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To Linda,
who has been, is, and always will be the love of my life
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

Figure 1.10.4 Courtesy of Cray Inc.

Figures 1.7, 1.8 Courtesy of iFixit (www.ifixit.com).
Figure 1.10.5 Courtesy of Apple Computer, Inc.
Figure 1.9 Courtesy of Chipworks (www.chipworks.com).
Figure 1.10.6 Courtesy of the Computer History Museum.
Figure 1.13 Courtesy of Intel.
Figures 5.17.1, 5.17.2 Courtesy of Museum of Science, Boston.
Figures 1.10.1, 1.10.2, 4.15.2 Courtesy of the Charles Babbage
Institute, University of Minnesota Libraries, Minneapolis. Figure 5.17.4 Courtesy of MIPS Technologies, Inc.
Figures 1.10.3, 4.15.1, 4.15.3, 5.12.3, 6.14.2 Courtesy of IBM. Figure 6.15.1 Courtesy of NASA Ames Research Center.
Contents

Preface xv

C H A P T E R S

1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 2

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Eight Great Ideas in Computer Architecture 11
1.3 Below Your Program 13
1.4 Under the Covers 16
1.5 Technologies for Building Processors and Memory 24
1.6 Performance 28
1.7 The Power Wall 40
1.8 The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to Multiprocessors 43
1.9 Real Stuff: Benchmarking the Intel Core i7 46
1.10 Fallacies and Pitfalls 49
1.11 Concluding Remarks 52
1.12 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 54
1.13 Exercises 54

2 Instructions: Language of the Computer 60

2.1 Introduction 62
2.2 Operations of the Computer Hardware 63
2.3 Operands of the Computer Hardware 67
2.4 Signed and Unsigned Numbers 75
2.5 Representing Instructions in the Computer 82
2.6 Logical Operations 90
2.7 Instructions for Making Decisions 93
2.8 Supporting Procedures in Computer Hardware 100
2.9 Communicating with People 110
2.10 LEGv8 Addressing for Wide Immediates and Addresses 115
2.11 Parallelism and Instructions: Synchronization 125
2.12 Translating and Starting a Program 128
2.13 A C Sort Example to Put it All Together 137
2.14 Arrays versus Pointers 146
x Contents

2.15 Advanced Material: Compiling C and Interpreting Java 150

2.16 Real Stuff: MIPS Instructions 150
2.17 Real Stuff: ARMv7 (32-bit) Instructions 152
2.18 Real Stuff: x86 Instructions 154
2.19 Real Stuff: The Rest of the ARMv8 Instruction Set 163
2.20 Fallacies and Pitfalls 169
2.21 Concluding Remarks 171
2.22 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 173
2.23 Exercises 174

3 Arithmetic for Computers 186

3.1 Introduction 188

3.2 Addition and Subtraction 188
3.3 Multiplication 191
3.4 Division 197
3.5 Floating Point 205
3.6 Parallelism and Computer Arithmetic: Subword Parallelism 230
3.7 Real Stuff: Streaming SIMD Extensions and Advanced
Vector Extensions in x86 232
3.8 Real Stuff: The Rest of the ARMv8 Arithmetic Instructions 234
3.9 Going Faster: Subword Parallelism and Matrix Multiply 238
3.10 Fallacies and Pitfalls 242
3.11 Concluding Remarks 245
3.12 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 248
3.13 Exercises 249

4 The Processor 254

4.1 Introduction 256

4.2 Logic Design Conventions 260
4.3 Building a Datapath 263
4.4 A Simple Implementation Scheme 271
4.5 An Overview of Pipelining 283
4.6 Pipelined Datapath and Control 297
4.7 Data Hazards: Forwarding versus Stalling 316
4.8 Control Hazards 328
4.9 Exceptions 336
4.10 Parallelism via Instructions 342
4.11 Real Stuff: The ARM Cortex-A53 and Intel Core i7 Pipelines 355
4.12 Going Faster: Instruction-Level Parallelism and Matrix Multiply 363
4.13 Advanced Topic: An Introduction to Digital Design Using a
Hardware Design Language to Describe and Model a Pipeline
and More Pipelining Illustrations 366
 Contents xi

4.14 Fallacies and Pitfalls 366

4.15 Concluding Remarks 367
4.16 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 368
4.17 Exercises 368

5 Large and Fast: Exploiting Memory Hierarchy 386

5.1 Introduction 388

5.2 Memory Technologies 392
5.3 The Basics of Caches 397
5.4 Measuring and Improving Cache Performance 412
5.5 Dependable Memory Hierarchy 432
5.6 Virtual Machines 438
5.7 Virtual Memory 441
5.8 A Common Framework for Memory Hierarchy 465
5.9 Using a Finite-State Machine to Control a Simple Cache 472
5.10 Parallelism and Memory Hierarchy: Cache Coherence 477
5.11 Parallelism and Memory Hierarchy: Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive
Disks 481
5.12 Advanced Material: Implementing Cache Controllers 482
5.13 Real Stuff: The ARM Cortex-A53 and Intel Core i7 Memory
Hierarchies 482
5.14 Real Stuff: The Rest of the ARMv8 System and Special Instructions 487
5.15 Going Faster: Cache Blocking and Matrix Multiply 488
5.16 Fallacies and Pitfalls 491
5.17 Concluding Remarks 496
5.18 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 497
5.19 Exercises 497

6 Parallel Processors from Client to Cloud 514

6.1 Introduction 516

6.2 The Difficulty of Creating Parallel Processing Programs 518
6.3 SISD, MIMD, SIMD, SPMD, and Vector 523
6.4 Hardware Multithreading 530
6.5 Multicore and Other Shared Memory Multiprocessors 533
6.6 Introduction to Graphics Processing Units 538
6.7 Clusters, Warehouse Scale Computers, and Other Message-Passing
Multiprocessors 545
6.8 Introduction to Multiprocessor Network Topologies 550
6.9 Communicating to the Outside World: Cluster Networking 553
6.10 Multiprocessor Benchmarks and Performance Models 554
6.11 Real Stuff: Benchmarking and Rooflines of the Intel Core i7 960 and the
NVIDIA Tesla GPU 564
xii Contents

6.12 Going Faster: Multiple Processors and Matrix Multiply 569

6.13 Fallacies and Pitfalls 572
6.14 Concluding Remarks 574
6.15 Historical Perspective and Further Reading 577
6.16 Exercises 577

A P P E N D I X

A The Basics of Logic Design A-2

A.1 Introduction A-3

A.2 Gates, Truth Tables, and Logic Equations A-4
A.3 Combinational Logic A-9
A.4 Using a Hardware Description Language A-20
A.5 Constructing a Basic Arithmetic Logic Unit A-26
A.6 Faster Addition: Carry Lookahead A-37
A.7 Clocks A-47
A.8 Memory Elements: Flip-Flops, Latches, and Registers A-49
A.9 Memory Elements: SRAMs and DRAMs A-57
A.10 Finite-State Machines A-66
A.11 Timing Methodologies A-71
A.12 Field Programmable Devices A-77
A.13 Concluding Remarks A-78
A.14 Exercises A-79
Index I-1

O N L I N E C O N T E N T

B Graphics and Computing GPUs B-2

B.1 Introduction B-3
B.2 GPU System Architectures B-7
B.3 Programming GPUs B-12
B.4 Multithreaded Multiprocessor Architecture B-25
B.5 Parallel Memory System B-36
B.6 Floating Point Arithmetic B-41
B.7 Real Stuff: The NVIDIA GeForce 8800 B-46
B.8 Real Stuff: Mapping Applications to GPUs B-55
B.9 Fallacies and Pitfalls B-72
B.10 Concluding Remarks B-76
B.11 Historical Perspective and Further Reading B-77
 Contents xiii

C
Mapping Control to Hardware C-2

C.1 Introduction C-3

C.2 Implementing Combinational Control Units C-4
C.3 Implementing Finite-State Machine Control C-8
C.4 Implementing the Next-State Function with a Sequencer C-22
C.5 Translating a Microprogram to Hardware C-28
C.6 Concluding Remarks C-32
C.7 Exercises C-33

D  Survey of RISC Architectures for Desktop, Server,

A
and Embedded Computers D-2
D.1 Introduction D-3
D.2 Addressing Modes and Instruction Formats D-5
D.3 Instructions: The MIPS Core Subset D-9
D.4 Instructions: Multimedia Extensions of the Desktop/Server RISCs D-16
D.5 Instructions: Digital Signal-Processing Extensions of the Embedded
RISCs D-19
D.6 Instructions: Common Extensions to MIPS Core D-20
D.7 Instructions Unique to MIPS-64 D-25
D.8 Instructions Unique to Alpha D-27
D.9 Instructions Unique to SPARC v9 D-29
D.10 Instructions Unique to PowerPC D-32
D.11 Instructions Unique to PA-RISC 2.0 D-34
D.12 Instructions Unique to ARM D-36
D.13 Instructions Unique to Thumb D-38
D.14 Instructions Unique to SuperH D-39
D.15 Instructions Unique to M32R D-40
D.16 Instructions Unique to MIPS-16 D-40
D.17 Concluding Remarks D-43
Glossary G-1
Further Reading FR-1
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the

source of all true art and science.
Albert Einstein, What I Believe, 1930

About This Book

We believe that learning in computer science and engineering should reflect
the current state of the field, as well as introduce the principles that are shaping
computing. We also feel that readers in every specialty of computing need
to appreciate the organizational paradigms that determine the capabilities,
performance, energy, and, ultimately, the success of computer systems.
Modern computer technology requires professionals of every computing
specialty to understand both hardware and software. The interaction between
hardware and software at a variety of levels also offers a framework for understanding
the fundamentals of computing. Whether your primary interest is hardware or
software, computer science or electrical engineering, the central ideas in computer
organization and design are the same. Thus, our emphasis in this book is to show
the relationship between hardware and software and to focus on the concepts that
are the basis for current computers.
The recent switch from uniprocessor to multicore microprocessors confirmed
the soundness of this perspective, given since the first edition. While programmers
could ignore the advice and rely on computer architects, compiler writers, and silicon
engineers to make their programs run faster or be more energy-efficient without
change, that era is over. For programs to run faster, they must become parallel.
While the goal of many researchers is to make it possible for programmers to be
unaware of the underlying parallel nature of the hardware they are programming,
it will take many years to realize this vision. Our view is that for at least the next
decade, most programmers are going to have to understand the hardware/software
interface if they want programs to run efficiently on parallel computers.
The audience for this book includes those with little experience in assembly
language or logic design who need to understand basic computer organization as
well as readers with backgrounds in assembly language and/or logic design who
want to learn how to design a computer or understand how a system works and
why it performs as it does.
xvi Preface

About the Other Book

Some readers may be familiar with Computer Architecture: A Quantitative
Approach, popularly known as Hennessy and Patterson. (This book in turn is
often called Patterson and Hennessy.) Our motivation in writing the earlier book
was to describe the principles of computer architecture using solid engineering
fundamentals and quantitative cost/performance tradeoffs. We used an approach
that combined examples and measurements, based on commercial systems, to
create realistic design experiences. Our goal was to demonstrate that computer
architecture could be learned using quantitative methodologies instead of a
descriptive approach. It was intended for the serious computing professional who
wanted a detailed understanding of computers.
A majority of the readers for this book do not plan to become computer
architects. The performance and energy efficiency of future software systems will
be dramatically affected, however, by how well software designers understand the
basic hardware techniques at work in a system. Thus, compiler writers, operating
system designers, database programmers, and most other software engineers
need a firm grounding in the principles presented in this book. Similarly,
hardware designers must understand clearly the effects of their work on software
applications.
Thus, we knew that this book had to be much more than a subset of the material
in Computer Architecture, and the material was extensively revised to match the
different audience. We were so happy with the result that the subsequent editions of
Computer Architecture were revised to remove most of the introductory material;
hence, there is much less overlap today than with the first editions of both books.

