CHAPTER

Transformer
5.0INTRODUCTION
Transformers are commonly used in applications which require the conversion of ACvoltage
from one voltage level to another. There are two broad categories of transformers : electronic
onsformers, which operate at very low power leves, and power transformers, which process
thousandssof watts of power. Electronic transformers are used in consumer electronic
equipment
1ho television sets, VCKs, CDplayers, personal computers, and may other devices, to reduce
lovel of voltage from 220V (available from the AC mains) to the desired level at which the
device operates. Power transtormers are used in power generation, transmission and distribution
sstems to raise or lower the levelof voltage to the desired levels. The basic principle of operation
of both types of transformers is the same.
One of the main reasons of adopting a.c. system instead of d.c system for generation,
transmission and distribution of electric power is that alternating voltage can be increased or
decreased conveniently by means of a transformer. In fact, for economical reasons, electric
power is required to be transmitted at high voltage whereas it has to be utilised at low voltage
from safety point of view. This increase in voltage for transmission and decrease in voltage for
utilisation can only be achieved by usinga transformer. In this chapter, we shall discuss the
general features and principle of operation of a transformer.
5.1 TRANSFORMER
Atransformer is an electrical apparatus designed to convert alternating current from one
voltage to another. It can be designed to "step up" or "step down" voltages and works on the
magnetic induction principle. Atransformer has no moving parts and is a completely static
slid state device, which insures, under normal operating conditions, a long and trouble-free
ule. lt consists, in its simplest form,of two or more coils of insulated wire wound on a laminated
e core. When voltage is introduced to one-coil, called the primary, it magnetizes the iron
Oe.A voltage is then induced in the other coil, called the secondary or output coil. The change
of voltage (or voltage ratio) between the primary and secondary depends onthe turns ratio of
the two coils.
A ransformer is a static device which transfers a.c. electrical power from one circuit to
the other at the same frequency but the voltage level is changed usually as shown in Fig.
5.1(a), When the voltage is raised on the output side(V, >V), the transformer is called astep-
up transformer, Whereas, the transformer in which the voltage is lowered on the output side
,<V) is called astep-down transformer.
Necessity
In our usually electrical power is generated
at 11 kV. For economical reasons, a.c.
country, at
power is transmitted veryhigh voltages(220 kV or 400 kV) over
long distances, therefore, a
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTRICAL
5.2
generating station. Then to feed
different
transformer
transformer is applied (for economicalreasons)bystepped down at various su
at the ENGINE R
areas,votaN TR

STep
1S
up
stepped down to different
Ultimatelyfor utilisation
levels
ofelectrical power,the voltage is to 400/230 gubeta el
fl
reasons. Conservator
tank

Tank cOver Breather

Main tank
High voltage
Bushes

TRANSFORMER Va Output
Input V.

V,> V,(Step up)

V,<V, (Step down)
Dráin off
cock
Coitubesng
(6)
(a)
Fig. 5.1.
The pictorial iew ot:
Thus, transformer plays an important role in the power system.are labelled on it.
power transformer is shown in Fig. 5.1 (6). The important accessories
5.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER
The basic principleof transformer is electromagneticinduction.
A
simple form of a transformer is shown in Fig. 5.2. It essentially consists of two separat
windings placed over the laminated silicon steel core. The winding to which a.c. supply s
connected is called primary windings and the windings towhich load is connected is caled:
secondary winding.

v, E,

Fig. 5.2
Fig. 5.3. st
When a.c. supply of voltage V, is fluxis
connected
up in the core. This alternating flux when to the
links with alternating
secondary windings,
primary winding, an ane.m.f..isindue
in it called mutually
voltage V,, accordinginducede.m.f. The direction of thisinduced
to Lenz's low as shown e.m.f. is
opposite tothe:
The same Fig. 5.3. selfinduced
alternating flux also links with the primary
e.m.f. E,.This induced accordie

to Lenz's law. e.m.f. E, also acts in opposite windings and produces

IvoltageV,
direction
to the applied
 TRANSFOAMER

EERING Although, there is no

transferedelectrical
is
power connectioncircuitbetween
from primary to theprimary and secondary winding, but
5.3

ltataigesons. plectrical

Theinduced
ux. e.m.fin the
primary secondary circuit through mutual
safety linkages(i.e.,
N do ). The
rate of
and secondary winding depends upon the rate of change
Cfux dt
change of flux (dodt is the same for both primary and
ther Therefore. the
induced e.m.f. in primary is
secondary oc
primary winding(E, N,) andin secondary is proportional to number of turns of the
winding(E,«
N,). proportional to number of turns of the
secondary
.:In case, N, > N, the
N, <N1, the transformer is step-up transformer and
is
when
transformer step-down
Turn ratio :
The ratio of primary to secondary turns transformer.
is called turn ratio, i.e., turn
NË
ratio=
N
ing
Transformationratio : The ratio of secondary
voltageto
transformation ratio of the transformer. It is represented by K.primary
voltage is called voltage

