Cloud

M2

1) Significance of Virtualization

1. Resource Optimization: Efficiently uses physical resources by running multiple virtual

machines (VMs) on a single server.

2. Cost Savings: Reduces the need for additional hardware, leading to lower capital and
operational expenses.

3. Improved Scalability: Easily scale applications by creating or removing virtual instances as

needed.

4. Enhanced Flexibility and Agility: Provides developers and IT administrators the ability to
quickly deploy and manage workloads.

5. Disaster Recovery and Backup: Virtual machines can be backed up, cloned, or migrated
easily, ensuring business continuity.

6. Isolation and Security: VMs operate independently, enhancing security and preventing faults
from affecting other applications

7.  Simplified Management: Centralized management tools allow administrators to

monitor and control virtual environments efficiently

2) Advantages and Challenges of Virtualization in Cloud Computing

Virtualization is a key enabler of cloud computing, allowing multiple virtual machines (VMs)
to run on shared physical resources. It enhances flexibility, resource utilization, and cost-
effectiveness in cloud environments. However, it also introduces certain challenges.

✅ Advantages of Virtualization in Cloud Computing

1. Resource Optimization
o Efficient use of physical resources by running multiple VMs on a single server.
o Enables dynamic allocation of resources based on demand.
2. Cost Savings
o Reduces hardware costs by consolidating workloads.
o Minimizes energy consumption and data center space.
3. Scalability and Flexibility
o Cloud providers can quickly scale resources up or down using virtual instances.
o Supports diverse workloads without requiring new hardware.
4. Disaster Recovery and High Availability
o VM snapshots and backups facilitate quick recovery in case of failures.
o Enables load balancing and fault tolerance.
5. Simplified Management
o Centralized management tools offer control over virtual environments.
o Automates deployment, monitoring, and maintenance tasks.
6. Isolation and Security
o Virtual machines are isolated from each other, minimizing the impact of security
threats.
 o Sandboxing prevents malicious applications from affecting other VMs.
7. Supports multi-tenancy
o Multiple users (tenants) can run applications on shared physical resources securely.

⚠️Challenges of Virtualization in Cloud Computing

1. Performance Overhead
o VMs may experience reduced performance compared to running on dedicated
physical hardware due to resource sharing.
2. Complexity in Management
o Managing large virtualized environments can be complex, requiring advanced
management tools and skills.
3. Security Concerns
o Vulnerabilities in the hypervisor can compromise multiple VMs.
o Multi-tenancy increases the risk of data breaches if isolation is not properly
enforced.
4. Resource Contention
o Over-provisioning of VMs may lead to resource contention, degrading the
performance of applications.
5. Dependency on Hypervisors
o Cloud providers rely heavily on hypervisors; a failure or misconfiguration can affect
all hosted VMs.
6. Data Management Challenges
o Ensuring data consistency, replication, and backup across virtual machines can be
challenging.

4) Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM)

A Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM), also known as a Hypervisor, is a software layer that creates and
manages Virtual Machines (VMs). It allows multiple virtual machines to run on a single physical host
by abstracting hardware resources and distributing them to VMs. Each VM operates as an
independent system with its own operating system (OS) and applications.

Role of VMM in Virtualization

The primary role of a VMM is to facilitate virtualization. Here’s how it contributes to virtualization:

1. Resource Management

o The VMM allocates and manages physical resources (CPU, memory, storage, and
network) across multiple VMs.

o It ensures fair resource distribution and prevents resource contention.

2. Isolation and Security

o VMM provides isolation between VMs, ensuring that the failure or compromise of
one VM doesn’t affect others.

o It implements strict access controls to protect the virtualized environment.

3. Abstraction of Hardware

o VMM abstracts the underlying hardware, providing a uniform environment for VMs.
 o This allows different operating systems to run on the same physical machine without
compatibility issues.

4. VM Creation and Management

o It handles the creation, configuration, and management of virtual machines.

o Admins can easily start, stop, and monitor VMs using VMM interfaces.

5. Efficient Utilization of Resources

o Through consolidation, VMM allows multiple VMs to run on fewer physical servers,
leading to lower operational costs.

6. Live Migration and Load Balancing

o VMM enables live migration of VMs between physical servers without downtime.

o It supports load balancing by redistributing VMs based on resource consumption.

