Complete notes of Basics of

quantum
TYBSC
SEM VI
By Mridula Gupta
KC College
UNIT-III
Basics of Quantum
➢Classical Mechanics

➢Mechanics – study of moving objects

➢Dynamic Variables- change with time- position, velocity, momentum,

➢Classical mechanics is also known as Newtonian Mechanics

➢Macroscopic objects- stars, moon, planets

➢Subatomic particles?

➢Quantum Mechanics

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Can quantum mechanics be applied to
macroscopic particles?
➢Limitations of Classical Mechanics
➢Could not provide explanation to three phenomenona
➢ Black Body Radiation
➢ Photoelectric Effect
➢ Compton Effect
➢Could not explain the behaviour of subatomic particles
➢ The classical idea that each frequency of vibration should have the same energy
➢ Plank said- energy comes in clumps
➢ Size of each clump depends upon on the frequency of vibration.

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Black Body Radiation

➢Body that can adsorb total (100% ) energy incident on it.

➢100% emitter of the radiation

➢Radiations emitted by a black body depends only on its temperature

➢Its independent of the nature of the black body

➢When a black body emits radiations, then it emits radiations of all the wavelengths

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 Black body
radiation
➢The intensity of the radiations
emitted by BB increases with
increase in the wavelength.
➢This intensity becomes
maximum (λmax) at a particular
wavelength and then decreases.
➢As the temperature of BB
increases the wavelength (λmax)
of maximum intensity shifts to
lower wavelength.

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Photoelectric Effect
➢In 1887 Heinrich Hertz observed that when light is incident on a metal surface electrons
ejected from it.

➢1902, Philip lenard discovered that the maximum possible energy of an ejected electron
is dependent on the frequency of the light, not on its intensity.

➢Electrons were found t eject only when the frequency of the light is more than minimum
threshold value.

➢Threshold frequency- the lowest frequency of light at which the photoelectric effect was
observed .

➢Threshold frequency is different for different material.

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Photoelectric Effect

➢Acc to the wave theory

➢Th.E. of emitted electron is dependent upon the intensity of the light.
➢Emission is independent of the frequency of the electron.
➢Energy ∞ intensity of the radiations
➢Einstein's Explanation
➢Radiation consists of particles known as photons
➢Energy ∞ frequency of the radiations
➢E=hʋ
➢Each photon can remove only one electron

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Photoelectric Effect
➢Total energy is conserved
1
➢hʋ= ɸ + mv2
2

➢ɸ = threshold energy/ work function/ binding energy

➢Numerical

➢The work function of Cesium metal is 2.14 eV. Calculate the KE and speed of electrons
emitted when the metal is irradiated with light of wavelength (a) 700nm (b) 300nm.
(1eV= 1.6 x 10-19 J)

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Numerical

➢Work function = 2.14 eV ( 1 eV= 1.6 x 10-19 J)

➢ Ф = 2.14 x 1.6 x 10-19 J
➢ = 3.424 x 10-19 J
1
➢hʋ= ɸ + 2mv2
1
➢2mv2 = hʋ- ɸ

➢But most imp is hʋ > ɸ (ʋ= c/λ)

6.624 x 10−34 x 3 x 108
➢hʋ= = 2.84 x 10-19 J
700 x 10−9
➢Actually hʋ < ɸ, so no electron will be ejected hence no KE or velocity of electron can be
calculted

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Compton
Effect- Arthur
H.Compton
➢ Arthur Compton observed
scattering of x rays by
electrons in a carbon target
and found scattered x-rays
with a wavelength longer
than incident.
➢The difference between the
incident and the scattered
wavelength is given by the
formula.

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Salient features of Compton Effect
➢ monochromatic beam of light

➢ The change in wavelength observed is independent of the wavelength of incident

radiations as well as scattered radiations

➢ Incident light transfers a part of its energy to electron, which provides KE and
momentum to electron. This will lead to _________ energy and __________ wavelength
of the scattered radiations.

