COMMUNICATIONS THEORY

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Additional Notes:
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is a specialized agency of
the United Nations (UN) responsible for setting global standards and policies for
telecommunications, information technology, and radio communications.

Functions of ITU:
1. Regulating Radio Spectrum & Satellite Orbits
o Manages the allocation of radio frequencies and satellite

positions to prevent interference.

2. Developing Global Telecommunication Standards
o Ensures seamless communication across countries and

devices.
3. Promoting Digital Inclusion
o Helps bridge the digital divide by improving ICT access

worldwide.
4. Cybersecurity & Internet Governance
o Develops policies to enhance global cybersecurity.

5. Emergency Communications & Disaster Response

o Supports communication networks during disasters and

crises.

ITU's Structure (Three Main Sectors):

1.ITU-R (Radiocommunication) – Manages radio
frequencies, satellite orbits, and broadcasting standards.
2.ITU-T (Telecommunication Standardization) – Develops
international telecom and ICT standards.
3.ITU-D (Telecommunication Development) – Focuses on
expanding ICT access, especially in developing countries.

Why is ITU Important?

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  Enables global mobile networks (5G, 4G, etc.) to work
across different countries.
 Standardizes Wi-Fi, broadband, and fiber-optic
communication.
 Supports emergency communication networks during
disasters.
 Works on sustainable development goals (SDGs) for a
connected world.
ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
ANSI (American National Standards Institute) is a non-profit organization
that oversees the development of voluntary standards for products, services,
systems, and personnel in the United States. It ensures that industries follow
consistent safety, quality, and performance guidelines.

Key Roles of ANSI

✔ Standardization – Develops and approves technical standards for various
industries.
✔ Certification & Accreditation – Ensures organizations meet industry
requirements.
✔ Coordination with International Standards – Works with ISO
(International Organization for Standardization) and IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) to align U.S. and global standards.
✔ Enhancing Safety & Quality – Ensures products and services meet safety
regulations.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) is the world’s largest
technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology,
particularly in electrical, electronics, computer, and communication
engineering. It develops industry standards, publishes research, and supports
professional development.

Key Roles of IEEE

✔ Developing Standards – Establishes global standards for networking,
computing, and electrical systems.
✔ Publishing Research – Provides technical journals, conference papers, and
books.
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✔ Professional Development – Offers training, certifications, and networking
opportunities.
✔ Promoting Innovation – Supports research and development in engineering
and technology.

Major IEEE Standards

📌 IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) – Wireless networking standards.
📌 IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) – Standard for wired networking.
📌 IEEE 754 – Standard for floating-point arithmetic in computers.
📌 IEEE 1394 (FireWire) – Data transfer interface used in multimedia devices.
📌 IEEE 1680 (EPEAT) – Environmental standards for electronic products.

Difference Between IEEE and ANSI

IEEE (Institute of ANSI (American
Aspect Electrical and National Standards
Electronics Engineers) Institute)
Focuses on electrical,
Covers a wide range of
Scope electronics, and
industries in the U.S.
computing
IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), IEEE
Standard ANSI Z87.1 (Safety
754 (Floating-point
Examples eyewear), ANSI SQL
arithmetic)
Primarily U.S.-based but
Global International, with
works with international
Influence members worldwide
organizations
Conclusion
IEEE plays a critical role in shaping modern technology through its technical
standards, research publications, and professional development programs. It
is especially influential in fields like networking, computing, and electrical
engineering.
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) is an independent, non-
governmental international organization that develops and publishes global
standards to ensure quality, safety, efficiency, and interoperability across
industries.

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It provides internationally recognized standards that help businesses and
governments operate efficiently while ensuring consumer safety and
environmental sustainability.

Key Roles of ISO

✔ Standardization – Develops global technical, industrial, and commercial
standards.
✔ Quality & Safety Assurance – Ensures products and services meet
international safety and quality benchmarks.
✔ Interoperability – Helps companies from different countries work together by
providing unified standards.
✔ Environmental & Social Responsibility – Establishes guidelines for
sustainable and ethical practices.

Popular ISO Standards

📌 ISO 9001 (Quality Management System – QMS) – Ensures consistent
product and service quality.
📌 ISO 14001 (Environmental Management System – EMS) – Helps
organizations improve environmental performance.
📌 ISO 27001 (Information Security Management – ISMS) – Focuses on
cybersecurity and data protection.
📌 ISO 45001 (Occupational Health & Safety – OHSMS) – Ensures workplace
safety.
📌 ISO 50001 (Energy Management System – EnMS) – Helps businesses reduce
energy consumption.