Why ARMv8 for This Edition?

The choice of instruction set architecture is clearly critical to the pedagogy of a
computer architecture textbook. We didn’t want an instruction set that required
describing unnecessary baroque features for someone’s first instruction set, no
matter how popular it is. Ideally, your initial instruction set should be an exemplar,
just like your first love. Surprisingly, you remember both fondly.
Since there were so many choices at the time, for the first edition of Computer
Architecture: A Quantitative Approach we invented our own RISC-style instruction
set. Given the growing popularity and the simple elegance of the MIPS instruction
set, we switched to it for the first edition of this book and to later editions of the
other book. MIPS has served us and our readers well.
The incredible popularity of the ARM instruction set—14 billion instances were
shipped in 2015—led some instructors to ask for a version of the book based on
ARM. We even tried a version of it for a subset of chapters for an Asian edition
of this book. Alas, as we feared, the baroqueness of the ARMv7 (32-bit address)
instruction set was too much for us to bear, so we did not consider making the
change permanent.
 Preface xvii

To our surprise, when ARM offered a 64-bit address instruction set, it made so
many significant changes that in our opinion it bore more similarity to MIPS than
it did to ARMv7:
■ The registers were expanded from 16 to 32;
■ The PC is no longer one of these registers;
■ The conditional execution option for every instruction was dropped;
■ Load multiple and store multiple instructions were dropped;
■ PC-relative branches with large address fields were added;
■ Addressing modes were made consistent for all data transfer instructions;
■ Fewer instructions set condition codes;
and so on. Although ARMv8 is much, much larger than MIPS—the ARMv8
architecture reference manual is 5400 pages long—we found a subset of ARMv8
instructions that is similar in size and nature to the MIPS core used in prior editions,
which we call LEGv8 to avoid confusion. Hence, we wrote this ARMv8 edition.
Given that ARMv8 offers both 32-bit address instructions and 64-bit address
instructions within essentially the same instruction set, we could have switched
instruction sets but kept the address size at 32 bits. Our publisher polled the faculty
who used the book and found that 75% either preferred larger addresses or were
neutral, so we increased the address space to 64 bits, which may make more sense
today than 32 bits.
The only changes for the ARMv8 edition from the MIPS edition are those associated
with the change in instruction sets, which primarily affects Chapter 2, Chapter 3, the
virtual memory section in Chapter 5, and the short VMIPS example in Chapter 6. In
Chapter 4, we switched to ARMv8 instructions, changed several figures, and added
a few “Elaboration” sections, but the changes were simpler than we had feared.
Chapter 1 and the rest of the appendices are virtually unchanged. The extensive online
documentation and combined with the magnitude of ARMv8 make it difficult to come
up with a replacement for the MIPS version of Appendix A (“Assemblers, Linkers, and
the SPIM Simulator” in the MIPS Fifth Edition). Instead, Chapters 2, 3, and 5 include
quick overviews of the hundreds of ARMv8 instructions outside of the core ARMv8
instructions that we cover in detail in the rest of the book. We believe readers of this
edition will have a good understanding of ARMv8 without having to plow through
thousands of pages of online documentation. And for any reader that adventurous, it
would probably be wise to read these surveys first to get a framework on which to hang
on the many features of ARMv8.
Note that we are not (yet) saying that we are permanently switching to ARMv8.
For example, both ARMv8 and MIPS versions of the fifth edition are available for
sale now. One possibility is that there will be a demand for both MIPS and ARMv8
versions for future editions of the book, or there may even be a demand for a third
xviii Preface

version with yet another instruction set. We’ll cross that bridge when we come to it.
For now, we look forward to your reaction to and feedback on this effort.

Changes for the Fifth Edition

We had six major goals for the fifth edition of Computer Organization and Design:
demonstrate the importance of understanding hardware with a running example;
highlight main themes across the topics using margin icons that are introduced
early; update examples to reflect changeover from PC era to post-PC era; spread
the material on I/O throughout the book rather than isolating it into a single
chapter; update the technical content to reflect changes in the industry since the
publication of the fourth edition in 2009; and put appendices and optional sections
online instead of including a CD to lower costs and to make this edition viable as
an electronic book.
Before discussing the goals in detail, let’s look at the table on the next page.
It shows the hardware and software paths through the material. Chapters 1, 4,
5, and 6 are found on both paths, no matter what the experience or the focus.
Chapter 1 discusses the importance of energy and how it motivates the switch
from single core to multicore microprocessors and introduces the eight great
ideas in computer architecture. Chapter 2 is likely to be review material for the
hardware-oriented, but it is essential reading for the software-oriented, especially
for those readers interested in learning more about compilers and object-oriented
programming languages. Chapter 3 is for readers interested in constructing a
datapath or in learning more about floating-point arithmetic. Some will skip
parts of Chapter 3, either because they don’t need them, or because they offer
a review. However, we introduce the running example of matrix multiply in
this chapter, showing how subword parallels offers a fourfold improvement, so
don’t skip Sections 3.6 to 3.8. Chapter 4 explains pipelined processors. Sections
4.1, 4.5, and 4.10 give overviews, and Section 4.12 gives the next performance
boost for matrix multiply for those with a software focus. Those with a hardware
focus, however, will find that this chapter presents core material; they may also,
depending on their background, want to read Appendix A on logic design first.
The last chapter on multicores, multiprocessors, and clusters, is mostly new
content and should be read by everyone. It was significantly reorganized in this
edition to make the flow of ideas more natural and to include much more depth
on GPUs, warehouse-scale computers, and the hardware–software interface of
network interface cards that are key to clusters.
 Preface xix

Chapter or Appendix Sections Software focus Hardware focus

1. Computer Abstractions 1.1 to 1.11

and Technology 1.12 (History)
2.1 to 2.14
2. Instructions: Language 2.15 (Compilers & Java)
of the Computer 2.16 to 2.21
2.22 (History)
D. RISC Instruction-Set Architectures D.1 to D.17
3.1 to 3.5

3.6 to 3.9 (Subword Parallelism)

3. Arithmetic for Computers
3.10 to 3.11 (Fallacies)

3.12 (History)
A. The Basics of Logic Design A.1 to A.13
4.1 (Overview)
4.2 (Logic Conventions)
4.3 to 4.4 (Simple Implementation)
4.5 (Pipelining Overview)

4. The Processor 4.6 (Pipelined Datapath)

4.7 to 4.9 (Hazards, Exceptions)
4.10 to 4.12 (Parallel, Real Stuff)
4.13 (Verilog Pipeline Control)
4.14 to 4.15 (Fallacies)
4.16 (History)
C. Mapping Control to Hardware C.1 to C.6

5.1 to 5.10

5.11 (Redundant Arrays of

Inexpensive Disks)
5. Large and Fast: Exploiting
Memory Hierarchy
5.12 (Verilog Cache Controller)
5.13 to 5.16
5.17 (History)
6.1 to 6.8
6. Parallel Process from Client 6.9 (Networks)
to Cloud 6.10 to 6.14
6.15 (History)

B. Graphics Processor Units B.1 to B.13

Read carefully Read if have time Reference

Review or read Read for culture
xx Preface

The first of the six goals for this fifth edition was to demonstrate the importance
of understanding modern hardware to get good performance and energy efficiency
with a concrete example. As mentioned above, we start with subword parallelism
in Chapter 3 to improve matrix multiply by a factor of 4. We double performance
in Chapter 4 by unrolling the loop to demonstrate the value of instruction-level
parallelism. Chapter 5 doubles performance again by optimizing for caches using
blocking. Finally, Chapter 6 demonstrates a speedup of 14 from 16 processors by
using thread-level parallelism. All four optimizations in total add just 24 lines of C
code to our initial matrix multiply example.
The second goal was to help readers separate the forest from the trees by
identifying eight great ideas of computer architecture early and then pointing
out all the places they occur throughout the rest of the book. We use (hopefully)
easy-to-remember margin icons and highlight the corresponding word in the text
to remind readers of these eight themes. There are nearly 100 citations in the book.
No chapter has less than seven examples of great ideas, and no idea is cited less than
five times. Performance via parallelism, pipelining, and prediction are the three
most popular great ideas, followed closely by Moore’s Law. The processor chapter
(4) is the one with the most examples, which is not a surprise since it probably
received the most attention from computer architects. The one great idea found in
every chapter is performance via parallelism, which is a pleasant observation given
the recent emphasis in parallelism in the field and in editions of this book.
The third goal was to recognize the generation change in computing from
the PC era to the post-PC era by this edition with our examples and material.
Thus, Chapter 1 dives into the guts of a tablet computer rather than a PC, and
Chapter 6 describes the computing infrastructure of the cloud. We also feature the
ARM, which is the instruction set of choice in the personal mobile devices of the
post-PC era, as well as the x86 instruction set that dominated the PC era and (so
far) dominates cloud computing.
The fourth goal was to spread the I/O material throughout the book rather
than have it in its own chapter, much as we spread parallelism throughout all the
chapters in the fourth edition. Hence, I/O material in this edition can be found in
Sections 1.4, 4.9, 5.2, 5.5, 5.11, and 6.9. The thought is that readers (and instructors)
are more likely to cover I/O if it’s not segregated to its own chapter.
This is a fast-moving field, and, as is always the case for our new editions, an
important goal is to update the technical content. The running example is the ARM
Cortex A53 and the Intel Core i7, reflecting our post-PC era. Other highlights
include a tutorial on GPUs that explains their unique terminology, more depth on
the warehouse-scale computers that make up the cloud, and a deep dive into 10
Gigabyte Ethernet cards.
To keep the main book short and compatible with electronic books, we placed
the optional material as online appendices instead of on a companion CD as in
prior editions.
Finally, we updated all the exercises in the book.
While some elements changed, we have preserved useful book elements from
prior editions. To make the book work better as a reference, we still place definitions
of new terms in the margins at their first occurrence. The book element called
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
scribes frequently write theffect for the effect, tharray, thonour for
the honóur, and so on. Even if they write the effect as two words,
we must often read them as one. In one case, we even find the thus
treated before an aspirated h, as in th'harneys, A 2896; however,
harneys is, after all, of French origin.