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Explaination
➢ Classical Theory
➢ Scattered radiation will have same wavelength as incident radiation
➢ Scattered radiation should be symmetrical in terms of distribution of intensity

➢Quantum Theory
➢Scattered radiation will have _______ wavelength as compared to incident radiation
➢Scattered radiation should be _____________ in terms of distribution of intensity

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Quantum Mechanics
➢ Beginning of Quantum Mechanics- Plank’s Theory

➢Max Plank – gave the idea of discontinuous absorption or emission of energy

➢Theory- the energy can be absorbed or emitted in the form of discrete small packets of
energy.

➢Packet – quanta – is proportional to the frequency of the light absorbed

➢E ∞ ʋ

➢E = hʋ where h- Plank’s constant

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Plank’s Theory of Quantisation
➢ E = hʋ where h- Plank’s constant
c
➢ʋ=
λ
hc
➢E =
λ
1
➢ = wave number = 𝜈ҧ
λ
➢E = hc 𝜈ҧ

➢The body can absorb or emit radiation only in an integral multiple of quantum number

➢ E = n hʋ, where n= 0,1,2,3,-------

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Wave Particle Duality of Material Particles
& de Broglie wave equation
➢ Particle nature
➢ Black body radiation
➢Photoelectric effect
➢Compton effect

➢Wave nature
➢Diffraction
➢Interference
➢Polarisation

➢1905- Einstein suggested all EM radiation including light have a dual character (?)

➢1824- Louis de Broglie said matter has dual character

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de Broglie wave equation
➢ According to de Broglie, dual character is not only the characteristic feature of
radiations but also that of microscopic particles of matter.

➢Hence, all the discrete particles in motion (electron, proton, neutron) possess particle as
well as wave characteristics.

➢Consider a particle of mass m having dual characteristics

➢E = hʋ →1

➢According to the theory of relativity

➢E = mc2, →2

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de Broglie wave equation
➢ Compare eq 1 with eq 2

➢hʋ = mc2
c
➢ʋ=
λ
hc
➢ = mc2
λ
h h
➢λ = =
mc p
➢Where p = mc

h
➢For a particle p = mv, therefore λ =
mv
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Experimental verification of de Broglie
equation
➢ Davisson and Germer
➢Consider an electron e accelerated by a potential V.
➢The KE of the electron is given as KE= eV
1
➢If u is the velocity of electron then KE =2 mu2
1
➢eV = 2 mu2

➢U = (2Ve/m)1/2
h
➢λ =
mu
ℎ
➢λ= 2𝑉𝑒𝑚

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Experimental verification of de Broglie
equation
ℎ
➢λ= 2𝑉𝑒𝑚

➢h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js
➢ e= 1.6 x 10-19 C and m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg
12.26 x 10−10
➢λ = V

➢Where V is potential in Volts

➢Calculate the wavelength range for potential variation of 10 V to 10,000V
➢3.877 Ao to 0.1266 Ao
➢This matches with wavelength of X rays
➢The way crystalline solids diffract X rays it can also diffract electrons

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Numerical
➢ Consider a particle of mass 1kg moving with a velocity of 1 m/s. calculate the wavength
of the particle?

➢The mass of an electron is 9.1 x10-31 kg and it travels with a speed of 1 x 106 m/s.
calculate the wavelength associated with an electron?

➢Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated through a
potential difference of 300V.

➢An electron has KE 2.8 x 10-25 J. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the electron?

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Hesinberg’s Uncertainty Principle

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Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
➢Statement- The principle states that two dynamic variables of the system that are
related to each other as conjugate variables cannot be determined simultaneously with
the same degree of accuracy
ℎ
➢ ∆x . ∆p ≥
4𝛱

➢A microscope using suitable photons is employed to locate an electron in an atom

within a distance of 0.1 Ao. What is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its
velocity?
➢A cricket ball weighing 100g is to be located within 0.1 Ao. What is the uncertainty in its
velocity?