K=
E1
N2N, (since E, c N, and E, c N)
of a
5.3 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
The main elements of L-Shape strips
transformer are two coils and a
laminated steel core. The two coils are
arate
insulated from each other as well as
ly is from the steel core. The core of the
led a
transformer is constructed from
laminations of sheet steel or silicon steel
assembled to provide a continuous
Fig. 5.5.
Magnetic path. At usual flux densities Fig,5.4.
the silicon steel material has low
iysteresis losses. The core is laminated Laminated
minimise the eddy current loss. The L.V.
Core Core

stlahmier nbyatyaionslight coating

are insulated from each winding
P F

an
of varnish or by
oxide layer. The thickness of
S set
uced
lamimmnatiforons varies from 0.35 mmn to
a trequency of 50 Hz.
olied
And e According
and manner inarewhich
to the core cconstruction
the primary H.V.
uced secondary placed around it,
yge tratransformers
winding (6)

ding
nsformers (ii) shell-type
are named as (i) core- (a) Fig. 5.6

transformers.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTRICAL
ENGINE AN
TRANSFC
5.4
In
In a simpletransformer
Core-type core type transformer the magnetic core is built up of laminations to iorm a
as
are cut in the form of Lrshape strips shownin i.e.,
laminations laminations are butted
rectangular frame. The reluctance at the joints where against
continuous joints as each
In order to avoid high stacked differently to eliminate
layers are
shown in or

the alternate S
and Fig. In actual
5.5. transformer construction, the primary and secondary windings are interleaveA
placed side by side Or and
either
to limb
reduce theorleakage
leg of the coreHalf
flux. of each
as shown
windings is

separate limbs of the core.

concentrically
in Fig. 5.6. However, for simplicity, the two windingson
While(see 5.2) located on
Fig. these windings, an insulation layer (bakelite former) is provided between
placing
are shown
core and lower winding and between the two windings. To reduce the insulation, low voltage
nsodage turns.
core as shown in Fig. 5.6 (a). The windings
the
winding is always placed nearer shape) and the laminations are inserted later 0n
wound (usually cylindrical in trans
I-Shape strip
Shell-type transformer E-Shape strip
In case of shell-type transformer,
individual laminations are cut in the
shown
form oflong strips of E's and I's as
in Fig. 5.7. In order to avoid high
reluctan ce at the joints where the
laminations are butted against each
other, the alternate layers are stacked
differertly to eliminate contiauous
Fig. 5.7.
joints.
In a shell-type transformer, the core has three limbs. The central limb carries whole of the
flux, whereas the side limbs carry half of the flux. Therefore., the width of the central imb is
about double to that of the outer limbs.
Both the primary and secondary
hig!
windings are placed on the central limb
side by side or concentrically (see Primary
Fig. 5.8). The low voltage winding is
placed nearer the core and the high
voltage winding is placed outside the low
voltage winding to reduce the cost of
insulation placed between core and low
voltage winding. In this case also the
windings are form-wound is cylindrical Secondary Bakelite Core LV. winding
H.V. winding
shape and the core laminations are former
inserted later on.
Fig. 5.8.
5.4 AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER
fus
An ideal transformer is one
ie.. all the flux produced in the corewhich
linkshas
with noprimary
ohmic resistance Hence,leakage
and on magnetic
as well as secondary. transtormer
purel'
has no copper losses and core
lOsses. It means an ideal of two realize in
inductive coils wound on a loss free core. transformer consists to
in actual practice, it is impossible andthet
such atransformer, yet for Although
convenience, it is better to start with an ideal transformer
extend it to an actual transformer.
 AANSFOAME

ideal transformer there 5.5

NG 18 no power loss, thereforo, output
Inan
E, I,cos = B,1, cos must be equal to input.
E, I, = E, 1, or
.4. E
Cr, E, «N,i E, N,
.4. Since
E, = Vj; E, V,
ed
n V, N2
V, N, mK (transformation ratio)
and
n
|lence, primary secondary currente are inversely proportional to their respective
e (urns.
Theratio of.secondary turns to primary turns is called transformation ratio of the
nansformer and is represented by K.