7. Snapshots and Backup Management

o VMM allows the creation of VM snapshots for backup and recovery purposes.

o Snapshots can be used to restore VMs in case of failure.

4)

Key Differences

Aspect High-Performance Computing (HPC) High-Throughput Computing (HTC)

Solve complex, large-scale problems Complete a large number of smaller tasks

Goal
quickly efficiently

Computing Model Parallel computing (tight coupling) Distributed computing (loose coupling)

Time Sensitivity Requires results quickly Can process over longer timeframes

Supercomputers, GPUs, specialized Grid computing, cloud environments,

Infrastructure
hardware clusters

Example Climate modeling, physics

Drug discovery, image rendering
Application simulations

In summary, HPC is about maximizing computational power for complex tasks, while HTC is about
maximizing the number of tasks completed over time.

M2 7)

1. Before Virtualization

In a traditional, non-virtualized computer system, the architecture consists of:

a. Hardware Layer

 Physical CPU, RAM, storage, and network interfaces.

  Direct access to hardware components by the operating system.

b. Operating System (OS)

 Single OS installed directly on the hardware (also called a Bare Metal system).

 Manages hardware resources and provides an environment for applications to run.

c. Application Layer

 Applications run directly on the operating system.

 One set of applications and services is managed by the single OS.

Key Characteristics

 Dedicated hardware resources.

 Inefficient utilization of hardware if workloads are low.

 Application isolation is challenging; issues in one application can crash the entire system.

Diagram:

----------------------------------

| Applications |

----------------------------------

| Operating System |

----------------------------------

| Physical Hardware |

----------------------------------

2. After Virtualization

In a virtualized environment, a Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM) or Hypervisor abstracts the

underlying hardware and enables multiple virtual machines (VMs) to run on a single physical system.

a. Hardware Layer

 Same physical components (CPU, RAM, storage, network).

 Controlled and managed by the hypervisor.

b. Hypervisor Layer

 A software layer that virtualizes the hardware.

 Creates and manages VMs, allocating resources dynamically.

 Examples: VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V, KVM.

c. Virtual Machines (VMs)

  Multiple independent VMs run on the hypervisor.

 Each VM has its own virtual CPU, memory, storage, and virtual network interfaces.

 Every VM can run a different operating system (e.g., Linux, Windows).

d. Application Layer

 Applications run within the VMs.

 Application failures in one VM do not affect others.

Key Characteristics

 Better hardware utilization by running multiple workloads on one machine.

 Enhanced isolation and security between VMs.

 Flexibility to allocate resources dynamically.

 Easier disaster recovery and workload management.

Diagram:

----------------------------------------------------

| Applications (VM1, VM2, ...) |

----------------------------------------------------

| Guest Operating Systems (OS1, OS2, ...) |

----------------------------------------------------

| Virtual Machine Monitor (VMM) |

----------------------------------------------------

| Physical Hardware |

----------------------------------------------------

Comparison Summary

Aspect Before Virtualization After Virtualization

Resource Utilization Low, resources often underused High, resources dynamically shared

Low, application failures affect

Isolation High, VMs are isolated
others

Multiple OS environments supported

Flexibility Limited, single OS environment

Management Complexity High for multiple servers Easier with centralized management
Aspect Before Virtualization After Virtualization

Scalability Difficult to scale Easily scalable by adding VMs

Recovery and Backup Time-consuming Faster recovery using snapshots

8)

Hypervisors, also known as virtual machine monitors (VMMs), are software, firmware, or hardware
platforms that create and manage virtual machines (VMs). They allow multiple operating systems to
run concurrently on a host machine by abstracting the underlying hardware resources. Hypervisors
play a crucial role in virtualization, enabling efficient resource utilization, isolation, and management
of VMs.

### Types of Hypervisors

Hypervisors are generally classified into two main types: Type 1 and Type 2.

#### Type 1 Hypervisors (Bare-Metal Hypervisors)

Type 1 hypervisors run directly on the host's hardware without an underlying operating system. They
have direct access to the physical resources of the machine, which allows for better performance,
scalability, and security. Because they operate at a lower level, Type 1 hypervisors can manage
resources more efficiently and provide better isolation between VMs.

**Examples of Type 1 Hypervisors:**

3. **Xen**: An open-source hypervisor that supports various operating systems and is often used in
cloud computing environments.