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Numerical
➢An electron in the hydrogen atom is moving with a velocity 2 x 106 ms-1. if the
uncertainty in the momentum is 1%, calculate the uncertainty in the position of the
electron (me = 9.1 x 10-31 kg).

➢A man weighing 50 kg moves with the velocity of 1ms-1. Calculate the uncertainty in its
position if the uncertainty in the momentum is 1%)

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Waves
➢Wave motion – periodic motion

➢Involves periodic variation in a physical quantity both

with respect to position and time

➢This physical quantity is known as amplitude

➢Two types

➢Progressive waves

➢Standing waves

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Definitions
➢Progressive waves- a wave which generates from a source and propagates in a
specific direction.
➢Its amplitude depends upon both time and position.
𝑥
➢Equation - 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑎 sin 2𝛱 𝜆
− ʋ𝑡
➢Example: Waves in the ocean

➢Standing/ stationary wave- wave that does not propagate and is confined to a given
region in space.
➢Its amplitude is a function of position and independent of time.
➢Example: electrons in an atom

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Standing wave
➢Consider a wave propagating along x-axis as shown below

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Standing wave conti….

➢All wave functions are described quantitively in terms of second differential equation
𝜕𝜓2 1 𝜕2 𝜓
➢ 2 =
𝜕𝑥 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2

➢The above equation has several solutions

𝑥
➢𝜓 = 𝐴 sin 2𝛱 − 𝜈𝑡, where A is amplitude
𝜆
𝑥
➢𝛹1 − wave function for the wave travelling in forward direction= 𝐴 sin 2𝛱 − 𝜈𝑡
𝜆
𝑥
➢𝛹2 − wave function for the wave travelling in backward direction= 𝐴 sin 2𝛱 + 𝜈𝑡
𝜆

➢Then resulting wave function is

➢𝜓 = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2

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Standing wave conti….
𝑥 𝑥
➢𝜓 = 𝐴 sin 2𝛱( − 𝜈𝑡) + 𝐴 sin 2𝛱( + 𝜈𝑡)
𝜆 𝜆

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
➢Using trigonometric formula: sin 𝐶 + sin 𝐷 = 2 sin cos
2 2
𝑥
➢𝜓 = 𝐴 sin 2𝛱 𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠2 𝛱𝜈𝑡
𝜆

➢Thus psi 𝜓 represents the amplitude function of a standing or stationary wave as its
value depends only on position and independent of time
𝑥
➢𝜓 = 𝐴 sin 2𝛱
𝜆

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Boundary condition of a Standing wave.
➢ A stationary wave is function of position and independent of time.

➢An electron shows wave like properties, which do not show any variation with time, the
electron waves are therefore stationary waves.

➢For a stationary wave, the following second order differential equation is observed.

ⅆ2 𝜓 𝑥 +𝑘 2 𝜓 𝑥
➢ 2 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑐2

➢The corresponding solution of the equation is given by

2𝛱𝑥 2𝛱𝑥
➢𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin + 𝐵 cos
𝜆 𝜆

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 Boundary condition of a Standing wave.
➢Consider a stationary wave generated on a stretched string of length L clamped at x = 0 and x = L.
➢At these points string is not allowed to vibrate so amplitude at these positions will be zero.
➢𝜓 𝑥 = 0 at x = 0
➢𝜓 𝑥 = 0 at x = L

➢These are the boundary conditions which can help to find the values of A and B from equation.
➢Condition I: x = 0 when 𝜓 𝑥 = 0, so applying this to equation
2𝛱𝑥 2𝛱𝑥
➢𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin + 𝐵 cos →1
𝜆 𝜆
2𝛱0 2𝛱0
➢ 0 = 𝐴 sin + 𝐵 cos
𝜆 𝜆

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Boundary condition of a Standing wave.
➢0 = 𝐴 sin 0 + 𝐵 cos 0
➢As sin 0 = 0 and cos 0 = 1
➢Therefore B = 0, substitute this in equation 1
2𝛱𝑥
➢𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin →2
𝜆