Much more curious is the similar treatment of the pronoun thee; as

in thalighte for thee alighte, B 1660. Also, of the pronoun me; as in
dó m'endyte, G 32; see M' in the Glossary, p. 157.

Ne is usually elided; cf. nis, nam, nat, nin, nof, &c., in the Glossary;
but not in A 631, 3110.

Even unaccented o can be elided; in fact, it is very common in the

case of the word to; so that the scribes often write tabyde for to
abyde, and the like. This vowel is easily run on to another, as in
Italian poetry, without counting as a syllable; as in So estátly[77], A
281; cf. Placébo answérde, E 1520.

§ 113. The vowel i blends so easily with a following vowel that we

feel no surprise at finding fúrial used, practically, as a dissyllable (F
448); merídionàl treated as if it had but four syllables (F 263); and
spéciallỳ as if it had but three (A 15). A similar slurring is easily
perceived with regard to the o in ámorouslỳ (E 1680) and the u in
náturellỳ (B 298). The reader of English poetry must be quite
familiar with similar usages. Vál-er-yán, instead of Valérian, in G 350,
is a little forced. In many cases of difficulty, the accent is marked in
the Glossary.

§ 114. Suppression of syllables. We find, not only in Chaucer, but

elsewhere, that light or very weak syllables do not always count for
the scansion; so that, whilst, on the one hand, we can read
Cáunterbùry as four syllables, with a secondary accent on u (as in A
27), there is no difficulty in pronouncing it, as many do, as if it were
Cáunterb'rỳ, with the secondary accent on the y (as in A 16, A 22)
[78]. It seems hardly necessary to enlarge upon this part of the
subject; it is sufficient to say that mere counting of syllables will not
explain the scansion of English poetry. Accent reigns supreme, and
the strong syllables overpower the weak ones, even to the extent of
suppressing them altogether.

A few common words may be noted, in which the final -e is usually

suppressed, and often not written. Such are hire, here, her; oure,
youre, myne, thyne; swiche, whiche, eche; were; here, there; have,
hadde; wolde, sholde (less frequently); and some others. Even here
accent still plays its part. If here, her, is emphatic, as at the end of a
line, it is dissyllabic; see Here in the Glossary. If hadde is emphatic,
meaning 'he possessed,' it is usually dissyllabic; we even find had-dë
he (A 298, 386).

Thise (dhiiz) is written as the pl. of this; but is always monosyllabic.

Similarly, the Ellesmere MS. usually has hise (hiiz) as the plural of
the possessive pronoun his; but I have altered this to his, except in
the prose pieces. The pl. of som is written some and somme, but is
usually monosyllabic (sum).

A good example of the power of accent is in the phrase At thát tym',

A 102; where tymë becomes enclitic, and loses its accent and its
final -e.

In the endings -ed, -el, -en, -er, -es, as has been already noted, the
e may be suppressed, when the final -l, -n, -r practically become
vocalic.

But observe, that the e is also dropped, not unfrequently, even in

-est, -eth; hence seyst for seyest, and the like. This requires care,
because the final -eth is usually written in full, though seldom
sounded. In A 1641, her-eth is dissyllabic, and so also is brek-eth in
1642; but in 1643, we have think'th for thinketh, and com'th for
cometh. This is the more remarkable, because it is contrary to
modern usage; but note the old habit of contracting the third person
singular; as in rit for rydeth.
Note the dissyllabic bánish'd in A 1725, with the accent on the first
syllable; as contrasted with the trisyllabic desérv-ed in A 1726, with
the accent on the second.

§ 115. Contraction. Certain contractions need special notice. This is

was pronounced as one word, and often written this. Whether
written this or this is, the sense is the same, but the usual
pronunciation was this (dhis); see A 1091, E 56, &c.

Whether is usually cut down to whe'r, and is frequently written

wher.

Benedicite once occurs as a word of five syllables, where Theseus

drawls it out to express his wonder, A 1785. where else (I believe) it
is ben'cite, in three syllables only. So also By'r for by our, Book Duch.
544; A godd's halfe, id. 370.

The phrase I ne at the beginning of a line was very rapidly

pronounced, almost as I n' (iin); as in I n' saugh, A 764; I n' seye, B
1139; so also Me n' (meen) for Me ne, Pitee, 105 (see the note).

§ 116. For further details, see Ten Brink's work on Chaucers Sprache
und Verskunst. It may be as well to say that he has remarkably
failed to understand the effect of the caesura, and is much troubled
by the occurrence there of extra syllables. Yet this was the necessary
result of Chaucer's copying French models.

The explanation is simple. The caesura implies a pause. But elision

can only take place where there is NO pause. Hence the caesural
pause ALWAYS prevents elision. Hence, also, there is often a
redundant syllable here, just as there is at the end of the line. This is
a lesson which the student should learn at once; it is easily verified.

I am aware that this lesson is difficult, being opposed to modern

ideas; and it will be long before some readers will come to
understand that the final e should be kept in the French word seg-e,
A 56; in the pp. wonn-e, A 59; in the pp. y-com-e, A 77; in the pl.
crull-e, A 81; and so on. It is true that Chaucer, in such cases,
usually begins the latter part of the line with a vowel, for the sake of
smoothness; but he does not do this invariably; see A 77. Much
clearer examples occur in the following (A 84, 130, 184, 198, 224,
343, 491):—

And-wónder.lỳ delíver and-gréet of-stréngthe.

Wel-cóud' she-cárie | a-mórsel ànd wel-képe.

What-shóld' he-stúdie | and mák' him-sélven wóod.

His-héed was-bállëd | that-shóon as-ány glás.

Ther-ás he-wístë | to-hán a-góod pitáuncë.

Withóute bákë métë | was-név'r his-hóus.

[79]Wýd-was his-párish' | and-hóuses fér asónder.

We have noted, however, that Chaucer varied from his French

models in making the place of the caesura moveable; and the result
was to bring the two portions of each line into closer relationship.
Hence he takes great care to make his redundant syllables as light
as possible; thus preparing the way for later authors, who came to
regard a redundant syllable as a thing to be sparingly used.
Moreover, when they did use it, inasmuch as the original value of the
caesura was little known, they inserted such a redundant syllable in
other positions; in order to avoid monotony.

§ 117. A discussion of the four-accent metre, as in The House of

Fame, &c., need not occupy us long. The line is shorter, so that the
middle pause is less necessary and of much less account. Hence
redundant syllables at the caesura are rare. On the other hand,
omission of the first syllable is much commoner. In all other respects
the laws are the same.

Two examples of the loss of the initial syllable may suffice.

Cáuseth swíche | drémes oftë (HF. 35).

Túrn'-us év'ry | dréem to-gódë (HF. 58).

Examples of medial redundant syllables are these:—

I-nóot, but-whóso | of-thése mirácles (HF. 12).

In-stúdie | or-mèl.ancól.iòus (30).

And-whén she-wíste | that-hé was-fáls (393).

Til-thát he-félte | that-Í had-hétë (569).

Jóy' or-sórow' | wher-só hit-bé (BD. 10).
For-cértes swétë | I-nám but-déed (204).
To-slépë | that-ríght upón my-bóok (273).

That-hádd' y-fólow'd | and-cóud' no-góod (390).

Feminine or double rimes are very common. Thus, in HF. 531-546,

we have eight such rimes in succession.

§ 118. Alliteration. As our oldest poetry was alliterative, alliteration

has always been considered a permissible, and indeed a favourite,
ornament of English verse. I shall only remark here that Chaucer
affords excellent examples of it, and employs it with much skill. One
well-known passage in the Knightes Tale (A 2601-16) has often been
admired on this account. It is needless to cite more examples. The
reader may consult the dissertation on 'The Alliteration of Chaucer,'
by C.F. M‘Clumpha; Leipzig, n. d. (about 1886).
§ 119. Chaucer's Authorities. The question as to 'The Learning of
Chaucer' is so fully discussed in the second volume of Lounsbury's
Studies in Chaucer, that it is unnecessary to say much here upon this
subject. The reader will find, in the 'Index of Authors Quoted or
Referred to' given at p. 381 below, not only a fairly complete list of
such authors, but a detailed enumeration of all the quotations which,
with tolerable certainty, have been traced to their origin.

In particular, we cannot but be struck by his familiarity with the

Vulgate version of the Bible. He quotes it, as may be seen, very
nearly three hundred times, and his quotations refer to nearly all
parts of it, including the apocryphal books of Tobit, Judith,
Susannah, the Maccabees, and especially Ecclesiasticus. It is
somewhat remarkable that the book of the Old Testament which is
quoted most frequently is not, as we might expect, the Psalms, but
the Book of Proverbs, which was a mine of sententious wealth to the
medieval writers. The book of the New Testament which received
most of his attention was the Gospel of St. Matthew.

As regards the languages in which Chaucer was skilled, we may first

of all observe that, like his contemporaries, he was totally ignorant
of Greek. There are some nine or ten quotations from Plato, three
from Homer, two from Aristotle, and one from Euripides; but they
are all taken at second-hand, through the medium of Boethius. The
sole quotation from Herodotus in the Canterbury Tales is copied from
Jerome.

