very small, then the electron behave as heavy particle.
Variation of 𝒎∗ with k
Figure shows the variation of 𝑚∗ with k. near𝑘 = 0, the
effective mass approaches m.
As the value of k increases 𝑚∗ increases reaching the
maximum value at the point of inflection on the E-k curve.
 𝜋
Above the point of inflection,𝑚∗ is negative and as k tends to𝑎 , it decreses to a small negative
value.
CONCEPT OF HOLE (OR) EFFECTIVE OR NEGATIVE MASS OF ELECTRON
The effective mass plays an important role in conduction process of semiconductors and
insulators since they have full or almost filled valence bands.
We can find that the effective mass 𝑚∗ is negative near the zone edges of almost filled
valence bands. Physically speaking the electrons in these regions are accelerated in a direction
opposite to the direction of the applied field. This is called the negative mass behavior of the
electrons.
The electrons with the negative effective mass are considered as a new entity having the same
positive mass of that of an electron but with positive charge. The new entity is given the name
“hole”.
The holes are not real particles like electrons or positrons, but it is a way of looking at the
negative mass behavior of the electrons near the zone edge.
We look upon the motion of the effective negative mass electrons as the motion of
positive holes or positive vacant sites in a nearly full band and allow the electrons in the band to
carry the current.
The positive hole conduction and effective negative electron mass conduction are in
equilibrium. The calculations made on the hole picture appear to be more convenient and hence
the hole concept is advantageously retained.
Several phenomena like Hall Effect, Thomson effect etc find ready explanation on the
basis of the hole concept.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PROBLEMS
1. Evaluate the Fermi function of an electron for an energy kT above the Fermi energy.
(Nov 2011).
Given: E-EF = kT,
Solution: Fermi distribution function,
𝟏
𝑭( 𝑬 ) =
𝟏 + 𝒆[(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻]
1 1 1
= 1+𝑒 [1] = 1+2.718 =3.718
F(E) = 0.26894.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. The electric resistivity of copper at 27 0C is 1.82 × 10−8 Ω𝑚. Compute its thermal
conductivity if the Lorentz number is 2.25 x 10-8𝑊Ω𝐾 −2 . (Nov 2013)
Given:
Resistivity (ρ) =1.82 × 10−8 Ω𝑚;Lorentz number (L) = 2.25 x 10-8𝑊Ω𝐾 −2
Solution:Temperature (T) = 27+273 = 300K.
𝑳𝑻 2.25 x 10−8×300
𝑲= = = 370.87 Wm−1 K −1
𝝆 1.82×10−8
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. A uniform silver has a resistivity of 1.54 x 10-8 ohm/m at room temperature. For an
electric field along the wire of 1 volt/cm, compute the average drift velocity of
electron assuming that there are 5.8 x 10 28 conduction electrons/m3. Also calculate
the mobility. (April 2003).
Given:
Resistivity (ρ) = 1.54 x 10-8 ohm/m ;Electric field (E) = 1 volt/cm = 100 volt/m
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 ; Conduction electrons/m3(n) = 5.8 x 1028/m3
Solution:
𝟏
(i) Mobility 𝝁 = 𝝆𝒏𝒆
𝟏 1
𝝁= = = 6.9973 × 10−3 𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
𝝆𝒏𝒆 1.54 x 10 × 5.8 x 1028 × 1.6 × 10−19
−8