➢Condition II : x = L when 𝜓 𝑥 = 0, so applying this to equation 2

2𝛱𝑥 2𝛱𝐿
➢0 = 𝐴 sin = 𝐴 sin
𝜆 𝜆

➢Here onwards two possibilities arise

➢Either A = 0 or
2𝛱𝐿
➢ sin =0
𝜆

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Boundary condition of a Standing wave.
➢ A= 0 is not possible as it will provide 𝜓 𝑥 = 0 for all values of x
2𝛱𝐿
➢Therefore, sin =0
𝜆

2𝛱𝐿
➢ = sin−1 0 = n𝛱, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ………
𝜆

2𝐿 2𝛱𝑥
➢𝜆 = , substituting this in equation 2 (𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin → 2)
𝑛 𝜆

2𝛱𝑥 𝑛𝛱𝑥
➢𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 2𝐿 = A sin
𝜆
𝑛

➢For n no. of nodes will be (n+1)

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Significance of wave equation
➢A wave function is a mathematical function.

➢It contains all the information about the location and motion of the particles.

➢If a wave function is large at a point then – high probability of particle to be present at
that point .

➢If wave function is zero – then zero probability.

➢More rapid the change in wave function – higher KE

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The time independent Schrodinger wave
function
➢Erwin Schrodinger combined classical wave time independent wave equation and de
Broglie equation .
➢The wave function for a particle moving in one direction(dimension) at a any time t is
𝑥
given as: 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin 2𝛱( − 𝜈𝑡).
𝜆
➢Where A is the max displacement or amplitude
➢𝜓 is the wave function representing displacement of the particle at time t and at a
distance x from the origin of the wave.

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Schrodinger wave equation(derivation not in
syllabus)
➢The equation for the stationary sine wave is expressed as
2𝛱𝑥
➢𝜓 = 𝐴 sin( ) → 1
𝜆
➢Differentiating equation 1 twice
ⅆ2 𝜓 ⅆ2 𝐴 sin(
2𝛱𝑥
) ⅆ ⅆ
➢ 2 = 2
𝜆
sin 2𝜃 = 2 cos 2𝜃, cos 2𝜃 = −2 sin 2𝜃,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⅆ𝜃 ⅆ𝜃
2
ⅆ 𝜓 2𝛱 2 2𝛱𝑥 4𝛱 2 2𝛱𝑥
➢ 𝑑2 =− 𝐴 sin = − 𝜆2 𝐴 sin →2
𝑥 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
➢Substituting from equation 1 in equation 2
ⅆ2 𝜓 4𝛱 2
➢ 𝑑2 = − 𝜆2 𝜓 →3
𝑥
ℎ2 ℎ 1
➢KE of the particle is given as 𝑇𝑥 = →4 (𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 & 𝑇𝑥 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 )
2𝑚𝜆2
➢Compare eqs 3 & 4
ℎ 2 1 ⅆ2 𝜓
➢𝑇𝑥 = − 8𝛱 2 𝑚 𝜓 ⅆ𝑥 2 →5
➢If a particle is moving in space where the potential energy 𝑉𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

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Schrodinger wave equation
➢ Total Energy = KE + PE
➢E = 𝑇𝑥 + 𝑉𝑥
➢ 𝑇𝑥 = 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑥
➢Substituting in equation 5
ℎ2 1 ⅆ2 𝜓
➢[𝐸 − 𝑉𝑥 ] = − 2
8𝛱 𝑚 𝜓 ⅆ𝑥 2
ⅆ2 𝜓 8𝛱 2 𝑚
➢Rearranging 2 + 2 [𝐸 − 𝑉𝑥 ]𝜓 = 0
ⅆ𝑥 ℎ
2
ⅆ 𝜓 2
ⅆ 𝜓 2
ⅆ 𝜓 8𝛱 2 𝑚
➢ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 [𝐸 − 𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) ]𝜓 =0
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑦 ⅆ𝑧 ℎ
2 2 2
𝜕 𝜓 +𝜕 𝜓 +𝜕 𝜓 2
8𝛱 𝑚
➢ 2 + [𝐸 − 𝑉(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) ]𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕22 ℎ2

