Expanded Answer:

Transistor Amplifier Problem

in January/February 2008 Morseman Column

Here’s what I asked:

“This month’s problem: Figure 4(a) shows a simple npn transistor amplifier. The transistor has
β = 220, and its base-emitter voltage is 0.7 V. What are the quiescent base and collector currents,
and the collector voltage? Can you estimate the voltage gain, v2 /v1 ? Can you estimate the input
impedance of the amplifier? What are the advantages and disadvantages of deriving the base biasing
current from the collector rather than the positive line?”
Here is the Figure:

Figure 1: Simple amplifier schematic.

First, the dc conditions: We find the dc operating point by relating the voltage drop across the two
resistors to the currents flowing through them:

6.7 − 0.7 =
(Ic + Ib ) RL + Ib Rb
Ic
but Ib =
β
µ ¶
1 Ic
so 6 = Ic 1 + RL + Rb
β β
and β À 1
6 6
so Ic ≈ = ≈ 3 mA
Rb 220
RL + 1 +
β 220
Ic 3
and Ib = = = 13.63 µA.
β 220
also Vc = 6.7 − Ic RL = 6.7 − 3 × 1 = 3.7 V

Small-signal Analysis

Figure 2 (a) shows the circuit again, with input and output voltages renamed for convenience. The
simplest useful small-signal equivalent circuit of a bi-polar transistor is shown in figure 2 (b). “Small-

1
signal” means that the circuit is linearized, and the two parameters involved (β and rbe ) are evaluated
at the transistor’s dc operating point. More complex equivalent circuits are used in SPICE analysis,
but this one is almost always good enough for simple estimates.

Figure 2: (a) Circuit as drawn. (b) Equivalent small-signal transistor circuit. (c) Small-signal circuit
of complete amplifier

• β is now the “small-signal” beta, also known as hf e ,1 and is the slope of the β versus Ic char-
acteristic of the transistor. Both the small and large-signal values are usually similar however,
and β is a very variable parameter anyway, so we will assume the same value.

• The resistance rbe is the slope of the diode characteristic formed by the base-emitter junction,
evaluated again at the operating point. If the diode is assumed to obey the ideal diode equation,
its value is approximately2

β
rbe ≈
40Ic

Figure 2 (c) shows the small-signal circuit of the complete amplifier. This looks nothing like the
original circuit, and is derived with these assumptions:

• Both coupling capacitors have negligible impedance at the operating frequency, and can be
replaced by short-circuits.

• Since we are considering only small-signal, ac excitation, and no ac voltage can exist on a perfect
dc power supply, the power supply acts like a short-circuit at signal frequencies, and its positive
and negative terminals can both be connected to ground (the bottom node).

For convenience, we define two more currents, Iin and Iout , as shown. Then:

v2 = i0 RL (1)
v1 − v2
io = − βib (2)
Rb
v1
ib = (3)
rbe
1 β
−
Rb rbe
eliminating i0 and Ib , Av = (4)
1 1
+
RL Rb
1
hf e is so named because it is one of the parameters of the four-element h-parameter equivalent circuit, much used
in the early days. The two-element circuit used here is an approximate form of this.
2
This expression for rbe is proved in my text, “Transistor Electronics”, and other places. See also the appendix to
this document.

2
 µ ¶
1 β
= − Rp (5)
Rb rbe
where Rp = RL k Rb (6)
βRp rbe
so Av ≈ − since Rb >> (7)
rbe β
and Rb À RL (8)
βRL
so simplifying further, Av ≈ − (9)
rbe
β
but rbe ≈ (10)
40Ic
µ ¶
40Ic
so Av ≈ −βRL ≈ −40VL (11)
β
where VL = Ic RL = the dc voltage across the load resistor. (12)
whence Av = −120 (13)

The approximate expression for the voltage gain given by equation (11) is the same as that of a
“standard” bi-polar amplifier. In fact, the approximation is quite good, overestimating the gain by a
few percent.
To find the input impedance, consider the input current, iin .

v1 v1 − v2
iin = + (14)
rbe Rb
µ ¶
iin 1 v2 1
= yin = + 1− (15)
v1 rbe v1 Rb
v2 βRL
assume ≈ − (16)
v1 rbe
1 1 βRL
then yin ≈ + + (17)
rbe Rb rbe Rb
1 2
yin ≈ + (18)
Rb rbe

But this is the admittance of two resistors in parallel, or

1 rbe rbe
rin ≈ ≈ Rb k ≈ (19)
yin 2 2
β
rin ≈ ≈ 916 Ω (20)
80Ic
Summarizing, we estimate:

Ic = 3 mA (21)
Ib = 13.6 µA (22)
Vc = 3.7 V (23)
Av = −120 (24)
rin = 916 Ω (25)

We see that

• the voltage gain is very slightly less than a “standard” amplifier,

• the input admittance is about half that of a “standard” amplifier,

3
 • For typical component values, it is found that the fractional increase in collector current, Ic , is
about half that of the fractional increase in β. Thus this circuit is best used to amplify very
small signals, where operating point variations caused by β variation will not cause non-linearity.