On the other hand, Chaucer was remarkable for his knowledge of

Italian, in which it does not appear that any other English writer of
his period was at all skilled. His obligations to Boccaccio are well
known; the Filostrato being the principal source of the long poem of
Troilus, whilst the influence of the Teseide appears not only in the
Knightes Tale, but in the Parliament of Foules, in Anelida, and (to the
extent of five stanzas) in Troilus. We also find a few references, as
Dr. Köppell has shewn, to Boccaccio's Amorosa Visione. With Dante's
Divina Commedia he seems to have been especially familiar, as he
quotes from all parts of it; we may note, however, that the greatest
number of quotations is taken from the Inferno; whilst the only
cantos of the Paradiso which he cites are the first, the fourteenth,
the twenty-second, and the thirty-third. The poem which most bears
the impress of Dante is The House of Fame; in the Canterbury Tales,
the principal borrowings from that author appear in the story of
Ugolino (in the Monkes Tale); in some of the stanzas of the
Invocation at the beginning of the Second Nonnes Tale (one of
which bears a remarkable resemblance to a stanza in the Prioresses
Tale[80]); and in the very express reference which occurs in the Wife
of Bath's Tale (D 1125). Chaucer's sole quotation from the Italian
works of Petrarch is in Troilus, where he translates the eighty-eighth
Sonnet. It must not be forgotten, at the same time, that Chaucer
was further indebted to Boccaccio's Latin works, entitled De Casibus
Virorum Illustrium, De Genealogia Deorum, and De Mulieribus Claris.
On the other hand, Prof. Lounsbury is perfectly justified in
contending that 'there is not the slightest proof that Chaucer had a
knowledge of the existence' of the Decameron. Reasonable
carefulness will certainly shew that he was wholly ignorant of it; and
the notion that Chaucer borrowed the general plan of his Tales from
that of his Italian predecessor, is wholly baseless; the plans are, in
fact, more remarkable for their divergence than for their similarity.
The only apparent point of contact between Chaucer and the
Decameron is in the Tale of Griselda; and in this case we know
clearly that it was from Petrarch's Latin version, and not from the
Italian, that the story was really derived.

With Anglo-French Chaucer may well have been familiar from an

early age, so that the adaptation of the Man of Lawes Tale from the
Chronicle by Nicholas Trivet could not have caused him much
trouble. But he was also perfectly familiar with the French of the
continent, and was under great obligations to Guillaume de Lorris
and Jean de Meun, and to Guillaume de Machault. He made
translations of poems by Guillaume de Deguileville and Oto de
Graunson. He was doubtless well acquainted with the writings of
Froissart and of Eustace Deschamps. He also quotes from Jean de
Vignay, and refers (once only) to the Alexandreid of Philippe Gautier
de Chatillon. There is some reason to think that he consulted the
Miracles de Notre Dame by Gautier de Coincy; see vol. v. 491. The
Nun's Priest's Tale was derived, most likely, from the Roman de
Renard, and not from Marie de France, who gives the tale in a
briefer form. The Parson's Tale is from a French treatise by Frère
Lorens. We may also well suppose that Chaucer had seen several of
the old romances in a French form; such as the romances relating to
Alexander, Arthur, Charlemagne, and Octovien; Sir Bevis, Sir Guy,
Libeaus Desconus, Sir Tristram and Sir Percival; though he makes
remarkably little use of such material. What was the extent of his
knowledge of the Roman de Troie as written by Benoist de Sainte-
More, it is not very easy to say; but he probably had read it. Several
of the Canterbury Tales seem to have been derived from French
Fabliaux or from Latin stories of a similar character. The Squieres
Tale reminds us of the romance of Cleomades and of the Travels of
Marco Polo.

But it is to Latin authors that Chaucer was, on the whole, most

indebted for his quotations and illustrations; and especially to the
authors of medieval times. Of the great poets of antiquity, he was
not acquainted with many; but he read such as he could attain to
with great diligence. His chief book was Ovid; and it is almost
certain, from the freedom with which he quotes him, that he had a
MS. copy of his own among his 'sixty bokes olde and newe' (Leg.
G.W.; A. 273). He quotes from the Ars Amatoria, Amores, Epistolae
ex Ponto, Fasti, Heroides, Metamorphoses, Remedia Amoris, and
Tristia; so that he had read this author rather extensively. His next
prime favourites were Vergil and Statius; and he knew something of
Lucan and Claudian. We may be sure that his quotations from
Horace and Juvenal were taken at second-hand; and that he had
never read those authors himself. He glanced at the Prologue to the
Satires of Persius, and he was acquainted with the first Elegy of
Maximian. He seems to have seen a copy of Valerius Flaccus.
Of the older prose writers, he was best acquainted with the famous
treatise by Boethius, and with the Somnium Scipionis of Cicero as
preserved and commented on by Macrobius. He also quotes from
other works by Cicero; from the work De Factis Memorabilibus by
Valerius Maximus; and from some of the letters and treatises of
Seneca[81]. There is evidence of his acquaintance with Suetonius
and Florus; and, possibly, with the Fables of Hyginus. I find no sure
trace of his acquaintance with Orosius, or with the works of the
elder Pliny. It is almost certain that he was unacquainted with Livy;
the story of Lucretia is really from St. Augustine[82] and Ovid; and
that of Virginia, from Le Roman de la Rose.

As to the Latin fathers, we have the most ample evidence that

Chaucer had very carefully studied the treatise of St. Jerome against
Jovinian, which happens to include all that is known of the Liber
Aureolus de Nuptiis by Theophrastus. How far he was really
acquainted with the writings of St. Augustine and St. Bernard, we
cannot very well discover. The quotations from St. Gregory, St. Basil,
and others, in the Parson's Tale, are all given at second-hand.

The authors of later times whom Chaucer quotes or mentions are

rather numerous; although, in many instances, he only quotes them
at second-hand; as is (usually) pointed out in the Index. It may
suffice to mention here some of the more important examples.

The life of St. Cecilia is from Jacobus de Voragine and Simeon

Metaphrastes. The treatise by pope Innocent III. entitled De
Contemptu Mundi, or otherwise, De Miseria Conditionis Humanae,
was translated by our author into English verse; but only portions of
it are preserved, viz. in the Man of Lawes Tale, and (adapted to the
heroic measure) in the Pardoner's Tale. Alanus de Insulis wrote
pieces entitled De Planctu Naturae, Anticlaudianus, and Liber
Parabolarum; all of these are occasionally quoted or referred to, and
the first of them clearly suggested the Parliament of Foules.
The Historia Troiae of Guido delle Colonne is made use of in Troilus
and in the Legend of Good Women; and it is likely that Dares
Phrygius and Dictys Cretensis were only known to Chaucer through
the medium of Guido and of Benoist de Sainte-More. The Liber
Consolationis et Consilii of Albertano of Brescia was most useful in
supplying material for the Tale of Melibeus; which, however, was
more immediately derived from the French version by Jean de Meun.
Chaucer also knew something of the Liber de Amore Dei by the
same author; and probably had read a third treatise of his, entitled
De Arte Tacendi et Loquendi. Other books which drew his attention
were the famous Gesta Romanorum; the Polycraticus of John of
Salisbury; the Epistola Valerii ad Rufinum by Walter Map; the Liber
Distichorum of Dionysius Cato, with the supplement entitled Facetus;
and Albricus De Imaginibus Deorum. We also find casual allusions to
the Aurora of Petrus de Riga; a poem by Martianus Capella; the
Bestiary entitled Physiologus; the Burnellus of Nigellus Wireker; the
Liber de Amore of Pamphilus Maurilianus; the Megacosmos of
Bernardus Silvestris; the Nova Poetria of Geoffrey de Vinsauf; and
the Speculum Historiale of Vincent of Beauvais. We need not include
in the list authors such as Cassiodorus and Isidore of Seville, who
are certainly quoted at second-hand. On the other hand, we must
not forget the writers whom Chaucer consulted for special purposes,
in connection with astrology and alchemy; such as, in the former
case, Messahala, Ptolemy, Alchabitius, Almansor, Zael, and the
aphorisms attributed to Hermes Trismegistus; and, in the latter case,
the same Hermes, Jean de Meun, Arnoldus de Villa Nova, Senior
Zadith, and others whose names do not expressly appear. Several
authors are mentioned by name, with whose writings he was
probably unacquainted; such as Alhazen, Averroes, Avicenna,
Constantinus Afer, Dioscorides, Galen, Gatisden, Hippocrates, Rhasis,
Rufus, and Vitellio; and we can see that some of these names were
simply borrowed from Le Roman de la Rose. There is small reason to
suppose that he knew more than the name of the huge work De
Causa Dei by Thomas Bradwardine. As to Agathon, Corinnus, Lollius,
and Zanzis, the suggestions already made in the notes upon the
passages where these names occur contain, to the best of my belief,
all that has hitherto been ascertained.

GLOSSARIAL INDEX.
The references in this index are given according to the following
scheme.

Poems denoted by Arabic numerals are Minor Poems, as printed in

vol. i. Thus, under 'A, prep. on,' the reference '3. 370' means Minor
Poem no. 3, line 370, or l. 370 of the Book of the Duchesse. The
letter 'R.' refers to the Romaunt of the Rose, Fragment A, in vol. i.
pp. 93-164; the rest of the Poem, not being Chaucer's, is indexed
separately. Thus 'R. 163' means l. 163 of the Romaunt.

The five books of Boethius (in vol. ii.) are denoted by B 1, B 2, B 3,

B 4, B 5, respectively; and the 'prose' and 'metrical' sections are
denoted by 'p' and 'm'. Thus, under 'Abaissen,' the reference 'B 4. p
7. 56' means 'Boethius, bk. iv. prose 7, line 56.' The five books of
Troilus (also in vol. ii.) are denoted by T. i., T. ii., T. iii., T. iv., and T. v.
Thus 'T. iii. 1233' means 'Troilus, bk. iii., line 1233.'

The House of Fame and the Legend of Good Women (in vol. iii.) are
denoted by 'HF.' and 'L.' respectively. If, in the latter case, the italic
letter 'a' follows the number of the line, the reference is to the
earlier (or A-text) of the Prologue to the Legend. Thus 'HF. 865'
means 'House of Fame, line 865.' Again, 'L. 2075' means 'Legend of
Good Women, line 2075'; and 'L. 200 a' means 'Legend, &c., line 200
of the text in the upper part of the page.'