4. **KVM (Kernel-based Virtual Machine)**: A Linux kernel module that turns the Linux kernel into a
Type 1 hypervisor, allowing it to run multiple VMs.

**Advantages of Type 1 Hypervisors:**

- Better performance due to direct hardware access.

- Enhanced security and isolation between VMs.

- More efficient resource management.

**Disadvantages of Type 1 Hypervisors:**

- Requires dedicated hardware, which can increase costs.

- More complex to set up and manage compared to Type 2 hypervisors.

#### Type 2 Hypervisors (Hosted Hypervisors)

Type 2 hypervisors run on top of a conventional operating system. They rely on the host OS for
resource management and hardware access, which can introduce some overhead. While they are
generally easier to install and use, they may not perform as well as Type 1 hypervisors, especially
under heavy workloads.

**Examples of Type 2 Hypervisors:**

1. **VMware Workstation**: A popular desktop virtualization solution that allows users to run
multiple operating systems on a single physical machine.

**Advantages of Type 2 Hypervisors:**

- Easier to install and use, making them suitable for individual users and developers.

- Can run on existing operating systems without the need for dedicated hardware.

**Disadvantages of Type 2 Hypervisors:**

- Lower performance due to the overhead of the host OS.

- Less efficient resource management and potential security vulnerabilities due to reliance on the
host OS.

### Comparison Summary

| Feature | Type 1 Hypervisor | Type 2 Hypervisor |

|------------------------|---------------------------------------|---------------------------------------|

| **Architecture** | Runs directly on hardware | Runs on top of a host OS |

| **Performance** | Higher performance, lower overhead | Lower performance, more

overhead |

| **Resource Management**| More efficient | Less efficient |

| **Security** | Better isolation and security | Potential vulnerabilities from host OS |

**Use Cases** | Enterprise environments, data centers | Development, testing, personal use
|

| **Examples** | VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V, Xen, KVM | VMware Workstation, Oracle
VirtualBox, Parallels Desktop |

M1 7) assignment Modern distributed systems are widely used across various sectors due to their
ability to provide scalability, reliability, and performance. Here are some major applications of
modern distributed systems:

1. Cloud Computing
  Examples: AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud

 Purpose: Provides on-demand computing resources like storage, databases, and virtual
machines.

 Benefits: Scalable infrastructure, reduced operational costs, and improved availability.

2. E-commerce and Online Retail

 Examples: Amazon, Flipkart, eBay

 Purpose: Supports millions of users with real-time inventory management, payment

processing, and order tracking.

 Benefits: Ensures low latency, handles high user traffic, and provides personalized
experiences.

3. Social Media and Content Delivery

 Examples: Facebook, Instagram, YouTube

 Purpose: Facilitates content sharing, video streaming, and real-time messaging.

 Benefits: Efficient data replication across data centers ensures faster content delivery and
fault tolerance.

4. Financial Services and Banking

 Examples: PayPal, Visa, MasterCard

 Purpose: Manages transactions, fraud detection, and real-time payment processing.

 Benefits: Ensures high availability, secure transactions, and low latency for global financial
operations.

5. Healthcare Systems

 Examples: Telemedicine Platforms, Electronic Health Records (EHR)

 Purpose: Provides remote diagnosis, medical data storage, and real-time health monitoring.

 Benefits: Ensures data consistency across hospitals, supports remote patient care, and
enhances data security.

8. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

 Examples: ChatGPT, TensorFlow, OpenAI APIs

 Purpose: Distributes computational tasks for model training and large-scale AI inference.

 Benefits: Reduces training time, supports large-scale data processing, and enables real-time
AI services.

9. IoT (Internet of Things)

 Examples: Smart Home Systems, Industrial IoT (IIoT)

 Purpose: Connects sensors and devices to monitor and control environments.

  Benefits: Provides real-time analytics, remote monitoring, and predictive maintenance.

10. Scientific Research and High-Performance Computing (HPC)

 Examples: CERN, NASA, Weather Forecasting Systems

 Purpose: Performs large-scale simulations, data analysis, and climate modeling.

 Benefits: Distributes computational tasks to supercomputers, accelerating research

processes.

These applications demonstrate how distributed systems drive modern technological advancements
by ensuring scalability, reliability, and real-time data processing.

