UNIT-V

Introduc on to R Programming:
Defini on: R is an open-source programming language and so ware environment primarily used for
sta s cal compu ng and graphics. It is widely used in data analysis, machine learning, and data
visualiza on due to its powerful libraries and community support.

Introduc on: R was developed as a sta s cal compu ng tool and has become one of the most
popular languages for data science. It provides extensive support for mathema cal modeling,
sta s cal tes ng, and data manipula on. R is par cularly useful for big data analy cs, offering
various packages that simplify data analysis tasks. It is commonly used in academia, finance,
healthcare, and research ins tu ons.

Operators in R: Operators in R are used to perform various mathema cal and logical computa ons.
These include:

 Arithme c Operators: Addi on (+), Subtrac on (-), Mul plica on (*), Division (/),
Exponen a on (^), and Modulus (%%).

 Rela onal Operators: Greater than (>), Less than (<), Equal to (==), Not equal to (!=), Greater
than or equal to (>=), and Less than or equal to (<=).

 Logical Operators: AND (&), OR (|), NOT (!).

 Assignment Operators: Used to assign values to variables, such as (<-), (=), and (<<-).

 Special Operators: These include the sequence operator (:), membership operator (%in%),
and matrix mul plica on operator (%*%).

Control Statements and Func ons in R:

Introduc on: Control statements help in decision-making and looping constructs, ensuring efficient
execu on of repe ve tasks. Func ons enable be er code organiza on, improving readability and
reusability.

Types of Control Statements:

 Looping Constructs: For loops, while loops, and repeat loops help execute statements
itera vely.

 Break and Next: The break statement exits a loop prematurely, while the next statement
skips the current itera on.
Func ons:

 Built-in Func ons: Func ons like mean(), sum(), sqrt(), and log() are pre-defined.

 User-defined Func ons: Func ons created by users using the func on keyword.

Interfacing with R: Interfacing with R allows integra on with other programming languages and
databases, making it highly versa le. R supports:

 Interfacing with Python: Using the re culate package, R can call Python func ons within an
R script.

 Interfacing with C/C++: R integrates with compiled languages for improved performance.

 Database Connec vity: R connects with databases like MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB
using packages such as RMySQL and DBI.

Vectors in R: A vector is a basic data structure in R that holds elements of the same type. It can be
created using the c() func on, such as c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5). R provides vectorized opera ons for efficient
computa on.

Matrices in R: A matrix is a two-dimensional data structure that contains elements of the same
type. Matrices are created using the matrix() func on. Opera ons like matrix addi on, mul plica on,
and transpose can be performed easily.

Lists in R: Lists are flexible data structures that can store elements of different types, including
vectors, matrices, and data frames. Lists are created using the list() func on.

Data Frames in R: A data frame is a table-like structure where each column represents a different
variable. Data frames are created using the data.frame() func on. They are widely used in data
manipula on and analysis.

Factors and Tables in R: Factors are categorical variables used for classifica on. They are created
using the factor() func on. Tables in R summarize categorical data and are created using the table()
func on.

Accessing Input and Output in R: R provides several func ons to read and write data. These
include:

 Reading Data: Func ons such as read.csv(), read.table(), and scan().

 Wri ng Data: Func ons like write.csv(), write.table(), and cat() are used for expor ng data.
Graphs in R: R provides powerful visualiza on tools for data analysis. Some commonly used graph
types include:

 Bar Charts: Created using the barplot() func on.

 Histograms: Generated with the hist() func on.

 Sca er Plots: Plo ed using plot().

 Box Plots: Created using boxplot().

 Line Graphs: Drawn using lines().

R Apply Family: The apply family of func ons in R is used to apply opera ons over data structures
efficiently. These func ons include:

 apply(): Applies a func on over rows or columns of a matrix or data frame.

 lapply(): Applies a func on over a list and returns a list.

 sapply(): Similar to lapply(), but returns a simplified vector or matrix.

 tapply(): Applies a func on over subsets of a vector.

 mapply(): A mul variate version of apply(), which applies func ons to mul ple arguments
simultaneously.