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Properties of wave function
➢𝜓- must be single valued for all values of the coordinates
of the system.
➢It means that psi will have possibly only one value at one point
(x, y , z) in space because there is one and only one probability
➢This means probability density ‫ ∗ 𝜓𝜓 ׬‬d𝜏 would always be
unique for a given point.
➢𝛹. 𝛹 ∗ . d𝜏 𝑜𝑟 𝜓 2 d𝜏 must be finite when the integration is
carried out over the whole space.
➢𝜓 and its first and second partial derivatives must be
continuous in the whole space of co-ordinates extending up
to infinity.
➢There should not be sudden change in 𝜓 when ever any
variable changes.
➢Means there should be no sharp or sudden jumps in its value
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 Postulates of quantum mechanics
➢In every system, a function is defined as a function of all the variables of the system. Such function is
called the state function(𝜓).
➢If x1, x2, x3 …….xn are th dynamic variables for different particles of the system then state functions depends
upon these variables 𝜓(x1, x2, x3….xn)
➢Einstein proposed that the probability of finding the system in a given space is proportional to 𝜓2 𝑖𝑓𝜓 is real and 𝜓
𝜓* if 𝜓 is complex. This leads to the condition of normalisation-
➢‫ 𝜓 ׬‬2 d𝜏 = 1 𝑜𝑟 ‫ ∗∗𝜓 𝜓 ׬‬d𝜏= 1

➢Operator concept- unique to quantum mechanics

➢An operator is a mathematical procedure that can be stated in words or phrase, or can be described in the form of
an appropriate mathematical symbol.
➢Operator being a symbol when written alone has no meaning.
➢The mathematical procedure that is described by the operator has to be performed on a function

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Postulates of quantum mechanics
➢When an operator is performed on a function, then the function gets converted to
another function.

➢It is denoted by a cap ^ on the top.

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Concept of an Operator
➢An operator is a symbol or mathematical procedure

➢Operator (Function) = another function

➢ it is denoted by a ^

➢Algebra of operators

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Algebra of operators
Addition
➢Let 𝐴መ & 𝐵෠ = 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

➢(fx) = function

➢(𝐴መ + 𝐵) መ 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑓
෠ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝐴𝑓 ෠ 𝑥

➢(𝐴መ − 𝐵) መ 𝑥 - 𝐵𝑓
෠ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝐴𝑓 ෠ 𝑥

ⅆ
➢𝐴መ = x & 𝐵෠ =
ⅆ𝑥

➢𝑓𝑥 = 𝑥 2
ⅆ ⅆ
➢(x+ ) 𝑥 2 = x (𝑥 2 ) + (𝑥 2 )
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥

➢ 𝑥 3 +2 𝑥
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 Multiplication of Two operators
መ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝐵(
➢(𝐵෠ x 𝐴) ෠ 𝐴𝑓መ 𝑥)
➢(𝐴መ x 𝐵) መ 𝐵𝑓
෠ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝐴( ෠ 𝑥)
➢ ෠ 𝑥 )= 𝑔𝑥
= 𝐵(ℎ
➢ መ 𝑥 )= 𝑔𝑥
= 𝐴(ℎ ⅆ
መ ෠
➢𝐴 =[ ] & 𝐵 =
2
ⅆ ⅆ𝑥
➢𝐴መ =[ ]2 & 𝐵෠ = ➢𝑓𝑥 = a𝑥 3
ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ ⅆ
➢𝑓𝑥 = a𝑥 3 ➢ ( [ ]2 )a𝑥 3 = {[ ]2a𝑥 3 }
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ
➢ ([ ]2
ⅆ
)a𝑥 3 =[ ]2 {
ⅆ
a𝑥 3 } ➢ = [{a𝑥 3 }]2
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ
➢= (𝑎3𝑥 2 )= [ (𝑎3𝑥 2 ) ]2 ➢ = (𝑎2𝑥 6 )
ⅆ𝑥
➢ 2 5
= 6a 𝑥
➢ a29𝑥 4 = 9a2𝑥 4