Difference Between ISO, IEEE, and ANSI

IEEE ANSI
ISO (International (Institute of (American
Aspect Organization for Electrical and National
Standardization) Electronics Standards
Engineers) Institute)
U.S. national
Electrical,
Global standards for standards
Scope electronics, and
all industries across various
computing
industries
Examples ISO 9001 (Quality), IEEE 802.11 ANSI SQL,
of ISO 27001 (Security) (Wi-Fi), IEEE ANSI Z87.1
Standards 754 (Floating (Safety
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 IEEE ANSI
ISO (International (Institute of (American
Aspect Organization for Electrical and National
Standardization) Electronics Standards
Engineers) Institute)
point) eyewear)
U.S.-based
General business, Technology,
standards for
Focus safety, and industrial networking,
industry
standards and electronics
compliance
Conclusion
ISO plays a critical role in global standardization, ensuring product quality,
safety, efficiency, and environmental sustainability across industries. Its
standards help businesses compete globally while maintaining best practices.
The Exchange Carriers Standards Association (ECSA) refers to a group or
organization typically associated with creating and maintaining standards for
telecommunications exchange carriers. Exchange carriers are companies that
provide public telecommunication services, such as local and long-distance phone
services, broadband, and data transmission.
ECSA focuses on standardizing practices, protocols, and technologies used by
telecommunication providers to ensure compatibility, interoperability, and
reliable communication services. This association works closely with industry
stakeholders, government agencies, and international standards bodies like ANSI,
IEEE, or ITU to establish technical standards and frameworks.
The Exchange Carriers Standards Association (ECSA) refers to a group or
organization typically associated with creating and maintaining standards for
telecommunications exchange carriers. Exchange carriers are companies that
provide public telecommunication services, such as local and long-distance phone
services, broadband, and data transmission.
ECSA focuses on standardizing practices, protocols, and technologies used by
telecommunication providers to ensure compatibility, interoperability, and
reliable communication services. This association works closely with industry
stakeholders, government agencies, and international standards bodies like ANSI,
IEEE, or ITU to establish technical standards and frameworks.
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) is a trade organization in the
United States that was responsible for developing and maintaining standards for
electronic components, systems, and products. It played a key role in establishing
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technical guidelines to ensure interoperability, quality, and compatibility within
the electronics industry.
Key Contributions of EIA:
1. Standards Development:
The EIA developed a variety of standards related to electronics,
telecommunications, and data transmission. Many of these standards have
been widely adopted internationally.
Examples include:
o EIA-232 (RS-232): A standard for serial communication
between devices.
o EIA/TIA-568: A telecommunications standard for
structured cabling systems.
2. Promoting the Electronics Industry:
EIA supported the growth of the electronics and telecommunications
industries through advocacy, networking opportunities, and education.
3. Collaboration with TIA:
In the 1980s, EIA collaborated with the Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA) to develop standards related to telecommunications,
including data networking.
EIA Today:
The EIA has since dissolved, and its activities have been absorbed by other
organizations, such as the TIA and the Consumer Technology Association (CTA).
Many of its standards are still in use and are maintained by successor
organizations.

De Facto vs. De Jure in Communication

In communication and networking, the terms de facto and de jure refer to
different types of standards, protocols, and technologies used for transmitting
information.

1. De Facto Standards in Communication

✔ Definition: A communication standard or protocol that is widely used in
practice but not officially recognized by a regulatory body.

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✔ Meaning: These standards emerge over time due to popularity, market
adoption, or industry preference rather than formal regulation.
📌 Examples of De Facto Communication Standards:
 TCP/IP Protocol – Became the dominant networking
standard for the internet, even before official recognition.
 QWERTY Keyboard Layout – Commonly used for typing
worldwide but not mandated by any law.
 Bluetooth for Wireless Connectivity – Used widely for
short-range communication, even though it was not originally
a government-mandated standard.
 English as a Global Business Language – Widely used in
international communication, though not officially mandated
in most countries.