Flux generation

V
N, N,

Fig, 5.9 Ideal transformer.

common core, made of
An ideal transformer consists of two conducting coils wound on a
h,gh grade iron.
they are connected to each other
There is no electrical connection between the coils,
through magnetic flux.
The coil on input side iscalled the primarywinding (coil) and that on the output side
"
the secondary.

e= Voltage
= Magnetic flux
|= Coil current

primary winding.
X Voltage, current and flux in the
Fig. 5.10.
r
mutual magnetic coupling, and
ly winding due to the
This links with the secondary(Faraday'sLaw).
nduces avolluxtagein secondary winding
andsecondary
winding,the RMSsecondary
ofturnsin the primary
VOlkageDependin g on the ratio
can be greater or less than the RMS primaryvoltage.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
5.6 ELECTRICAL TRANS

For analyzing an idealtransformer, we make the following

" The resistances of the windings can be neglected.
assumptions:

and there is no I
ENGINE AINA,
" Allthe magnetic flux is linked by all the turns of the coil
" The reluctance of the core is negligible. leakage
of fhy
We can write the cquations for sinusoidal voltage in this ideal transformer as follow3 to be
supplied by a sinusoidal voltage ).
" The primarywinding of turns N, is
U, = Vm COs (ot)
instantaneous) voltage applied to
here, U, is the time-varying (also called the primar
V/).
winding. with the maximum value V, and RMS value of V, (= Im
can he wtu
From Faraday's Law, the voltage across the primary winding terminals

From these two equations

N = V Cos (ot)

Rearranging and integrating, theequation for common flux can be written as:
= Vim sin (ot)
N,o
Thiscommon flux passes through both the windings.
Ideal Transformer - Equivalent Circuit
The equivalent circuit (i.e., without the magnetic core) of an ideal transformer can ie
drawn as follows. The equivalent circuit is used for determining the performance characterstis
of the transformer.

I,= al,

N N, V, to t
tran
V,=av,
Fig. 5.11. Ideal transformer
INote that the voltage and current relationships equivalent
remain the circuit.
same whether they areshown
in their instantaneous values or
RMS values.l
Let's consider some cases. The transformer equivalent circuits for these Cases are9shown
in Fig. 5.12 :
" Ifu<1, i.e. N, <N, calleds
The output voltage is
step-up tranformer (Fig.greater than the input voltage and the transformer is
5.12 (a).
" Ifa> 1. i.e. N, > N, calleda
The output voltage is is
step-down transformer smaller than the
Fig. 5.12 (b). input voltage and the
transformer
 TRANSFORMER
CAL ENGINEERING
5.7
. Ifa = 1, i.e. N, = N,
The output voltage isthe
isolation transformer Fig.same as the
5.12(c). input voltage and the
leakage of flux. These transformer
tobe.electrically isolatedperforma
from eachvery useful function for
other.
transformer is called an
r as follows. applications where two circuits need

o the primary V,
000922
NN, V,
be written as:
(a) Step-up transformer

V. N eN, V,

as:

(6) Step-down transformer

rmer can be
aracteristics V, N, N, V,

(c) Isolation transformer.

Fig. 5.12.
totwoIn many
applications, the secondary winding is tapped at two different points, giving rise
output circuits (see Fig. 5.13.) The most common configuration is centre-tapped
transformer which splits the secondary voltage into two equal voltages.

y areshown Q+>IQ+
V,=N,
N,
S are shown N,
N, V,
V, =
calleda
r is Centre-tapped transformer.
Fig. 5.13

calleda
Power in an Ideal Transformer
secondary winding:
r is The power delivered tothe load by the
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL TRANSFORME
5.8

Using equations for v, and is

and substituting in the
above equation. ENGINE RING i.e., wl
AC source
1 We sa
a the turns r:

and

P, = (ai,) =vi
winding by the source is :
to the primary
However, the power delivered