19)

A Single-System Image (SSI) refers to the illusion created by a cluster of interconnected computers
(nodes) that presents itself as a single unified system to users and applications. Despite consisting of
multiple physical machines, an SSI abstracts the complexity of distributed resources, making them
appear as one logical entity.

Key Characteristics of SSI:

 Unified Management: Users interact with the system as if it were a single machine,
regardless of the number of nodes.

 Transparency: Handles resource management, task scheduling, and file storage without
exposing the underlying distributed nature.

 Fault Tolerance: Provides resilience by masking failures and redistributing workloads

seamlessly.

 Efficient Resource Utilization: Allocates processing power, memory, and storage dynamically
across nodes.

Importance of SSI in Clustering

SSI is particularly valuable in cluster computing environments for several reasons:

1. Simplified Administration:

o Administrators can manage the entire cluster from a single point of control, reducing
complexity and operational overhead.

o System updates, monitoring, and maintenance are streamlined.

2. Enhanced Resource Utilization:

o SSI enables dynamic load balancing by distributing tasks across available nodes,
ensuring efficient use of CPU, memory, and storage.

3. Fault Tolerance and High Availability:

o In case of node failures, SSI ensures seamless failover by redistributing tasks to other
nodes, maintaining system uptime.

4. Ease of Scalability:
 o New nodes can be added to the cluster without major configuration changes, as SSI
handles the expansion transparently.

5. Improved User Experience:

o Users and applications are unaware of the physical distribution of nodes, resulting in
a seamless and uniform computing experience.

6. Support for Parallel Processing:

o SSI facilitates distributed computing by allowing applications to run in parallel across

multiple nodes, significantly reducing processing time for complex tasks.

Example of SSI in Action

 HPC Clusters (High-Performance Computing): In scientific simulations, SSI ensures that

researchers can run large-scale computations without needing to manage individual nodes.

 Cloud Computing Services: Platforms like AWS and Azure provide the illusion of a single
virtual machine using SSI, even when resources are spread across multiple servers.

 Data Centers: Large data centers use SSI to provide seamless service to end-users, despite
relying on clusters of thousands of physical machines.

20) Grid computing and cloud computing are both distributed computing models, but they differ in
purpose, architecture, and use cases. Here's a comparison to help you understand the differences:

1. Purpose and Use Case

 Grid Computing:

o Designed for large-scale computational tasks that require massive processing power.

o Often used for scientific research, simulations, and data analysis.

o Suitable for tasks like weather forecasting, protein folding simulations, or physics
experiments.

 Cloud Computing:

o Provides on-demand access to computing resources such as storage, servers, and

applications.

o Ideal for web hosting, business applications, and data storage.

o Supports flexible use cases like software as a service (SaaS), development

environments, and scalable enterprise solutions.

2. Architecture

 Grid Computing:

o Consists of multiple connected computers (nodes) working together to solve a single

problem.

o Often heterogeneous systems connected over a network, usually across

organizations.
 o Resources are managed in a decentralized manner.

 Cloud Computing:

o Operates in a centralized environment managed by a cloud provider (e.g., AWS,

Azure, Google Cloud).

o Provides virtualized resources using data centers.

o Resources can be scaled automatically and dynamically.

3. Resource Management

 Grid Computing:

o Uses a distributed resource management system to allocate resources across

different nodes.

o Jobs are often divided into smaller tasks and run in parallel.

 Cloud Computing:

o Managed using orchestration platforms like Kubernetes or AWS Management

Console.

o Resources are dynamically allocated and scaled based on demand.

4. Accessibility

 Grid Computing:

o Primarily accessed by researchers, engineers, or large institutions.

o Requires specific software and configurations for access.

 Cloud Computing:

o Accessible by anyone with an internet connection using a subscription model.

o User-friendly interfaces for easy resource management.

5. Cost Model

 Grid Computing:

o Generally non-commercial and may involve collaboration between institutions.

o Costs are often shared among participants.

 Cloud Computing:

o Pay-as-you-go pricing model, where users only pay for the resources they use.

o Additional cost for data transfer, storage, and other services.

6. Examples

 Grid Computing:

o Large scientific projects like CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC) or SETI@home.

 Cloud Computing:

o Services like Netflix (video streaming on AWS), Dropbox (cloud storage), and Zoom
(video conferencing).

Conclusion

 Use Grid Computing when you need to perform large-scale, collaborative research requiring
vast computational power.