2. De Jure Standards in Communication

✔ Definition: A communication standard or protocol that is officially recognized
and legally enforced by a regulatory organization.
✔ Meaning: These standards are developed and approved by organizations such
as the IEEE, ITU, ISO, and FCC to ensure uniformity and compliance.
📌 Examples of De Jure Communication Standards:
 ISO/OSI Model – An internationally recognized framework
for computer networking.
 IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi Standards) – Established by the IEEE
for wireless communication.
 ITU-T Standards for Telecommunication – Defines global
telecom protocols like fiber optics and 5G.
 DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting) – A legally recognized
standard for digital television transmission.

Key Differences Between De Facto and De Jure in

Communication
De Facto De Jure
Aspect Communication Communication
Standards Standards
Widely used but not Legally enforced and
Definition
officially recognized officially recognized
Authority Market adoption, Government agencies or
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 De Facto De Jure
Aspect Communication Communication
Standards Standards
industry preference standardization bodies
Example in TCP/IP, Bluetooth, ISO/OSI model, IEEE
Networking QWERTY keyboard 802.11 (Wi-Fi)
Example in English as a business French as the official
Language language language of France
Conclusion
 De facto communication standards emerge naturally due
to widespread use but lack formal regulation.
 De jure communication standards are officially
approved and legally enforced by regulatory bodies.
Difference Between DCE and DTE
DCE (Data Communications Equipment) and DTE (Data Terminal
Equipment) are two essential components in data communication systems. They
work together to facilitate data transmission between devices.

1. What is DTE (Data Terminal Equipment)?

✔ Definition: A device that generates, processes, or consumes data. It is typically
the end device in a communication system.
✔ Function: Responsible for sending or receiving data but does not establish
the communication link.
📌 Examples of DTE:
 Computers (PC, Laptop, Workstations)
 Routers (in some cases)
 Printers, Terminals, Teletypes
 User Devices in a Network (Modems, IoT devices)

2. What is DCE (Data Communications Equipment)?

✔ Definition: A device that provides the communication link and controls data
transmission between DTEs.
✔ Function: Establishes and manages signal conversion, timing, and
synchronization for data exchange.

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📌 Examples of DCE:
 Modems (convert digital signals to analog for transmission)
 Switches (facilitate data forwarding in networks)
 Hubs and Repeaters (extend and manage signal
transmission)
 Data Multiplexers

3. Key Differences Between DCE and DTE

DTE (Data DCE (Data
Aspect Terminal Communications
Equipment) Equipment)
Facilitates
Sends and receives
Function communication between
data
DTEs
Role in Generates or Manages signal
Communication consumes data transmission
Computers, Modems, switches,
Example Devices
terminals, printers multiplexers
Does not control Synchronizes and
Flow Control
transmission controls data flow
Physical Connects to a DTE or
Connects to a DCE
Connection another DCE
4. How DTE and DCE Work Together
 A computer (DTE) connects to a modem (DCE) to access
the internet.
 A router (DTE) connects to a network switch (DCE) for
data transmission in a network.
 DCE devices help multiple DTE devices communicate
efficiently.

Conclusion
 DTE = The end device that produces or consumes data.
 DCE = The intermediary device that enables
communication between DTEs.

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 A. DATA COMMUNICATIONS CODES.
1. Morse Code

Shortcomings of Morse Code

While Morse Code has been a groundbreaking form of communication,
particularly in the early days of telecommunication, it has several limitations that
make it less practical in modern contexts. Below are its primary shortcomings:

1. Low Transmission Speed

 Morse Code requires manual encoding and decoding, which
makes it slower compared to modern digital
communication methods like texting or emailing.
 It is time-intensive, especially for long messages or complex
content.

2. Skill Dependency
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 It requires specialized training to learn and use effectively.
 Both the sender and receiver must be skilled in
understanding Morse Code, making it less accessible to the
general population.

3. Limited to Simple Messages

 It is best suited for short, simple messages. Conveying
detailed or technical information is impractical and
cumbersome.
 Modern communication demands more nuanced, multimedia,
and data-rich exchanges.

4. Error-Prone
 Human errors in encoding or decoding dots (.) and dashes (-)
can result in miscommunication.
 Noise or interruptions in the transmission medium can distort
signals, leading to misunderstandings.

5. Lack of Standardization for Complex Symbols

 Morse Code cannot easily handle special characters, emojis,
or languages that are not based on the Roman alphabet.
 It struggles with modern multilingual needs or symbols like
mathematical notations.