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Square of an operator
➢(𝐴መ x 𝐵)
෠ 𝑓𝑥
➢(𝐴መ . 𝐴)
መ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝐴መ 2 𝑓𝑥
ⅆ
ⅆ ➢𝐴መ = & 𝐵෠ = ‫ ׬‬ⅆ𝑥
➢ 𝐴መ = 𝑓𝑥 = sinx ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ𝑥
➢𝑓𝑥 = 𝑥 3
𝑑2
➢= 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 ⅆ
➢ ={ . ‫ ׬‬ⅆ𝑥} 𝑥 3
ⅆ ⅆ𝑥
➢= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ
➢= ( ) ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬3 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ𝑥
➢= −(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)
ⅆ 𝑥4
➢ =
ⅆ𝑥 4

𝑥3
➢4 +c
4

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 43

Commutative and non commutative
➢The two operators are said to commute with each other when irrespective of the order
of the operation the final result obtained remains the same.

➢(𝐴መ x 𝐵) መ 𝑓𝑥 (𝐴መ & 𝐵෠ are said to be commutative)

෠ 𝑓𝑥 = (𝐵෠ x 𝐴)

➢(𝐴መ x 𝐵) መ 𝑓𝑥 (𝐴መ & 𝐵෠ are said to be non-commutative)

෠ 𝑓𝑥 ≠ (𝐵෠ x 𝐴)

➢Example
ⅆ
➢ = 𝐴መ = ෠ ln , 𝑓𝑥 = sinx
𝐵=
ⅆ𝑥

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 44

 ⅆ
𝐴መ = ෠ ln , 𝑓𝑥 = sinx
𝐵=
ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ
ⅆ ➢(𝐵෠ x 𝐴መ ) 𝑓𝑥 = ln( sinx)
➢(𝐴መ x 𝐵)
෠ 𝑓𝑥 = (ln sinx) ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ
ⅆ ➢= ln sin 𝑥
➢ (ln sinx) ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ𝑥

1 ⅆ
➢ ln cos 𝑥
➢= sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
cos 𝑥
➢
sin 𝑥

➢Cot x

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 45

 ⅆ ⅆ2
𝐴መ = ෠
𝐵= , 𝑓𝑥 = sinx
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 2
ⅆ2 ⅆ
ⅆ ⅆ2 ➢(𝐵෠ x 𝐴መ ) 𝑓𝑥 = { (sinx)}
➢(𝐴መ x 𝐵)
෠ 𝑓𝑥 = ( sinx) ⅆ𝑥 2 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 2
ⅆ2
➢
ⅆ ⅆ ⅆ
{ ( sinx)} ➢= 2 (cos 𝑥)
ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ ⅆ
ⅆ ⅆ
➢= { cos 𝑥} ➢ { cos 𝑥}
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ
ⅆ
➢ {− sin 𝑥} ➢ {− sin 𝑥}
ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ𝑥

➢- cos 𝑥 ➢- cos 𝑥

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 46

Linear operator
➢An Operator is a linear operator if it fulfils the following two conditions
➢𝐴መ [𝑓𝑥 + 𝑔𝑥 ] = 𝐴መ (𝑓𝑥 ) + 𝐴(𝑔
መ 𝑥)

➢ 𝐴መ c. 𝑓𝑥 = c 𝐴መ 𝑓𝑥 where c is a constant
ⅆ
➢1. is a linear operator or not
ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ ⅆ ⅆ
➢ [(𝑓𝑥 ) + (𝑔𝑥 )] = (𝑓𝑥 ) + (𝑔𝑥 )
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥

➢2. is a linear operator or not?

➢ 𝑓𝑥 + 𝑔𝑥 ≠ 𝑓𝑥 + 𝑔𝑥

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 47

Which of the following operator is linear?
➢‫ ׬‬ⅆ𝑥 or [ ]2 or sin (2x +3x2)

➢∇2 is known as Laplacian operator- verify is it linear or not?