Therefore,
output
L.e.. Power input = Power
5.5 TRANSFORMER RATING This
The transformer is usually rated in terms of its input output voltages and apparent power
is designed tosafely deliver. For example, ifa transformer carries the following infor
that it
on its name-plate:
10kVA, 1100/110 volts
The voltage ratio indicates that the transformer has two windings, the high-ml.
winding for 110volts.
winding is rated for 1100 Volts and the low-voltage
Therefore, the voltaga
These voltages are proportional to their respective number of turns.
ratio also represents the turns ratio a. (e.g., a = 10 here).
The kVA rating (i.e., apparent power) means that each winding is designed for 10 kVA
Therefore the current rating for the high-voltage winding = 10000/1100 = 9.09 A. In
of the ci
Current rating for low voltage winding = 10000/110 = 90.0 A.
The term rated load' for a device refers to the load it is designed to carry for (theoretically)
indefinite period of time. Rated load for the transformer refers to the apparent power speciied
as above, and shown in the name plate information.
Note that during actualoperation, the transformer may be required to operate at less pouer
than its rated power.
Impedance transformation
Consider the following circuit, where aload impedance 2, is connected in the secondary
winding. The RMS values of current and voltage in the secondary winding are relatedto the
impedance by:
V2 IE
Substituting for V, and I, Source
2
(N,/ N,)Vj
(N, IN,)I,
Rearranging this equation and substituting a:=N,/N,,the impedance seen bythesrource.
Z is given by
 TRANSFORMER

ERING when a load impedance Z is

i.e., connected
5.9

source d on the input side connected

sees the aeross the secondary winding terminals the
thatthe load load impedance
We say a,
turns
ratio impedance is reflected or referred tothe
mamified hythe factor a
primary aide hy the square of
the
N,: N,

v,

Fig. 5.14. Load

impedance
This circuit can be simplified as follows : as seen by the source.

wer I,
ion
a.V, Z=a'z,
age

age Reflected load

impedance
A. Fig. 5.15. Simplified circuit.
In asimilar manner, it can be shown that if an impedance is connected on the source side
df the circuit (as shown Fig. 5.16). The load sees it changed by a factor of (Ua').
iy)
ied

wer

ry
he Z=(Va')2,

as seen by the load.

Fig. 6.16. Source impedance by the load), the voltage of the
load side (i.e., as seen
We look at this circuit from the 5.17.
SOurce and the impedance appear changed as shown in Fig.
Reflected sources impedance
(1/a) 2,
ce.

Simplified circuit.
Fig. 5.17.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTRICAL

E5.18a)NGI.NE AWheINGn
5.10

Behaviour and phasor diagram

whose secondary is open as shown in Fig.
Consider an ideal transformer
alternating voltage V, a current Im lows
the 1s connected
primary
primary to sinusoidal
coil is pure
m
core and
through Snce
inductive, the current I. lags behind the applied voltage V.it,by 90ita

current sets-up alternating flux o(or mutual flux ,)in the the magnetises
phasor it.

windings.diagraWhrHneencneit
This phase with I,, as shown in
it is called magnetising current. Flux is in
alternating flux ólinks with both primary and secondary in
Fig 5.18 (6). The E, in opposite direction to th
it produces selfinduced e.m.f. it produces mutually induced e.m.fs.
of E,n
voltagewithV,. primary,
links When it links
that
with secondary
of applied
winding,
voltage. Both the e.m.fs. E, and E, are shown in
apphed
opposite direction to
diagram in Fig. 5.18 (6). V
phasor

N, N,

E,
(6)
(a)
Fig. 5.18.

5.6 E.M.F. EQUATION

When sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, a sinusojdal
flux, as shown in Fig.5.19, is set-up in the iron core which links with primary and secondary
winding.
Let m = Maximum value of flux in wb;
+0 m
f= Supply frequency in Hz (or cds);
N, =No. of turns in primary;
N, = No. of turns in secondary -1/
As shown in Fig. 5.19, flux changes from + , to ,m
1
in half a cycle i.e., seconds,
2f
Fig. 5.19.
Average rate of change of flux = m -(-m)
1 =4fm wb/s
2f
Now, the rate of change of flux per turn is the
. Average e.m.f. induced/turn = 4f. volts average induced e.m.f. per turn in vo
For a sinusoidal wave, R.M.S. value -
Average value Form factor = 1.11
. R. M.S. value of e.m.f.
induced/turn, E = 1.1l x 4 f =4.44 fo volts
Since primary and secondary have Nand N, turns
. R.M.S. value of e.m.f.
induced in respectively.
E, = (e.m.f. induced /turn) x primary, ...0)
No. of primaryturns = 4.44 N,
f.m volts
 RANSFORMER

5.11
ERING Similarly,r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in
secondary, E, =444 N, fm volts
on its Again, w
we can find the voltage ratio, ..(iü)