 Use Cloud Computing for scalable, on-demand services with flexible pricing and ease of
management, suitable for businesses and everyday applications.

M2 QB 8) Memory virtualization is a key feature in virtualized environments that allows

multiple virtual machines (VMs) to share the physical memory of a host system. To achieve
efficient memory management, hypervisors use techniques like shadow page tables and
Extended Page Tables (EPT). Here’s how each method works:

1. Shadow Page Tables

 Overview: Shadow page tables are maintained by the hypervisor to map guest virtual
memory to host physical memory. They act as a "shadow" of the guest's page tables,
providing a correct view of memory to the guest operating system (OS) while maintaining
control over memory management.

 Implementation Process:

o The guest OS maintains its own page tables, which map virtual addresses to guest
physical addresses (GPA).

o The hypervisor, however, maintains shadow page tables that directly map guest
virtual addresses (GVA) to host physical addresses (HPA).

o The CPU uses the shadow page tables instead of the guest’s page tables to perform
address translation.

o Every time the guest modifies its page tables, the hypervisor intercepts and updates
the shadow page tables accordingly.

 Advantages:

o Provides compatibility with older processors that lack hardware support for memory
virtualization.

o Allows fine-grained control over memory accesses.

 Disadvantages:

o High overhead due to frequent trapping to the hypervisor.

 o Additional memory and CPU consumption for maintaining shadow page tables.

o Increased complexity in synchronization between guest and shadow page tables.

2. Extended Page Tables (EPT)

 Overview: Extended Page Tables (EPT) is a hardware-assisted memory virtualization

technology introduced by Intel as part of its Virtualization Technology for Directed I/O (VT-d).
AMD provides a similar technology called Nested Page Tables (NPT).

 Implementation Process:

o EPT introduces a second layer of page tables managed by the hypervisor.

o The guest OS maintains its page tables for translating virtual addresses to guest
physical addresses (GPA).

o The hypervisor manages the EPT, which translates guest physical addresses to host
physical addresses (HPA).

o The CPU performs a two-level address translation:

1. Guest Virtual Address (GVA) → Guest Physical Address (GPA) (via guest page
tables).

2. Guest Physical Address (GPA) → Host Physical Address (HPA) (via EPT).

o This hardware support eliminates the need for shadow page tables.

 Advantages:

o Reduces hypervisor intervention, as memory translation is handled by hardware.

o Improves overall performance by lowering the number of context switches and

memory management overhead.

o Simplifies the hypervisor’s design since it no longer needs to maintain shadow page
tables.

 Disadvantages:

o Hardware dependency; requires processors with EPT or similar capabilities.

o Potential performance loss in cases with frequent memory mapping changes.

Comparison Summary

Extended Page Tables

Feature Shadow Page Tables
(EPT)

Higher overhead due to Lower overhead with

Performance
frequent traps hardware support

Implementation Complex, requires Simplified using hardware-

 Extended Page Tables
Feature Shadow Page Tables
(EPT)

Complexity hypervisor management level support

Hypervisor
High Low
Involvement

No special hardware Requires EPT/NPT capable

Hardware Support
required CPU

Higher memory
Lower memory usage due
Memory Overhead consumption for shadow
to direct EPT usage
pages

Older systems without EPT Modern systems with

Use Case
support virtualization workloads

In modern systems, EPT has largely replaced shadow page tables due to its improved
performance and lower management overhead. However, understanding both techniques is
crucial for virtualization administrators and developers working with diverse environments.

4) Virtual Machines and Virtualization Middleware

1. Virtual Machines (VMs)

A Virtual Machine (VM) is an emulation of a physical computer that runs an operating

system (OS) and applications just like a physical machine. It is created using virtualization
technology, which allows multiple VMs to operate independently on a single physical server.

Key Aspects of Virtual Machines:

1. Hypervisor-Based Virtualization:

o A hypervisor (also called a Virtual Machine Monitor, or VMM) manages multiple VMs
on a single host.

o Hypervisors can be Type-1 (bare-metal) or Type-2 (hosted).

2. Isolation:

o Each VM runs its own OS, applications, and system processes independently.

o Provides security by isolating VMs from one another.

3. Resource Allocation:

o VMs share CPU, memory, disk, and network resources allocated by the hypervisor.