The Prologue and the two books of the Treatise on the Astrolabe (in
vol. iii.) are denoted, respectively, by 'A. pr.', 'A. i.', and 'A. ii.' Thus,
under 'Abate', the reference 'A. ii. 10. 8' means 'Astrolabe, bk. ii. §
10, line 8'; and 'A. pr. 10' means 'Astrolabe, prologue, line 10.'
References to the Canterbury Tales (in vol. iv.) are known by the use
of the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and I, which are used to denote
the various Groups into which the Tales are divided. In this case, 'A'
is never followed by a full stop or by Roman numerals, as when the
'Astrolabe' is referred to; and such a reference as 'B 5,' meaning line
5 of Group B, is quite distinct from 'B 5. p 1. 1,' where 'B 5' means
bk. v. of Boethius, and is invariably accompanied by the 'p' or 'm'
denoting the 'prose' or 'metre.'

Summary of the contents of volumes i-iv. Vol. i. contains R.

(Romaunt of the Rose), Fragment A alone being Chaucer's; and the
Minor Poems, which are all numbered, viz. 1 (ABC.); 2 (Compleynte
unto Pite); 3 (Book of the Duchesse); 4 (Mars); 5 (Parlement of
Foules); 6 (Compleint to his Lady); 7 (Anelida); 8 (Wordes to Adam);
9 (Former Age); 10 (Fortune); 11 (Merciless Beauty); 12 (To
Rosemounde); 13 (Truth); 14 (Gentilesse); 15 (Lak of
Stedfastnesse); 16 (Envoy to Scogan); 17 (Envoy to Bukton); 18
(Venus); 19 (To his Purse); 20 (Proverbs); 21 (Against Women
Unconstant); 22 (Amorous Complaint); 23 (Balade of Compleynt).

Vol. ii. contains B. (Boethius, in five books, viz. B 1, B 2, &c.); and T.

(Troilus, in five books, viz. T. i., T. ii., &c.).

Vol. iii. contains HF. (House of Fame); L. (Legend of Good Women,

with two Prologues, the older one being marked a); and A.
(Astrolabe), with its pr. (prologue), and two books (i. and ii.).

Vol. iv. contains the Canterbury Tales, divided into Groups denoted
by A, B, C ... F. (The Tale of Gamelyn, not being Chaucer's, is
indexed separately.)

Alphabetically, the references are to A (Group A of Cant. Tales); A.

(Astrolabe); B (Group B of C. T.); B 1 ... B 5 (Boethius, books 1 to
5); C, D, E, F, G, H, I (Groups C to I of C. T.); HF. (House of Fame);
L. (Legend of Good Women); R. (Romaunt of the Rose); T. i. ... T. v.
(Troilus, books 1 to 5). The Minor Poems, numbered 1 to 23, are
given above. When the letter 'n' follows a reference, the given form
will not be found in the text, but in the footnotes.

Abbreviations. Besides s., adj., and adv., for substantive,

adjective, adverb,, the following are used in a special sense:—v., a
verb in the infinitive mood; ger., gerund; pr. s., present tense, 3rd
person singular; pr. pl., present tense, 3rd person plural. Other
persons are denoted by the figures 1 or 2.

The etymology of words is given occasionally, in the case of some of

the more difficult words. Languages are cited in the usual manner,
as A.F. for Anglo-French, O.F. for Old French, A.S. for Anglo-Saxon,
and the like.

A large number of references are given, but they are by no means

exhaustive. I have tried to include nearly all words to which any
interest is likely to be attached. In the case of verbal forms, every
form is duly parsed. References to 'notes' are to the Notes in the
present edition.

Proper names will be found in a separate Index.

A, the first letter of the alphabet, T. i. 171; the letter A, A 161.

A, indef. art. a, A 24, &c.; al a, the whole of a, E 1165; one, D 1396;

one and the same, 21. 5; about, some, L. 2075.

A, prep. on, T. ii. 1098; A 3516; on (the), R. 163; in, H 318; for, 3.
370, 758; in (the), T. i. 363; A-nighte, by night, B 3758, G 880; A-
dayes, a-days, E 1164, G 1396; A-morwe, on the morrow, A 822; A
three, in three, A 2934; A goddes half, 'on God's side,' in God's
name, D 50; A goddes name, in God's name, A 854.

A! int. ah! 3. 213.

A! ha! interj. aha! T. i. 868, ii. 589, iii. 65; B 1629, D 586; HF. 865.
Abaissen, ger. to be dismayed, B 4. p 7. 56; Abaisshed, pp.
abashed, B 1. p 1. 57; Abaysshed, pp. abashed, shy, T. iii. 1233;
Abayst, pp. amazed, spell-bound, B 3. m 12. 23; abashed, cast
down, T. iii. 94, 1122; disconcerted, E 317, 1011; Abaysed, amazed,
E 1108. See Abasshen.

Abak, adv. backwards, A 3736, B 2017; aback, back, L. 864.

Abakward, adv. backward, B 3. m 12. 41.

Abandoune, v. devote, I 713; Abandouneth, pr. s. abandons, B

2767; Abaundoneth, B 2767.

Abasshen, v. fear, be abashed, R. 1552; Abasshed, pp. abashed,

confused, 5. 447; confounded, R. 805, 1519; disconcerted, B 568.
See Abaissen.

Abate, v. lower, put down, B 3780; depreciate, R. 286; Abate, 2 pr.

s. subj. subtract, A. ii. 10. 8; Abated, pp. enfeebled, B 3. p 5. 33; put
down, I 191.

Abaundoneth, pr. s. abandons, B 2767. See Abandoune.

Abaved, pp. confounded, disconcerted, 3. 614. Answering to an

O.F. *abavir, due to O.F. esbahir, to astonish; with v in place of lost
h; see Brachet's Etym. F. Dict. s.v. glaive.

Abawed, the same as Abaved, 3. 614n.

Abayst; see Abaissen.

Abbesse, s. abbess, D 678.

Abbey, s. abbey, B 4044; Abbéye, B 1488; Abbay, B 1814.

Abbot, s. A 161.

Abc., alphabet, A. i. 11. 2.

A-bedde, in bed, T. i. 915, iii. 689, 693; D 1084, 1259.

Abegge, v. pay for it, A 3938. A Kentish form, from A.S. ābycgan.
See Abeye, Abye.

A-begged, a-begging (see note), F 1580.

Abet, s. abetment, abetting, aid, T. ii. 357.

Abeye, v. pay for, C 100. Cf. A.S. ābycgan. See Abye.

Abhomináble, adj. hateful, C 471, 631, D 2006, H 343; loathsome,

I 122.

Abhominaciouns, s. pl. abominations, horrible occurrences, B 88.

See Abominacioun.

Abiden, Abit; see Abyde.

Abite, s. habit, dress, L. 146a.

A-blakeberied; see Blakeberied.

Able, adj. capable, 3. 786; A 584; fit, suitable, adapted, A 167; fit,
L. 320; fit for, 3. 779; deemed deserving, 1. 184; fitting, R. 986.

Ablen, v.; Ablinge, pr. pt. enabling, lifting, B 3. m 9. 24; fitting, B 1.

m 6. 12.

Ablucions, s. pl. ablutions, washings, G 856.

Abodes, pl. of Abood, s.

Aboghte, Aboght; see Abye.

Abominacioun, s. disgust, D 2179. See Abhominaciouns.

Abood, s. delay, A 965; tarrying, T. v. 1307; abiding, continuance,

HF. 1963; Abodes, pl. delays, T. iii. 854.
Abood, pt. s. of Abyde.

Abounde, v. abound, T. ii. 159.

Aboute, prep. about, round, A 158; throughout, T. ii. 734; Abouten,

round about, R. 1563; near, E 1106.

Aboute, adv. about, engaged in, T. v. 1645; in due order, in turn, A

890; around, A 488; here and there, 5. 247; been a., go about,
endeavour, A 1142.

Aboven, prep. above, A 53, 2769, E 826; B 1. p 1. 21; A. ii. 45. 47.

Abregge, ger. to abridge, shorten, T. iii. 262; B 2233, I 243; Abrigge

with thy peynes, to shorten thy pains with, T. iv. 426; v. A 2999, E
1614, 1657.

Abregginge, s. abridging, B 5. p 1. 57 (see note); diminishing, I

568. See above.

A-breyde, v. awake, T. iii. 1113; come to my senses, HF. 559; ger.

T. v. 520 n; Abreyde, pr. s. subj. awake, A 4190; Abrayd, pt. s.
(strong form), woke up, started up, 3. 192; Abreyd, 1 pt. s. started
from sleep, HF. 110; Abrayde, pt. s. (weak form), started, B 4198;
Abreyde, awoke, T. i. 724, iv. 1212; E 1061. A.S. ābregdan, pt. t.
ābrægd (strong form). Ch. also uses the weak form, as above.

Abroche, v. broach, D 177.

Abrood, adv. abroad, i.e. wide open, F 441.

Absént, adj. absent, T. iii. 488, v. 637; Absent, 7. 93, 138.

Absénte, 2 pr. pl. subj. absent yourself, 1. 43.

Absolucioun, s. absolution, A 222.

Absolut, adj. absolute, B 3. p 11. 16; free, B 5. p 6. 169.

Absolutly, adv. wholly, B 4. p 2. 147.

Abstinence, s. HF. 660; T. iv. 784; I 831.

Abusioun, s. abuse, absurdity, T. iv. 990; deceit, B 214; Abusion, a

shameful thing, scandal, T. iv. 1060; I 445.

Abyden, v. abide, await, 1. 131; wait for, HF. 1086; ger. A 927;
Abyde, v. wait, R. 1451; T. i. 956; B 4270; be still, withdraw, F 1522;
Abyde, ger. to await, B 1. p 1. 58; Abydest, 2 pr. s. awaitest, B 4. p
6. 256; dost expect, B 1. p 4. 3; Abydeth, pr. s. awaits, B 2175;
dwells, T. ii. 987; Abit, pr. s. waits for, T. i. 1091; abides, G 1175;
Abyd, imp. s. stay, wait, A 3129; A. ii. 23. 9; Abydeth, imp. pl. B
1175; pres. pt. Abyding, E 757; Abood, pt. s. awaited, T. iv. 156;
stopped, HF. 1062; expected, 3. 247; Abood, 1 pt. s. waited, L. 309;
B 3. p 1. 16; Abĭden, pt. pl. abode, T. i. 474 (an awkward
construction; see the note); Abiden, pp. waited, B 3. p 9. 139; T. ii.
935; A 2982. A.S. ābīdan, pt. t. ābād, pt. t. pl. ābidon; pp. ābiden.

Abydinge, s. expectation, B 2. p 3. 41.