Since
90° 444 N2 1m or
ence E,4.44 N,f m E N2 NË
K (trangformation ratio)
m in
Equations(i) and (i) can be written in the form of
en it = B,, x A, (where A, is iron maximum flux density B, using relation,
Dlied area)
E,= 4.44 N, fB,, A, volts and E, = 4.44
E, in N, fBm A, volts.
asor Example 5.1. A25 kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary and
inding. The priümary is connected to 3000 V, 50 Hz mains, caleulate (i)40Primary
turns on the
and
rondary currents in full load; (ii) secondary e.m.f. and (iiil) The maximum flux in the core.
Neglect magnetic leakage, resistance of the winding and the primary no load current in relation
current.
hthe full load
Solution : (i) At fullload, I,= 25 x 108 =8.33A
3000

Now
E N2N
500
Secondary current, I,= x8.33 = 104.15 A
40
N2
40
idal
(ü) Secondary e.m.f., E, = N2 x E1 500
x 3000 = 240 V
lary N,
üi) Using relation, E, =4.44 N, fom'
3000 = 4.44 x 500 x 50 .m or = 0.027 wb

Example 5.2.A single-phase, 50 Hz transformerprimaryhas 30 primaryand 350 secondary turns.

winding is connected to a 230 V,
et cros$ -$ectional area of core is 250 cm². If the (i) Voltage induced in the
Supply, calculate (i) Peak value of flux density in the core ; is
primary current when the secondary current
100secondury winding.
umperes ? Neglect losses, what is the
Solution: E, =4.44 N, fBm A,
N,= 30; f= 50
where, E, = 230 V;
and A, = 250 × 10-4 m?
10x B
230 = 4.44 x 30 x 50 x 250 x
: 1.38 Teslas (or wb/m)
s.
Maximum flux density, Bn =

Using relation, K= N2 E
NË E I
350 2683.33 V
x 230=
N2x
N1
E,z 30
350 1166.67A
x 100=
N2
NË
x I 30
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
5.12
ELECTRICAL
Example 5.3, A 200 kVA, 3300/240
the secondary
oncurrent winding.
on full load; (ii) maximum
volts, 50 Hz. single-phase
an ideal
Assumingvalue offlux; (iii) the number of primarytransformer ENGINE R
transformer, calculate (i)primary andhas gn
turns. 0
turna
TRAN

Solution : I=
200 × 1000 = 60.6A
3300
200 x 1000 - 833.3 A
secondoy
I,= 240
E, =4.44 N, fmi
240 = 4.44 x 80 x 50 x ,.,
. = 13.51 m wb

Now, N1
N2 23
3300
N or N, = l100turns of
80 240
5.7 TRANSFORMER ON D.C.
A transformer cannot work on d.c. supply. If arated d.c. voltage is applied a
primary, a flux of constant magnitude will be set-up in the core. Hence, there will not be a
self-induced e.m.f.(which is only possible with the rate of change offlux linkages) in the Drim
winding to oppose the applied voltage. The resistance of the primary winding is very loW ani
the primary current will be quite high as given by the Ohm's law.
d.c. applied voltage
Primary current = 5
resistance of primary winding
This current is much more than the rated full load current of primary winding. Thus it
will produce lot of heat (T R) loss and burns the insulation of the primary winding, and the
transformer will be damaged. That is why, d.c. is never applied to a transformer.
5.8 TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD
A transformer is said to be on no-load when secondary winding is open
secondary currentI, is zero. Neither the secondary winding has any effect on the circuited and
magnetic flux
in the core nor it has any effect on the
primary current.
In actual transformer, the losses
Therefore if transformer is on no load,cannot be neglected.
a smnall current I,
(usually 2 to 10% of the rated value) called exciting
is drawn by the primary. This current
iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current has to supply in
and a very small amount of copper current losses) in the core
(The primary copper losses are sO losses in the primary.
core losses that they are Small as compared to
generally
secondary copper losses are zero as l, neglected and the E,
is zero). Therefore,
current I, lags behind the
(called hysteresis) angle ofvoltage
advance)
vector Vby an angle
which is less
YE,
as shown in Fig. 5.20.The than 90°
losses in the transformer. angle of lag depends upon the Fig.5.20.
The no load current l, has two
components;
() One, I,, in phase with the applied voltage V,, called active or working Componenti
supplies the iron losses and a small
primary copper loss.
NGINE RING
TRANSFORMER

s 80 turns / in
other, m
(it) The
quadrature
secondary component. "Tt
phasor produces
(vector) flux with the applied
in the
Working component, diagram shown in Fig.
From

I, = l, cos 0
core and voltage
does not V,, called reactive
5.20. consume any
or
power.
5.13

magnetising
Magnetising component.