(ii) Drift velocity 𝒗𝒅 = 𝝁𝑬

𝑣𝑑 = 𝜇𝐸 = 6.9973 × 10−3 × 100 = 0.69973 𝑚𝑠 −1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Copper has electrical conductivity at 300K as 6.40 x 10 7 mho m-1. Calculate the
thermal conductivity of copper. (Lorentz number L = 2.45 x 10-8) (May 2013).
Given:
Electrical conductivity, 𝜎 =6.40 x 107 mho m-1T = 300K
Lorentz number L = 2.45 x 10-8𝑊Ω𝐾 −2
Solution: 𝑲 = 𝝈𝑳𝑻 = 6.40 x 107 × 2.45 x 10−8 × 300 = 470.4 Wm−1 K −1 .
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Calculate the Fermi energy and Fermi temperature in a metal. The Fermi velocity of
electrons in the metal is 0.86x106 m/s. (May 2011)
Given:
Velocity of electron, 𝑣 = 0.86x106 m/s
Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Boltzmann’s constant, k = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1
Solution:
2
𝟏 1 9.1×10−31 ×(0.86x106 )
(i) Fermi energy𝑬𝑭 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 2 × = 2.1 eV
1.6×10−19
𝑬𝑭 2.1×1.6×10−19
(ii) Fermi temperature𝑻𝑭 = = = 2.34 × 104 𝐾
𝒌 1.38×10−23
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. The thermal conductivity of a metal is 123.92 Wm−1 K −1 .Find the electrical
conductivity
and Lorentz number when the metal possess relaxation time 10−14 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 at 300 K.
(The electron density is 6 × 1028 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚3 ). (May 2014)
Given:
 Thermal Conductivity, (K) = 123.92 Wm−1 K −1
Relaxation time, (𝜏) = 10−14 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Temperature, (T) = 300 K
Electron density, (n) = 6 × 1028 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚3 ).
Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Solution:
2
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉 6×1028 ×(1.6×10−19 ) ×10−14
(i) Electrical Conductivity 𝝈 = =
𝒎 9.1×10−31
7 −1 −1
= 1.6879 × 10 Ω 𝑚
𝑲 123.927
(ii) Lorentz number, L= 𝝈𝑻 = 1.6879×107 ×300 = 2.447 × 10−8 𝑊Ω𝐾 −2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a metal with the relaxation time
of 10-14 second at 300 K. The electron density is 6 × 1028 𝑚−3 . (Nov 2012)
Given:
Relaxation time, (𝜏) = 10−14 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Temperature, (T) = 300 K
Electron density, (n) = 6 × 1028 𝑚−3
Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
Boltzmann’s constant, k = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1
Solution:
2
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉 6×1028 ×(1.6×10−19 ) ×10−14
(i) Electrical Conductivity 𝝈 = =
𝒎 9.1×10−31
−1 −1
= 1.6879 × 10 Ω 𝑚 7
2
𝒏𝝅𝟐 𝒌𝟐 𝑻𝝉 6×1028 ×(3.14) 2 ×(1.38×10−23 ) ×300×10−14
(ii) Thermal Conductivity, K = =
𝟑𝒎 3×9.1×10−31
−1 −1
= 123.927 Wm K
𝑲 123.927
(iii) Lorentz number, L= 𝝈𝑻 = 1.6879×107 ×300 = 2.447 × 10−8 𝑊Ω𝐾 −2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. The concentration of free electrons in a metal is 2.0 × 1026 𝑚−3 .Calculate the Fermi
energy of the metal. (Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠. Free electron mass = 9.1 ×
10−31 𝑘𝑔) (May 2014)

Given:
Electron density, (n) = 2.0 × 1026 𝑚−3
Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
Planck’s constant (h) = 6.625 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
 Boltzmann’s constant, k = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1
Solution:
𝟐⁄ 2 2⁄
𝐡𝟐 𝟑𝐧 𝟑 (6.6×10−34 ) 3×(2.0×1026 ) 3 1.983×10−20
Fermi energy 𝑬𝑭 = [ ] = −31
[ ] =
𝟖𝐦 𝛑 8×9.1×10 𝜋 1.6×10−19
𝐸𝐹 =0.1 eV
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.The Fermi energy of silver is 5.51 eV.What is the average energy of a free electron at
0K. (Nov 2013).
Given:
Fermi energy of silver (EF0) = 5.51 eV
Solution:
The average energy of a free electron at 0 K
𝟑 3
𝑬𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑬𝑭𝟎 = × 5.51
𝟓 5
= 3.306 eV
The average energy of free electron at 0K = 3.306 eV.
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10. Calculate the energy of the electron in the energy level immediately after the lowest
energy level, confined in a cubical box of side 0.1 nm. Also find the temperature at
which the average energy of the molecules of a perfect gas would be equal to the
energy of the electron in the above said level.
Given:
Side a=0.1 nm=0.1 × 10−9 m
Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
Planck’s constant (h) = 6.625 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
Boltzmann’s constant, k = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1
Solution:
(i) For a cubical box the energy eigen value is
𝐡𝟐
𝐄𝐧 𝐱 𝐧 𝐲 𝐧𝐳 = [𝐧𝟐 + 𝐧𝟐𝐲 + 𝐧𝟐𝐳 ]
𝟖𝐦𝐚𝟐 𝐱
For the next energy level to the lowest energy level 𝑛𝑥 = 1, 𝑛𝑦 = 1, 𝑛𝑧 = 2
h2 2 2 2
6h2
E112 = [1 + 1 + 2 ] =
8ma2 8ma2