Abye, v. pay for, A 4393, C 756, D 2155, G 694; Abyen, v. B 2012;

Abyest, 2 pr. s. sufferest, B 2. p 4. 8; Abyeth, pr. s. suffers,
undergoes,B 4. p 1. 21; pays for, R. 272; Abyen, pr. pl. undergo, B 4.
p 4. 58; Aboughte, pt. s. paid for, T. v. 1756; A 2303; Aboghte,
suffered for, A 2303, I 267; Aboght, pp. paid for, L. 2483; A 3100;
purchased, 18. 37; bought dearly, L. 1387 (see note); atoned for, A
3100, C 503. A.S. ābycgan. See Abegge, Abeye.

A-caterwawed, a-caterwauling, D 354 (see note).

Acceptáble, adj. D 1913.

Accepte, v. to accept; Accepted, pp. A 2267; Accepteth, imp. pl. E

96, 127

Accésse, s. feverish attack, T. ii. 1315, 1543, 1578.

Accident, s. that which is accidental, T. iv. 1505; incident, T. iii. 918;
accidental occurrence, HF. 1976; unusual appearance, E 607;
outward appearance (see note), C 539.

Accidie, s. sloth, I 388, 677.

Accioun, s. action, i.e. accusation, 1. 20; Accions, pl. I 82.

Accomplice, v. accomplish, A 2864, B 2258. See Acomplisshen.

Accord, s. agreement, B 2988, C 25, F 791; harmony, B 4069;

peace, I 992. See Acord.

Accordaunce, s. concord, harmony, R. 496; Acordaunce, B 2. m 8.

9.

Accordaunt, adj. suitable, B 4026; Accordant, F 103.

Accorde, v. agree; Accorde, pr. s. subj. G 638; Accordeth, pr. s.

beseems, L. 2583; Accorded, pt. s. agreed, B 1504; pp. L. 1635;
Acorded, pp. B 238; Áccordinge, pr. pt. agreeing, D 924. See
Acorde.

Accountes, pl. accounts, B 1277.

Accuse, v.; Accuseth, pr. s. reveals, R. 1591; Acused, pt. s. blamed,

T. ii. 1081; Accused, pp. accused, A 1765.

Accusement, s. accusation (of her), T. iv. 556.

Accusour, s. accuser, L. 353; revealer, T. iii. 1450; Accusor, B 1. P 4.

75.

Achát, s. buying, purchase, A 571; B 1. p 4. 64.

Achátours, pl. buyers, caterers, A 568.

Ache, s. ache, T. iv. 728.

A-chekked, pp. checked, hindered, HF. 2093.

Acheve, v. achieve, L. 1614; Acheveth, pr. s. T. ii. 808; Acheved, pp.

B 1. p 4. 141.

Achoken, v. choke, stifle, B 2. p 5. 57; Achoked, pp. L. 2008.

Acloyeth, pr. s. overburdens, 5. 517. See Accloy in the New E.

Dict.

A-compas, adv. in a circle, L. 300.

Acomplisshen, ger. to achieve, B 4. p 2. 191; Acomplisshe, pr. s.

subj. fulfil, comprehend, B 3. p 10. 122. See Accomplice.

Acord, s. agreement, 5. 371; L. 159; A 838, 3082; Acorde, concord,

5. 381, 668; accord, 3. 316; in accord, in tune, 5. 197; al of oon
acorde, in tune, 3. 305; Acordes, pl. agreements, HF. 695. See
Accord.

Acordable, adj. harmonious, B 2. m 8. 14.

Acordaunce, s. concord, B 2. m 8. 9; Accordaunce, R. 496.

Acordaunt, adj. suitable, A 37, 3363; agreeing, B 1. p 4. 164;

Acordant to, in harmony with, 5. 203.

Acorde, v. accord, T. v. 446; 1 pr. s. grant, allow, L. 3; Acordeth, pr.

s. agrees, B 2. p 4. 67; F 798; concerns, L. 955; Acorden, pr. pl.
agree, B 2137; Accorde, pr. pl. B 2395; Acorde, pr. pl. A 830;
Acorded, pt. s. suited, A 244; Acordeden, pt. pl. agreed, L. 168,
1739; According, pres. part. agreeing, B 1737; A. ii. 14. 5; Acorded,
pp. agreed, A 818, 1214, D 812; T. v. 1310.

Acorns, pl. B 1. m 6. 5; Acornes, B 2. m 5. 4; Akornes, fruits, B 4.

m 3. 19.

Acorse, 1 pr. s. curse, T. iv. 839.

Acounte, v. consider, B 3591; Acounted, pt. s. valued, cared, 3.
1237; Acountedest, 2 pt. s. didst reckon, B 2. p 5. 71.

Acountinge, s. reckoning, calculation, B 1. m 2. 10.

Acoye, v.; Acoyede, pt. s. caressed, B 2. p 3. 45.

Acquitance, s. release, A 4411; Acquitaunce, release, 1. 60; deed

of release, A 3327.

Acquyte, v. acquit, D 1599; acquit oneself, E 936; Acquiten, I 179;

Acquiteth, imp. pl. B 37.

Actes, pl. acts, deeds, C 574, D 114, E 1838; records, B 4326.

Actif, adj. active, B 1. p 1. 21.

Actuel, adj. actual, I 357.

Acurse, v. curse, T. iii. 1072; Acursed, pp. R. 468; 1. 150.

Acused, pt. s. blamed, T. ii. 1081. See Accuse.

Acustomaunce, s. system of habits, habitual method of life, HF.

28; had of acustumaunce, was accustomed, B 3701.

Adamant, s. adamant, A 1990; Adamaunt, loadstone, magnet, R.

1182; Adamauntes, pl. loadstones, 5. 418.

Adawe, v. awake, recover, T. iii. 1120; Adawed, pp. E 2400.

A-day, in the day, T. ii. 60. See A, prep.

Adden, v. add, B 3. p 9. 31, 34; Added, pt. s. A 499.

Adder, s. adder, viper, E 1786n; Addres, pl. B 5. m 5. 4n.

Adding, s. (the) addition, A. ii. 41. 10.

Adieccioun (Adjeccioun), s. addition, B 5. p 6. 134.

A-dieu! T. i. 1041.

Adiuracioun (Adjuracioun), s. adjuration, I 603.

Adorne, v.; Adorneth, pr. pl. adorn, T. iii. 2.

A-doun, adv. downwards, down, L. 178, 250, 792, 1413, 1726; A

393, B 3630, F 351, 464, 862, G 1113, I 72; down below, HF. 889;
below, H 105; at the bottom, G 779.

Adouring, s. adoration, I 682.

Adrad, pp. afraid, A 605, 3425; R. 1228; T. ii. 115; L. 300 a; B 2. p

4. 113; 3. 493, 879; HF. 928; Adred, 3. 1190.

Adressinge, s. directing, B 5. p 4. 63.

Adversarie, adj. hostile, I 697.

Adversárie, s. adversary, B 3868, C 194, G 1476; Adversaire, 1. 8;

Adversáries, pl. T. ii. 1435.

Adversitee, s. adversity, A 484, F 502; 1. 101; harm, 7. 258, 276.

Advertence, s. attention, heed, T. iv. 698, v. 1258; HF. 709; G 467.

Advócacýës, pl. pleas, T. ii. 1469.

Advócat, s. advocate, intercessor, B 2211, G 68; 1. 102; Advocats,

pl. (in which the t is mute), C 291; B 4. p 4. 183.

Afer, adv. afar, HF. 1215; L. 212; B 5. p 4. 103.

A-fère, on fire, T. i. 229. See A-fyre.

A-feren, v. to frighten; A-fered, pp. afraid, affrighted, T. i. 974, iii.

482; A 1518, C 284; L. 53 a, 2321; Aferd, pp. afraid, A 628, 4095; B
4611.

Affeccioun, s. affection, devotion, A 1158; L. 1229.

Affect, s. desire; Affectis, pl. T. iii. 1391

Afferme, v. affirm, T. ii. 1588; Affermeth, pr. s. affirms, B 4315;

fixes, B 4. m 6. 31; Affermed, pp. agreed upon, L. 790; established,
A 2349.

Affiance, s. trust, B 1330.

Affinitee, s. relation, B 1. p 4. 196.

Afforced, pp. forced, I 974.

Affray, s. fray, quarrel, D 2156; terror, B 1137, 3273; fright, 4. 214;

HF. 553; Afray, dread, 7. 334.

Affraye, v. to frighten; Affrayeth, pr. s. arouses, excites, R. 91;

Affrayed, pp. frightened, afraid, B 563; scared, B 4468; roused, 3.
296.

Affyle, v. file, i.e. render smooth, A 712; T. ii. 1681.

Afor-yeyn, prep. over against, T. ii. 1188. See Afornens in the New
E. Dict.

Afounde, v. founder, perish, 12. 21. (Not in the New E. Dict.; but
see Afounder in the same).

Afrayed, adj. scared, distracted, R. 154. See Affraye.

Afrighte, v. to frighten; Afright, pp. affrighted, B 4085.

After, prep. according to, A 125, 3220, B 2460, 2646, C 52, D 1642,
F 100, 1033, G 25; L. 91, 2651; 1. 143; 3. 1095; 5. 305; A. pr. 61; A.
ii. 17. 25; in expectation of, for, B 467; to get, A 525; later than, A. i.
21. 15; according as, L. 575; after, i.e. to fetch, L. 1130; T. v. 280;
towards, A 136; in accordance with, 8. 4; by inheritance from, L.
1072; After as, according as, 5. 216; After oon, alike, A. 1781; After
me, according to my command, E 327; After the yeer, according to
the season of the year, F 47; After that, according as, T. ii. 1347; E
203.

After, adv. afterwards, next, 5. 59, A 162, B 98; L. 75.

Afterward, adv. afterwards, R. 5,29; A 497.

A-fyre, on fire, D 726, 1982; HF. 1858; L. 2493; A-fyr, 1. 94; T. iii.
856; A-fère, T. i. 229.

Again, prep. when exposed to, L. 2426; Agayn, against, B 580,

1754, C 181, 427, G 1415, I 110; towards, A 2680; (so as) to meet,
R. 785; D 1000; opposite to, R. 1577; exposed to, H 110; contrary
to, F 748; just before, B 4268, H 301; near, G 1279; to meet, B 391,
G 1342; in comparison with, L. 189; Ageyn, against, A 66, F 142; 13.
11; compared with, R. 1011; turned towards, L. 48.

Again, adv. again; Agayn, A 801; Ageyn, F 654.