. No-load current,
Io = I +12
No-load power input, PÍ = V,
Example 5.4. The no load
, cos o
30V, 50 He. The number of turns current
of a
on
offuxin the core; (ii) Core loss; (iii) primary
transformer is 5 A
winding are 200. ut 0.25 p.f.
Solution: () Using the relation. Magnetising current. Calculate ; (i) when supplied
Maximum
at
value
Or
E,= 4.44 N,fom
Dss the 230 = 4.44 x 200 ×
. Maximum value of flux, 50 x .
be any . =5.18 mWb
(ü) Core loss,
imary
W and (ii) No load p.f.,
Po = V; ocos , = 230 x
cos , = 0.25; sin , = sin
5x 0.25 = 287.5 W
Magnetising current component, I,, =I, sin , = 5 x cos- 0.25 = 0.9682
5.9 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD 0.9682 = 4.84 A
us it (Neglecting winding resistance and leakage flux)
d the When a certain load is connected
shown in Fig. 5.21. The magnitude of across the secondary, a current I, flows through it as
of the load. The phase angle of current I, depends upon terminal voltage V, and
of load i.e., whether the load is secondary current I,with respect to V, depends upon impedance
the nature
the resistive, inductive or capacitive.
The
below operation
of the transformer on load is
flux with the aid of explained
0) When the diagram;
transformer is on no load as shown in
Fig. 5.22 (a)it draws no load current I,
Supply mains. The no load current I, from the
produces an
m.m.f. N, I, which sets-up flux in the
(ü) When the core. Fig. 5.21.
transformer is loaded, current l, flows in the secondary winding. This
secondary current 1, produces an m.m.f. N, I, which sets-up flux ¢, in the core. This
2 OPposes the flux ¢ which is set-up by the current I,as shown in Fig. 5.22. (b),
(üi) according Lenz's law.
to
theSince opposesthe flux o, therefore, the resultant flux tends to decrease and causes
reduction of self induced e.m.f. E, momentarily. Thus, V, predon inates over E,
causi
this ng additional prriimary current I, drawn from the supply mains. The
amount of
be additional cuurrent is such that the original conditions. i.e., flux in the core must
withrestored original value ¢, so that V, = E,. The current I,' is in phase opposition
It
I, and tois called primary counter balancing current. This additional current I,
produces an m.m.f. N, I,' which sets-up flux ¢,' in the same direction as that of
shown in ig. 5.13 (c), and cancels the flux , set-up by m.m.f. N, l
as
 5.14

Now, N, I'= N, I,
N2
I= NË 1, =KI,
(ampere-turnsbalance)
RICALEG
N. N
VE,. N, N,

I,-l, +I,
N, N,
vEN, N,y. TLoad

(c) (d)
Fig. 5.22.
(iv) Ths, the flux is restored to its original value , as shown in Fig. 5.22 ( m
primary current I, is the vector sum of current , and 1 i.e., 0, = 0, + i.
5.10TRANSFORMER WITH WINDING RESISTANCE
In an actual transformer, the primary and secondary windings have some resistz:
represented by R, and R, respectively.These resistancesare shown external tothe windins:
Fig.5.23. To make the calculations easy the resistance of the two windings can be transaar:
to either side. The resistance is transferred from one side to the other in such a manner t
percentage voltage drop remains the same when represented on either side.
Let the primary resistance R, be transferred to the secondary side and the new val:
this resistance be R,' called equivalent resistance of primary referred to secondary
shown in Fig. 5.24 (a). I, andI, be the full load primary and secondary currents respeeu
Then Lx 100 =I, R x 100 (%
V2 voltage drops)
or
Rf= xR- KR, R,
:. Total
equivalent resistance referred to
secondary, V.
Now consider R,= R,Ro,+ R, =R, +KR,
primary, let its new resistance
value be R,
when it is
transferred to
of secondary called equivalent
referred to primary as shown in Fig. resistance
5.24 (c).
Fig. 5.23.