6 × (6.625 × 10−34 )2 2.6334 × 10−66

𝐸112 = =
8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (0.1 × 10−9 )2 7.288 × 10−50
E𝟏𝟏𝟐 = 3.6134 × 10−17 Joules
𝟑
(ii) We know the average energy of the molecules of a perfect gas=𝟐 𝒌𝑻
3
𝐸112 = 𝑘𝑇
2
 𝟐𝑬𝟏𝟏𝟐 2×3.6134×10−17
(or) The temperature 𝑻 = =
𝟑𝒌 3×1.38×10−23
Temperature of the molecules 𝑇 = 1.7456 × 106
11. Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity of electrons.
Given: k=1.38 × 10-23 J K-1, m= 9.11 × 10-31 kg.
Given :
Fermi temperature of the metal 𝑇𝐹 = 24600 𝐾 Mass of an electron m= 9.11 × 10−31 kg.
Boltzmann constant k=1.38 × 10-23 J K-1
Solution: We know that. The fermi velocity is

2𝑘𝑇𝐹 2 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 24600

𝑣𝐹 = √ = √ = 0.8633 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑚 9.11 × 10−31
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QUESTIONS
PART – A
1) Define effective mass of an electron.
2) Define the terms “mobility”, “mean free path” and “relaxation time” of free electrons in a
metal.
3) What are bound and free electrons?
4) Define the drift velocity of an electron. How is it differing from the thermal velocity of
an electron?
5) What are the merits of classical free electron theory?
6) What are the salient points of classical free electron theory? (Or) State the classical free
electron theory of metals.
7) How classical free electron theory failed to account for specific heat of solid?
8) What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory?
9) Distinguish between electrical and thermal conductivity.
10) What is Lorentz number?
11) What are the sources of electrical resistance in metals?
12) What are the Salient features of Quantum Free Electron Theory?
13) Define Fermi energy level and give its importance.
14) Draw the Fermi distribution curve at 0K and at any temperature T K. (OR) How does
the Fermi function vary with temperature? (OR) Sketch the variation of Fermi function
with temperature for a metal.
15) Define Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
 16) What is meant by degenerate and non-degenerate state?
17) What is a periodic potential?
18) Compare free electron and tight binding approximation.
19) Will the effective mass of the electron be negative? Justify your answer.

PART- B
1. Discuss the drawbacks of classical free electron theory of metals.
2. What are the basic assumptions of classical free electron theory? Based on the assumptions
derive an expression for electrical and thermal conductivity of metals. What are the success
and failures of this theory?
(Or)
Based on Drude and Lorentz theory derive the expression for electrical conductivity and
assuming the classical expression for thermal conductivity. Derive widemann- Franz law.
3. Explain Fermi-Dirac distribution function and discuss its behaviour with respect to
temperature. Also represent it graphically.
4. Obtain the Eigen values and Eigen functions of an electron enclosed in a 3-dimensional
potential box.
5. Derive an expression for density of states in a metal and hence obtain the Fermi energy in
terms of density of free electrons.
6. Explain free electron approximation and tight binding approximation with suitable diagrams.
7. Derive an expression for the effective mass of an electron moving in energy bands of a solid.
Show how it varies with the wave vector.
8. Discuss qualitatively how band theory of solids leads to the classification of solids into
conductors, semi conductors and insulators.
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