2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
➢∇ = + +
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

2 𝜕2 𝑢+𝑣 𝜕2 𝑢+𝑣 𝜕2 𝑢+𝑣

➢∇ 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝜕𝑥2
+ 𝜕𝑦 2
+ 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑣
➢ = + + + + + 𝜕𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣 𝜕2 𝑣
➢ = + + + + +
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

➢∇2 𝑢 + 𝑣 = ∇2 𝑢) + ∇2 (𝑣

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 48

Hamiltonian Operator
➢Hamiltonian is the most important operator in quantum mechanics. It stands for the total
energy possessed by the system.
➢The total energy of the system is sum of KE and PE.
➢In classical mechanics, the total energy is given by the expression:
1
➢ 𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑦2 + 𝑝𝑧2 + 𝑉 = 𝐸 →1
2𝑚
𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 8𝛱 2 𝑚
➢The Time independent Schrodinger equation : 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 [𝐸 − 𝑉]𝜓 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕2 ℎ
−ℎ 2 𝜕 2 𝜕 2 𝜕 2
➢On rearranging the above equation: 2 ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) + 𝑉= 𝐸 →2
8𝛱 𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕2
1 −ℎ 2 𝜕 2 𝜕 2 𝜕 2
➢ 𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑦2 + 𝑝𝑧2 = 2 ( 2 + + )
2𝑚 8𝛱 𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕22
2 2 2 −ℎ2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
➢ 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑝𝑦 + 𝑝𝑧 = 2 ( 2 + + 2)
4𝛱 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕2
2
−ℎ 𝜕 2 2
−ℎ 𝜕 2 −ℎ 𝜕2
2
2 2
➢𝑝𝑥 = 2 2 , 𝑝𝑦 = 2 2 , 𝑝𝑧 = 2 2 ,2
4𝛱 𝜕𝑥 4𝛱 𝜕𝑦 4𝛱 𝜕𝑧

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 49

Hamiltonian Operator
−ℎ2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
➢ 𝑝𝑥2 + 𝑝𝑦2 + 𝑝𝑧2 = ( 2 + + )
4𝛱 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕22
−ℎ2 𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
−ℎ2 ➢ {8𝛱 2𝑚 (𝜕2 + + )+ 𝑉} 𝜓 = 𝐸 𝜓
2 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕22
➢ 𝑝 = ∇ 𝑥
4𝛱 2

෡ = 𝑘𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
➢𝐻
෡𝜓=𝐸𝜓
➢𝐻
1
෡ = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑉
➢𝐻 ➢ Compact form of Schrodinger equation
2

𝑃2
෡=
➢𝐻 +𝑉
2𝑚

−ℎ2
෡=
➢𝐻 ∇2 + 𝑉
8𝛱 2 𝑚

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 50

Eigen Function, Eigen Value & Eigen Value
Equation
➢If an operator 𝐴መ operates on a well behaved function y to give the same function
multiplied by a constant, then the constant is called eigen value of the operator and the
function f is called eigen function. The equation is called eigenvalue equation
➢𝐴መ 𝜓 = 𝑎 𝜓
➢𝜓- eigen function of operator 𝐴መ
➢ a = eigen value
ⅆ ⅆ2
➢Show that sin 2x is not eigen function of but it is an eigen function of the operator .
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 2
Find the eigen value

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 51

 ⅆ
➢For operator , is function 𝑓𝑥 = e−𝑎𝑥 is an eigen function? If yes then what is the eigen
ⅆ𝑥
value.
ⅆ2
➢ for operator , which of the following functions are eigen function and if yes then
ⅆ𝑥 2
what is their eigen value.
➢ Sin 3x
➢6 cos4x
1
➢
𝑥
➢5𝑥 3
➢3e−5𝑥
➢ln 2𝑥

BY MRIDULA GUPTA 5/7/2021 52