Then I, R
x 100 =
IzK2
V2 100
NGINE RING
RANSFORMEA

R, 5.15

V,

(a)

DLoaa R,
R R
(6)

|Load (c)
(d)
Fig. 5.24.
R = V,
xR =

The total Total equivalent resistance referred toprimary,

Rep = R+ R, =R+ K²

istances 511 MUTUAL AND LEAKAGE FLUXES

dings in So far, it assumed that when a.c. supply is given to the primary winding of atransformer,
asferred nalternating flux is set-up in the core and whole of this flux links with both the primary and
ner that eCOndary windings. However, in an actual transformer, both the windings produce some flux
tuat links only with the winding that produces it.
walue of The flux that links with both the windings of the transformer is called mutual flux and
side as te fluz which links only with one winding of the transformers is called leakage flux.
Ine prmary ampere turns produce some flux ¢,, which is set-up in air and links only with
tively.
imary winding , as shown in Fig. 5.25 (a) called primary leakage flur. Similarly, secondary
pere turns produce some flux do which is set-up in air and links only with secondary winding
taled secondury leakuge flux.
Core
X,

Load

(6)
(a)
Fig. 6.25. leakage
primary currentI,and secondary
The primary to the
leakage flux , is proportionall,. The primary leakange flux ¢a produces self
proportional to secondary current reactance X, (= 2nfL,). Similarly,

WUn\wnadlkuagcekdaanrycereactleakage
leakage
eL(= N, Pa ) which inturn produces L, (= N, / ) which in turn produces external
produces self inductance
flux O2 fL). reactance (inductive) have been shown
Theleakage
X (=2r ance
winding in Fig. 5.25 (b).
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTRICAL TAANSFORME

5.16
5.12 To
EQUIVALENT REACTANCE
make the caleulations easv the reactances of thetwo winding can be transierred
ENGINERE Total re

in such a manner Second

other is transferredside
One side. The
reactance from
voltages drop remains
the
one
same
side tothe
when represented
reactance X, be
on either
transferred to the
Let the primary eguivalent reactance of
reactance is X,' called
secondary and the new
primary referred to
tha
secondary,
t,perc
as
enta Total r
Equiv

Fig. 5.26. (a).

X 100 = I; 1 100 (% voltage drops) 5.13ACT

Then
V, An ac
Primaryar
X, =K X, and Rg, (i
Or X,=
secondary. leakage rea
to
Total equivalent reactance referred iron
anc
KX
X =X, +X' =X, + X, X,
equivaler
transform
X Prim
reactanc
V.
V. N, V V
Seco
(6) (c) (d) Sim:
(a)
Fig.5.26. Some volt

Now. let us consider secondary reactance X, when it is transferred to primary say its nea
value is X called equivalent reactance of secondary referred to primary, as shown i
Fig. 5.26 (c).
Then Ij X2 100 = l, X¡ x 100
V2
or

Total equivalent reactance referred to primary,

X, = X+ X=X +
Example 5.5. Atransformer has 400 turns on the primary and 80 turns onthesecondar
The primary and secondary resistances are 0.3 ohm and 0.1 Theleakg:
ohm respectively. Calculatet
reactances of the primary and secondary are 1.1 ohm and 0.035 ohm respectively.
equivalent impedance referred to the primary circuit.
Solution : Transformation ratio K= Ng 80
= 0.2 Th
NË 400
loads
Secondary resistance referred to primary, Ro drawnar
= K?
0.1
(02)?
= 2.5 ohm
Current
 AANSFORMER

RING Total
resistance
referred to primary, Kep = R, + R,, = 0.3 +
5.17

2.5 =2.8 ohm

Secondaryreactance referred to primary, X= 0.035
k?
any referredreferred
= 0.875 ohm
(0.2)
age Total
l
reactance to primary, Xon = X, +X, = 1.1 +
impedance
Equivalent to primary, 0.875 = 1.975 ohm
his
a in
ep
+(1.975)
ACTUAL TRANSFORMER
has (i) -Core
Aa actual transformer R, I,
andsecondary resistance R,
Mmary
and secondary
R,(ü) primary N, NE,
akagereactances X, and1X, and (iii)
and copper losses. The
AQuivalent circuit of an actual
ransformeris shown in Fig. 5.27 Fig. 5.27.
Dmary impedance, , = , + JX, supply voltage is V,. The resistance and leakage
reactance of primary winding is responsible for some voltage drop in primary winding.
VË = E1 + 0, (R, +j X) = E1+0\~1
Secondary impedance, Z =R, +j X,
Similarly, the resistance and leakage reactance of secondary winding is responsible for
SItMe voltage drop in secondary winding. Hence,
in V2 = E - I, (R, +jX,) = E -, }a