An alternative viewpoint is to assume that the value of Rb , the feedback resistor, is so large that we
can ignore its effect on the gain, which becomes that of a standard common-emitter amplifier without
feedback - as justified above. But its effect must be considered in the input impedance, particularly if
the gain is high.
We can include it using Miller’s Theorem. This theorem says that

• if an amplifier has voltage gain Av , with an impedance zb connected between the input and
output terminals,

• this is equivalent to removing zb ,

• and connecting an impedance of zb /Av directly across the input terminals.

If you work through this, you get the same approximate expressions as those for the voltage gain and
input impedance as above.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• You design a circuit like this by assuming some value of β, and then choosing Rb ≈ βRL . This
puts the quiescent dc collector voltage about half-way between the power supply voltage and
ground, giving maximum signal swing. But as stated above, if β is not quite right, it doesn’t
matter too much, because the negative dc feedback through Rb partially compensates. This is
an advantage. Another is that no biasing chain resistors nor associated by-pass capacitors are
necessary.

• However, you can design an amplifier using one of the standard circuits with much better im-
munity to β variation. This is a disadvantage. Another is that the input impedance is lowered
by the negative feedback caused by Rb . This can also be shown using Miller’s theorem.

An LTSpice Simulation

Figure 3 shows (lower panel) an LTSpice model of the circuit and (upper panel) the waveform at the
collector, for an input sinewave voltage of 1 mV peak-to-peak at 1 kHz. I chose a BCW60B transistor
(one supplied in the default LTSpice download) since it has nominal β = 240, close enough to the
design value. This is simulated using a transient analysis, and shows

Av = −106 (estimated as -120 above) (26)

Vc = 3.5 V (estimated as 3.7 V above) (27)

The input impedance can’t be plotted using a transient analysis, since this requires dividing the input
voltage, V1 , by the current through C1 , and both waveforms pass through zero, so the division blows
up. However, plotting both and diving the peak value of V1 by the peak current through C1 , which is
60 nA, we get

rin = 1.09 kΩ (estimated as 916 Ω above). (28)

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A small-signal, AC analysis can plot the input impedance directly, since this uses a linearized model
with transistor parameters chosen at the dc operating point. This shows the same voltage gain, and
rin = 1.11 kΩ.

Figure 3: Top: Waveform at the collector. Bottom: The simulated circuit.

Design Equations

Practical rules for designing an amplifier like this are

• Set the dc voltage at the collector, Vc , halfway between the supply voltage and ground.

• Decide on a suitable collector current, Ic .

Vc
• The value of the load resistor required is then RL = .
2Ic
• Estimate (or find from some spec sheet) β for this transistor.

• The value of the bias resistor required is then Rb = βRL .

• Choose the value of the input coupling capacitor (C1 in the simulation diagram) such that

100Ic
C ≈ (29)
fβ
where f = the lowest operating frequency required. (30)

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Appendix: Transistor Parameters
β
I have used the relationship rbe = :
40Ic
The least technically obscure reference leading to the derivation of this expression starts on page 80
of the excellent practical reference by Horowitz and Hill.3
The collector current, Ic , of a bi-polar transistor is almost exactly related to the voltage applied across
the base-emitter junction, Vbe , by the ideal diode equation. This is

· µ ¶¸
Vbe
Ic = Is exp −1 (31)
VT
where Is = diode leakage current, (32)
Vbe =appplied base-emitter diode voltage, (33)
kT
VT = threshold voltage, = (34)
q
k = Boltmann’s constant, (35)
T = absolute (Kelvin) temperature, (36)
q = charge on electron. (37)
evaluating, VT ≈ 25.3mV at room temperature (38)

For convenience, I round this off to VT = 25 mV . The second term (−1) dominates in the reverse
region, where Vbe is negative, making the exponential term very small. It represents the “saturation”
current, which is just Is . For forward currents in excess of a few tens of microamp, it can be neglected.
Then, to a very good approximation,

· µ ¶¸
Vbe
Ic = Is exp (39)
V
· µ T ¶¸
∂Ic Is Vbe Ic
differentiating, = exp = (40)
∂Vbe VT VT VT
∂Vbe VT
therefore inverting, = (41)
∂Ic Ic

But the input resistance seen between the base and emitter is taken with respect to the base current,
Ib . This is β times less, so this input resistance will be β times higher.

∂VT
thus rbe = (42)
∂Ib
Ic
substituting Ib = (43)
β
VT VT β 25 × 10−3 β
rbe = = = (44)
(Ic /β) Ic Ic
β
or more conveniently, rbe = (45)
40Ic

3
The Art of Electronics, Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill, Cambridge, second edition.