Agains, prep. against; Agayns, C 181, I 154; contrary to, B 2776; in

answer to, L. 344; instead of, I 187, 192; before, in presence of, C
743; to meet, E 911; near to, A. ii. 23. 8; Agaynes, against, 3. 16;
near, E 2325; Ageyns, against, B 3754; L. 330.

A-game, adv. in play, in jest, in mockery, in sport, 4. 277; T. iii. 636,

648.

Agaste, ger. to terrify, T. ii. 901; v. B 4178; Agasteth, pr. s. deters,

frightens, B 4. p 6. 201; L. 1171; Agasten, pr. pl. terrify, B 3. m 12.
24; Agaste, pt. s. frightened, L. 1221; B 3395; Agaste, pt. s. refl.
was affrighted, A 2424; Agast, pp. scared, frightened, terrified, A
2931, 3834; 7. 316; HF. 557; aghast, B 4079, D 798; afraid, A 4267,
B 1859, E 1052; T. i. 715, v. 893; L. 1534; B 2. p 2. 43, p 4. 115; B
3. p 5. 28, 44.
Agayn, Agayns; see Again, Agains.

Agayn-ward, adv. backward, at the point of return, A. i. 17. 9; back

again, B 441.

Age, s. age, A 82, 601; life, E 627; Ages, pl. times, periods, B 3177;
T. ii. 27.

Agein, Ageins; see Again, Agains.

Ageyn, Ageyns; see Again, Agains.

Aggregge; see Agregge.

Agilten, v. do wrong, L. 436; Agilte, pt. s. did offence, D 392;

wrongly committed, L. 2385; 1 pt. s. wronged, HF. 329; offended, T.
iii. 840; Agilte, pr. s. subj. (if he) offend, I 150; Agilt, pp. offended,
1. 122; offended by sin, I 131; sinned, T. v. 1684, L. 463; B 3008.

Agon, v. to go away; Ago, pp. gone away, T. v. 1054; E 1764; 7. 61;

gone, F 1204; passed away, A 2802; past, L. 1766; dead, L. 916; to
ben ago, to be off, 5. 465; Agon, pp. departed, A 1276; gone away C
810; past, C 246; nat longe agon is, it is not long ago, D 9; Agoon,
pp. gone, departed, L. 1110; D 2070; passed away, A 1782; dead, E
631; 3. 479, 7. 150; ago, B 1841, C 436.

Agonye, s. agony, struggle, A 3452.

Agreable (ágreáble), pleasing, HF. 1097; 18. 41; Agréable, 18. 68;
Agreables, pl. pleasant, B 3. m 2. 19.

Agreablely, adv. complacently, B 2. p 4. 92.

Agreabletee, s. equability, B 2. p 4. 83.

A-greef, in dudgeon, lit. 'in grief,' T. iii. 862, 1621; sadly, T. iv. 613;
Agref, amiss, 5. 543; A-grief, in dudgeon, B 4083, D 191.
Agreën, v. agree, consent, T. iii. 131; Agree, pr. s. subj. agree, 5.
409; suit, T. i. 409.

Agregge, v. aggravate; Agreggeth, pr. s. I 960; Aggreggeth, B

2477; Agreggen, pr. pl. I 892; Agreggeden, pt. pl. aggravated, B
2209.

Agreve, v. to vex; Agreved, pp. angry, A 2057; vexed, L. 345;

aggrieved, E 500.

Agrief; see Agreef.

Agrisen, Agroos; see Agrysen.

Agroted, pp. surfeited, cloyed, L. 2454. See the New E. Dict.

Agrysen, v. shudder, tremble, feel terror, B 1. p 3. 15; Agryse, v.

feel terror, HF. 210; T. ii. 1435; B 614, C 280, D 1649; Agrysest, 2 pr.
s. dreadest, B 2. p 1. 45; Agryseth, pr. s. trembles, shivers, B 1. m 6.
7; Agròòs, pt. s. shuddered, was terrified, became frightened, T. ii.
930; L. 830, 2314; A-grisen, pp. filled with dread, B 3. p 1. 12. A.S.
āgrīsan; pt. t. āgrās; pp. āgrisen.

Agu, s. ague, B 4150.

Aguiler, s. needle-case, R. 98.

A-heigh, adv. aloft, B 5. m 5. 16.

Aiourne (Ajourne), imp. s. adjourn, summon on another day, 1.

158.

Air, s. air, D 2254. See Eir.

Aiuged (Ajuged), pp.; a. biforn, prejudged, B 1. p 4. 72 (Lat.

praeiudicatae.)
Ake, v. ache, T. ii. 549; L. 705; ger. HF. 632; Ake, pr. pl. ache, T. iii.
1561; Aken, pr. pl. B 2113.

Aketoun, s. a short sleeveless tunic, worn under the hauberk, B

2050. Fr. hoqueton, O.Fr. auqueton, a cloak, a stuff for cloaks;
originally alqueton, Span. alcoton, Arabic al-qūtun, where al is the
article, and qūtun is our cotton.

Akinge, s. aching, pain, T. i. 1088.

Aknowe, v.; Aknowe, pp. conscious; am aknowe, I acknowledge, B

1. p 4. 109, B 4. p 4. 1.

Akornes, s. pl. acorns, fruits, B 4. m 3. 19. See Acorns.

Al, adj. all, A 10; Alle, pl. all, A 26, 53; Al, every, R. 1586; as s.
everything, T. iii. 1764; al a, the whole of a, A 854, G 996; and al,
and all, 3. 116; B 3275; at al, in every respect, wholly, C 633, E
1222; at all, D 1078; in al, altogether, entirely, B 1. p 6. 43; B 4. p 4.
193; al day, all the day, 3. 1105:—Al, adv. quite, entirely, altogether,
5. 540; L. 1765, 1766; B 2289, 3215, 3451, E 1629, I 357; all over,
R. 840; al on highte, quite aloud, A 1784; al by oon assent, quite
with one accord, 5. 557:—Al, conj. although, HF. 1740; T. i. 17; B
2173, C 212, D 87, F 878; L. 58, 160, 384, 1392, 1420, 1841, 2392;
whether, G 839; al be, although, albeit, 4. 274, 5, 436; A 297; al be
that, although, 5. 8:—Al and som, the whole matter (collectively and
severally), D 91, F 1606; T. ii. 363; L. 998, 2384; Al and somme,
each and all, all, the whole, 7. 26; Al and som, 5. 650; Alle and
some, one and all, A 3136, B 263, C 336, D 1643, E 941; T. iii. 607,
v. 883; HF. 46; Al only, adv. merely, simply, 2. 62; B 2662; Al so, so,
E 1226; Al thing, everything, R. 53; Al thus, exactly thus, 5. 30. See
Alle.

Al, s. awl, 13. 11. See Oules.

Alabastre, s. alabaster, A 1910.

Alambyk (álambýk), s. alembic, T. iv. 520; Alembykes, pl. G 794.
'Alambique, a limbeek, a stillatory'; Cotgrave. A kind of retort for
distilling. O.F. alambic, from Span. alambique; from Arab, al-anbiq;
where anbiq answers to Gk. ἄμβιξ, a cup, also the cap of a still.

Alaunts, pl. dogs of a huge size (see note), A 2148.

Alayes, s. pl. alloy, E 1167.

Al-be-it, although, L. 1363; E 1537; A. ii. 12. 8; Al be it so that, A.

ii. 31. 6.

Albificacioun, s. albefaction, whitening, rendering of a white

colour, G 805.

Alday, Al-day, adv. continually, A 1168, 1524, 3902, B 4282, F 481,

I 106; T. i. 217, iv. 1563; R. 1506; always, L. 1250, 1877; B 1702;
everyday, at any time, 4. 237.

Alder, s. alder-tree, A 2921.

Alder, gen. pl. of all; oure alder, of us all, 1. 84; L. 298 (see note).
See Aller, Alther.

Alder-best, adv. best of all, 3. 87; T. i. 1008; A 710. See Aller.

Alderbeste, adj. best of all, 3. 246, 1279; T. iii. 1597; Alderbest, 3.

907.

Alderfaireste, adj. fem. def. fairest of all, 3. 1050; Alder-fayrest, B

3. m 9. 8.

Alderfirst, adv. first of all, B 2393, E 1618, F 550, G 423; T. i. 1069,

iv. 74, 832; in the first place, R. 1000; for the first time, B 1. p 3. 17;
Alderfirste, L. 2635.

Alderfirste, adj. first of all, T. iii. 97.

Alderlast, adv. lastly, R. 449.

Alder-lest, least of all, T. i. 604.

Alderlevest, dearest of all, T. iii. 239, v. 576.

Alderman, s. alderman, the head of a guild, A 372.

Aldermost, adv. most of all, T. i. 152, 248, 1003; L. 2117, 2567; B

4. p 4. 37, B 5. p 3. 114.

Alder-next, adv. nearest of all, next, 5. 244.

Alderworst, adj. superl. worst of all, B 5. p 3. 113.

Alderwysest, adj. pl. the wisest of all, T. i. 247.

Ale, s. ale, A 341, 382, 3378, C 315, D 171; Ale and breed, drink
and meat, B 2062; gen. Ale, of ale, B 3083.

Alegge; see Allegge.

Alemandres, pl. almond-trees, R. 1363.

Alembykes, pl. alembics, G 794. See Alambyk.

Alenge, the same as Elenge, B 1412n, D 1199n.

Alestake, s. ale-stake, i.e. a horizontal stake or short pole

projecting from an ale-house to support a sign or bush, A 667, C
321.

Aley, s. an alley, B 1758; Aleyes, pl. alleys, walks, E 2324, F 1013;

T. ii. 820.

Aleys, 1 pl. service-berries, berries of the service-tree, R. 1377. O.F.

alie, F. alise; cf. G. Elsebeere.
Algate, adv. always, A 571; at any rate, 3. 887, 1087; L. 361, 461;
C 292, E 885, G 318, 904; nevertheless, L. 238; I 514; in any case,
T. ii. 964; all the same, D 588; at all hazards, HF. 943.

Algates, adv. in every way, 22. 43; D 756; by all means, D 1514; at
any rate, in any case, 3. 1171; 4. 234; 6. 85; T. iii. 24; L. 594; B
2760, 2841, G 1096; wholly, F 246; nevertheless, B 2222; B 4. m 3.
16; all the same, B 3. p 10. 162; B 520.

Aliene, v. alienate, B 1. p 6. 43.

Al-if, even if, T. iii. 398.