Vik 1 R

T'

y2
92

E,
L,X,

(c)
(a) (b)
Fig.5.28.
resistive, inductive and capacitive
transformer resistance are
The phasor (vector) diagrans of an actual
and 5.28 (c)
respectively. The dropsin
perpendicular tothe
Tawn in shown in igs.
trent yectphhase
ors. with
5.28(a),
current
5.28
vectors
(6)
and drops in reactance
are drawn
5.18

5.14 EQUVALENT CIRCUIT

Use of phase diagrams, However, concerning voltage and currents can be
it is mere convenient to represent the transformer
GsolvedINER TRAN

transformer, the problem of only

equivalent
ln circuit. If an equivalent circuit is available the computations can be done by ths que
circuit
circuit is merely a

interpretatin
ofF
An equivalent
application of circuit theory.
behaviour of the device. eqL
directThè transformer describe the
windings, in the equivalent circuit, are shown as ideal. The resistan
which res
the equations
and leakage reactances of the primary and secondary are shown separately in ihe prinat ap
and secondary circuits connected in parallel across the winding. The effect of cOre \oss re

resistance R, as shown in Fig. 5.29.

inductive
represented by a non
Z2
Z1 X2
R2
R1
X1
I2
Lm
V Load
V Ro Xo

transformer.
Fig.5.29. Equivalent circuit of a
transferring side in such a way that the rot%
Theequivalent circuit can be simplified by
of E,to E,, is not affected to magnitude or
phase.
primary circuit to produce the same
Let R, be the resistance which must be placed in the in primary equal to
drop as produced by R, in the secondary. Then R, caused a voltage drop
R,.
The ratio ofI,' R,' and I, R, must be the same as the turn ratio N/ N,.
Thus R =

K?
and X = K?

R and X,' =
R,'= K?
these
secondaryimpedances have been transferred to the primary side,
When all the
circuitofthe
ondary winding need not be shown in theeequivalent circuit. The exact equivalent
transformer with the impedances transferred to the primary side is shown in Fig.5.30
R1 X1 Ry
I1 X
lo
Im RL

Ro

Fig. 5.30. Equivalent circuit with secondary impedances referred to primary.

 RANSFORMER

E RING Now, it is
that E, differs from V,
seen
smallfraction of full
m
by asmall
5.19

oy the only theequivalent circuit

a
load
canprimary current so thatamount.
be simplified Moreover, the current I, is
I/ is practically
by the parallel equal to I. Conse-
quently
byy the
an oth,andd ,totheleft position of the circuit as
guivalentcircuit. Analysis with
transferring branch
shown in Fig. 5.31. This circuit is consisting
the approximate
ion of result as
the analysis with the exact
equivalent equivalent approximate
circuit gives almost the
annroximate
equivalent
circuit is simple circuit. However the analysis withsame
reactances XX and X, can be combined as Ren because the resistances R, and R, and leakage the
ances
mary Rep
and Xen respectively.
ss in Xep
I½ R1 R½ X, X,
I

RL
Ro Xo
V,
V2

Fig. 5.31. Approximate equivalent circuit of transformer.

ratio
5.15 VOLTAGE REGULATION
ame
Voltage regulation in transformers is the difference between the no load voltage and the
ol flload voltage. This is usually expressed in terms of percentage. For example : Atransformer
delivers 100 volts at no load and the voltage drops to 95 volts at full load, the regulation would
be 5% . ACME dry type distribution transformers generally have regulation from 2% to 4%,
depending on the size and the application for which they are used.
When atransformer is loaded, with aonstant supply voltage, the terminal voltagechanges
between the no-load and
ng upon the load and its power factor. The algebraic difference
u-0ad terminal voltage is measured in terms of voltage regulation.
constant supply voltage, the change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to
sec full-load with respect to no-load voltage is called voltage regulation of the transformer.
no-load.
Let, B, =Secondary terminal voltage at full-load.
the
at
V, =Secondary terminal voltage
Then,voltage regulation = (Per unit)
E
In the E - V x 100
form of percentage, %Reg =
transformer;
When all the primary side of the
quantities are referred to the
%Reg = VË - B1 x 100
Vi
Voltage
Let Drop in a transformer:
us Sconsider the equivalent circuit of transformer as referred to secondary
side. (ie.

parameters are referred to secondary side.