4. Snapshots and Migration:

o VMs can be backed up using snapshots and moved across different servers (live
migration).

5. Scalability and Cost Efficiency:

o Helps in server consolidation, reducing the need for multiple physical servers.
 2. Virtualization Middleware

Virtualization Middleware is software that sits between the operating system and the
underlying hardware, enabling virtualization by providing an abstraction layer. It helps in
managing VMs, optimizing resource allocation, and automating tasks.

Key Aspects of Virtualization Middleware:

1. Hypervisor Management:

o Middleware helps in managing multiple hypervisors and orchestrating VM

workloads.

2. Resource Optimization:

o Allocates CPU, memory, storage, and network resources efficiently.

3. Automation and Orchestration:

o Automates VM deployment, scaling, and workload balancing.

4. Security and Access Control:

o Implements security policies, user authentication, and role-based access.

5. Cloud Integration:

o Supports cloud environments (public, private, hybrid) for dynamic resource

provisioning.

Diagram: Virtual Machine and Virtualization Middleware

+--------------------------------------------------+

| Physical Server (Hardware) |

|--------------------------------------------------|

| CPU | Memory | Storage | Network |

+--------------------------------------------------+

| Virtualization Middleware (Hypervisor) |

+--------------------------------------------------+

| VM 1 | VM 2 | VM 3 | VM 4 |

| (OS) | (OS) | (OS) | (OS) |

+--------------------------------------------------+

Significance of Virtual Machines & Virtualization Middleware

 1. Efficient Resource Utilization: Maximizes hardware efficiency by running multiple VMs on
one server.

2. Cost Reduction: Reduces costs associated with physical hardware, power consumption, and
maintenance.

3. Scalability: Easily scales up/down based on computing needs.

4. Security & Isolation: Provides a secure environment where different VMs run independently.

5. Disaster Recovery & Backup: Ensures easy recovery using VM snapshots and live migration.

6. Full virtualization and para-virtualization are two types of virtualization techniques

used in virtual machine environments. Here's how they differ:

Full Virtualization Para-Virtualization

Aspect
Requires modifications to the guest
Emulates the entire hardware
Definition operating system (OS) to communicate with
for virtual machines (VMs)
the hypervisor
Acts as an intermediary
Hypervisor Provides a hypercall interface for direct
between VMs and physical
Role communication with the hypervisor
hardware
Unmodified, as it believes it’s
Modified to work with the hypervisor,
Guest OS
running on physical hardware enabling better performance
Generally slower due to Faster than full virtualization because of
Performance
hardware emulation direct interaction with the hypervisor
Easier to implement since no More complex as it needs OS-level
Complexity
guest OS changes are required modifications
Xen with para-virtualization support,
VMware Workstation,
Examples VMware ESXi (with para-virtualization
Microsoft Hyper-V, VirtualBox
drivers)
Hardware Can work without special May require support from both the
Support hardware features hypervisor and guest OS
Stronger isolation between Slightly less isolation due to guest OS
Isolation
VMs awareness of the hypervisor

7. In short, full virtualization provides greater compatibility at the cost of performance,

while para-virtualization offers better performance with the requirement of OS
modifications.
 NLP
8) To perform top-down parsing for the sentence "The dogs cried" using the given grammar,
follow these steps:
Step 1: Grammar Overview
The given grammar is:
 S → NP VP
 NP → ART N
 NP → ART ADJ N
 VP → V
 VP → V NP
Step 2: Input Sentence
"The dogs cried"
 The → Article (ART)
 Dogs → Noun (N)
 Cried → Verb (V)

Step 3: Start with the Start Symbol

 The start symbol is S.
 Apply S → NP VP.
S→NP VPS \rightarrow NP \, VP

Step 4: Expand the NP (Noun Phrase)

 The sentence has an article (The) followed by a noun (dogs).
 Apply NP → ART N.
NP→ART NNP \rightarrow ART \, N
 Match the input:
o ART → The ✅
o N → Dogs ✅

Step 5: Expand the VP (Verb Phrase)

 The remaining word "Cried" is a verb.
 Apply VP → V.
VP→VVP \rightarrow V
 Match the input:
o V → Cried ✅

Final Parse Tree

Here’s the final parse tree representing the structure:
S
/ \
NP VP
/ \ |
ART N V
The Dogs Cried
✅ Sentence Accepted using top-down parsing!