Alighte, v. alight, E 981; Alighte, pt. s. 1. 161; T. v. 189, 1017; A

983; Alight, pp. A 722, 2189.

Alkaly, s. alkali, G 810.

Alkamistre, s. alchemist, G 1204.

Allas, interj. alas! 1. 124.

Alle, dat. s. and pl. of Al; at alle, in every case, 4. 36; in alle, in any
case, 3. 141; Alle, pl. all, A 922, E 1787; all (of you), T. ii. 402. See
Al, Aller.

Allegge (1), v. allege, adduce, A 3000, E 1658; Alegge, T. iii. 297;

Alegge, 1 pr. s. HF. 314.

Allegge (2), v. alleviate; Allegged, pp. allayed, B 4. p 4. 12.

Aller, of all, gen. pl. of Al; our aller, of us all, A 823; hir aller, of
them all, A 586. A.S. ealra, gen. pl. of eall. See Alder.

Alliaunce, s. alliance, 2. 42, 83; A 2973, C 605; kindred, 1. 58;

Alliance, marriage, espousal, E 357; Allíauncè, alliance, B 3523;
Alyaunce, B 4. p 6. 221.
Allone, adj. alone, 4. 141, 5. 455; B 2294, D 1862; lat me a., let me
alone, i.e. trust to me, T. iii. 413.

Allow, 1 p. s. pr. (I) approve, (I) applaud, F 676.

Allye, s. ally, G. 292, 297; relative, B 3593.

Allyen, ger. to ally myself, E 1414; Allye, C 613; Allyen, v. C 618;

Allyed, pp. allied, 2. 65; T. i. 87; provided with friendly aid, B 3720.

Almenak, s. almanac, A. pr. 67.

Almes-dede, s. alms-deed, alms-doing, B 1156.

Almesse, s. alms, B 168, 2757, D 1609, I 377; Almesses, s. pl.

almsdoings, I 1030.

Almest; see Almost.

Almicanteras, s. pl. small circles of declination (in the celestial

sphere), A. i. 18. 2, 8. Arabic muqantarah, a solar quadrant, or sun-
dial; pl. muqantarāt, circles parallel to the horizon; from qantara, he
bent.

Almighty, adj. 1. 1.

Almost, adv. almost, A 155, 894; Almest, B 3. p 2. 52; B 1948.

Almury, s. the 'denticle' or tooth-like point or pointer situate on the

Rete near the 'head' of Capricorn, A. i. 23. 1. Arabic al-mur'ī, the
indicator.

Aloes, pl. aloe, in comp. ligne-aloes, T. iv. 1137. (Aloes is a pl., not a
gen. case here; see Aloe in the New E. Dict.)

A-lofte, adv. aloft, up, T. i. 922; on high, T. v. 259.

A-londe, adv. on land, ashore, L. 2166; him were lever a-londe, he

would rather be on land, L. 2413.
Along on, along of, owing to, T. iii. 783; Along on me, along of me,
T. ii. 1001.

Aloon, adj. alone, R. 450; her aloon, all by herself, L. 2378.

Al-oonly, adv. solely, B 5. p 4. 95; Al-only, B 3. P 6. 35; T. v. 1779.

Alose, v. commend, T. iv. 1473. O.F. aloser, to praise; from los,

praise.

Al-outerly, adv. entirely, absolutely, 3. 1244; L. 626; Al-outrely, T. i.

382, v. 1694; wholly, B 3. p 12. 82; B 4. p 2. 135, p 7. 3; All-utterly,
HF. 296. Lit. 'all utterly.'

Alpes, pl. bull-finches, R. 658. 'Alpe, a byrde, Ficedula'; Prompt.

Parv.

Also, Al-so, adv. and conj. as, R. 212, 1122; T. iii. 1388; HF. 656,
1532; A 730, 3870, B 396, D 1215, H 80; Al-so, adv. so, A 3104; HF.
629; Alswa, also (Northern), A 4085; Also many, as many, L. 528;
Also muche as, as much as, D 2134; Als, also, besides, 3. 728; HF.
2071; T. ii. 726; B 3973, F 1598; as, B 2850; frequently used in
expressing a wish, 4. 267, 7. 202.

Altercacioun, s. altercation, dispute, B 4427, E 1473.

Alteren, v. to alter; Altered, pt. s. T. iii. 1778.

Alther, gen. pl. of all, A 823n. The same as Alder, Aller, gen. pl. of
Al.

Alther-fairest, adj. superl. fairest of all, R. 625.

Alther-fastest, adv. sup. as fast as possible, HF. 2131.

Altherfirst, adv. first of all, at first, HF. 1368.

Alther-firste, adj. first of all, 3. 1173.

Althogh, although, A 230; Al-though, A 1089.

Altitude, s. the elevation of a celestial object above the horizon,

measured along a vertical arc, A. pr. 60; height, A. ii. 41. 9.

Alum, s. alum, G 813.

Al-utterly; see Al-outerly.

Alwey, adv. always, A 185, 341, E 458, 810; ceaselessly, F 422; all
the while, I 11; Alway, A 275.

Alyaunce; see Alliaunce.

Alyne, adv. in an exact line, A. ii. 38. 17.

A-lyve, alive, R. 866; 3. 915, 10. 32; A 2698, E 139. For on lyve, in
life; hence orig. an adv.; but also used as adj.

Am, am, A 1131, E 838; in phr. it am I = it is I, B 1109.

Amadrides, hamadryads, A 2928.

Amalgaming, s. the formation of an amalgam, G 771. An amalgam

is a pasty mixture of mercury with other substances (properly with a
metal).

Amase, v. amaze; Amased, pp. G 935.

Amaye, v. to dismay; A-mayed, pp. dismayed, T. i. 648, iv. 641. O.F.

amaier = esmaier, to dismay; cf. Ital. smagare.

Ambages, pl. ambiguous words, T. v. 897.

Ambassiatours, pl. ambassadors, T. iv. 140 n.

Ambel, s. amble; an ambel, in an amble, at an ambling pace, B

2075.
Ambes as, double aces, B 124 (see note). O.F. ambes, a pair; Lat.
ambo, both.

Amble, v. amble; Amble, imp. s. D 838; Ambling, pres. pt. E 388.

Amblere, s. an ambling nag, A 469.

Amele, v. to enamel; Ameled, pp. R. 1080. Cf. O.F. esmail, enamel.

Amende, v. amend; Amenden, v. make amends, A 3074; Amende,

v. amend, 3. 551; improve, F 197; to surpass in demeanour, F 97;
Amende, pr. s. subj. may (He) amend, D 1810; Amended, pt. s.
improved, R. 1427; did good, 3. 1102; Amended, pp. improved, B
4048; remedied, D 1097; surpassed, B 3444.

Amendement, s. amends, A 4185.

Amender, s. D 1197.

Amendes, pl. amends, T. ii. 342.

Amenuse, ger. to lessen, I 496; v. diminish, I 360; Amenuseth, pr.

s. diminishes, I 359, 481; becomes less, A. i. 21. 47; Amenused, pt.
s. I 709; Amenused, pp. B 1. p 4. 51; B 2. p 4. 31; B 3. p 10. 19.

Amenusinge, s. diminution, B 3. p 10. 13.

Amerciments, s. pl. fines, exactions, I 752.

Amesure, v. measure; Amesureth, pr. s. B 2. p 1. 62.

Ameve, v. move; Ameved, pt. s. moved, changed; nought ameved,

changed not, altered not, E 498; Amoeved, pp. perturbed, I 670;
moved, B 1. p 5. 2; Amoved, pp. perturbed, B 1. p 1. 33.

Amiable, adj. amiable, pleasant, A 138; kind, B 2168; courteous, I

629; kindly, R. 1226.

A-midde, adv. in the midst, R. 147; in the middle, A. i. 4. 4.

Amidde, prep. amid, in the midst of, F 409. A.S. on-middan, in the
middle.

Amiddes, adv. in the midst, 5. 277; Amiddes of, in the midst of, HF.
845.

A-middes, prep. in the midst of, A. i. 18. 4; in the middle, A 2009.

Aministre, v. administer; Aministreth, pr. s. B 4. p 6. 62.

Amis, adv. amiss, 3. 1141, 7. 318; F 780, H 278; wrong, L. 1291;

wrongly, B 3370, C 642, F 7; seyde amis, gave an unwelcome
answer, 5. 446.

Amoeve; see Ameve.

Amoneste, v. admonish; Amonesteth, pr. s. B 5. p 5. 14; I 76;

recommends, B 2484.

Amonestinge, s. admonition, B 5. p 1. 3; I 518.

Among, adv. as well, T. iii. 1816; all the while, 3. 298.

Amonges, adv. sometimes, variously, B 2. p 1. 77.

Amonges, prep. amongst, A 759, B 3344, G 608.

Amonicioun, s. pointing out, B 1. p 4. 7.

Amonte; see Amounte.

Amorettes, pl. love-knots, R. 892.

Amorous, adj. full of love, 12. 22; R. 83; T. iii. 17; L. 1189; A 2861,
3355, F 1500; Amorouse, fem. T. iv. 1431.

Amorously, adv. E 1680.

Amortise, v. deaden; Amortised, pp. deadened, rendered dead, I
233 n, 247 n.

Amor vincit omnia, love conquers all, A 162.

Amorwe, A-morwe, on the morrow, A 822, 1621, D 593; L. 1757;

in the morning, 3. 1103; T. ii. 405; HF. 2106.

Amounte, v. amount to, mean; Amounteth, pr. s. means, A 2362, B

569, 2258; amounts to, F 108; Amonteth, pr. s. A. i. 16. 4.

Amove; see Ameve.

Amphibologyes, pl. ambiguities, T. iv. 1406.

Amy, s. friend, C 318. F. ami.

An, a, A 575, &c.; A, 578, &c.; An eighte busshels, a quantity equal

to eight bushels, C 771.

An, prep. on, L. 1191; An heigh, on high, E 2326; An hye, HF. 215.

Ancestres, pl. ancestors, B 3. p 6. 30.

Ancille, s. handmaiden, 1. 109.

Ancle, s. A 1660.

Ancre, s. anchor, 10. 38; Anker, L. 2501; Ancres, pl. B 2. p 4. 40.

And, and, A 3, &c.

And, conj. if, 6. 112; L. 217, 319, 357, 1790; A 1214, B 3140, E
2433, G 145, 602, 1371; T. i. 125, 695, ii. 289, iv. 1343.

Anes, adv. once (Northern), A 4074.

Anexed; see Annexe.

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