6. Dependence on Auditory or Visual Signals

 It relies on sound (beeps) or light (flashes), which may be
difficult to detect in noisy or visually obstructed
environments.
 This limits its usability compared to communication methods
that are less affected by environmental conditions (e.g.,
radio, text messaging).

7. Inefficient for Mass Communication

 Morse Code is not scalable for mass communication or
simultaneous two-way exchanges, which are essential for
modern communication systems.
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 8. Obsolescence
 With the advent of more efficient technologies like
telephones, radio, and the internet, Morse Code has become
largely obsolete, except in niche applications (e.g.,
aviation, amateur radio).

2. Baudot Code

The Baudot Code is a 5-bit character encoding system that was widely used in
early telecommunication systems, particularly in teleprinters (teletype
machines). It was named after its inventor, Émile Baudot, a French engineer who
developed it in the 1870s.
Baudot Code is considered one of the first practical digital communication codes
and laid the groundwork for modern character encoding systems.

Key Features of Baudot Code

1. 5-Bit Encoding:
o Each character is represented by a sequence of 5 bits,

allowing for a total of 32 unique combinations.

o To expand its capacity, the code uses shift

mechanisms (similar to a keyboard's Shift key) to switch

between letters and numbers/symbols.
2. Fixed-Length Characters:
o Unlike Morse Code, which uses variable lengths of dots

and dashes, Baudot Code uses fixed-length

characters, making it faster and easier to transmit and
decode.
3. Used in Teleprinters:
o It became the standard encoding for telegraph and early

teletype systems, enabling faster and more reliable

communication compared to Morse Code.

Advantages of Baudot Code

 Simplicity: Fixed-length encoding simplifies transmission
and decoding.
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  Speed: Faster than Morse Code due to uniform character
length.
 Automation: Well-suited for mechanical devices like
teleprinters.

Limitations of Baudot Code

1. Limited Character Set:
o With only 32 combinations, it required the use of shift

codes to handle both letters and numbers, making it less

efficient.
o Could not directly support modern symbols, punctuation,

or extended alphabets.
2. Obsolescence:
o Replaced by more advanced encoding systems like ASCII

and Unicode, which support larger character sets and

are better suited for modern applications.
3. Error Sensitivity:
o Small errors during transmission (e.g., a bit flip) could

completely change the character, leading to potential

miscommunication.

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange)
ASCII is a widely used character encoding standard for representing text in
computers, communication devices, and other digital systems. It assigns a unique
numeric value to letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and control characters
to enable the representation and transmission of text in a digital format.

Key Features of ASCII

1. 7-Bit Encoding:
o ASCII uses a 7-bit binary system, allowing for 128

unique characters (0–127).

o These include:

 Control characters (0–31 and 127), such as newline

(\n) and backspace.

 Printable characters (32–126), such as letters,

digits, and symbols.

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 2. Human-Readable Format:
o ASCII maps text to numbers (e.g., A = 65, a = 97),

making it straightforward for humans and machines to

work with.
3. Universally Recognized:
o ASCII became the foundation for text-based

communication across systems, ensuring compatibility.

Character Categories in ASCII

Range Character Types Examples
Control characters (non-
0–31 Null (\0), newline (\n)
printable)
Space ( ), punctuation (!,
32–47 Symbols
@)
48–57 Digits 0–9
65–90 Uppercase letters A–Z
97–122 Lowercase letters a–z
127 Delete control character DEL
Advantages of ASCII
1.Simplicity:
o ASCII is easy to implement and widely supported.

2.Compatibility:
o Ensures interoperability between different systems and

devices.
3.Foundation for Modern Standards:
o ASCII laid the groundwork for later encoding systems like

UTF-8 and Unicode.

Limitations of ASCII
1.Limited Character Set:
o Only 128 characters, insufficient for representing non-

English alphabets (e.g., accented characters, Cyrillic,

Chinese).
2.Obsolete for Modern Needs:
o Replaced by Unicode, which supports a much larger

range of characters and symbols.

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 Extended ASCII
 Extended ASCII (8-bit version) expands the character set to
256 characters (0–255) by using an additional bit.
 It includes additional symbols, graphical characters, and
characters for non-English languages.

ASCII Example
Character Decimal Binary
A 65 1000001
a 97 1100001
0 48 0110000
Conclusion
ASCII has been a foundational standard in digital communication and text
representation, ensuring consistent encoding across platforms. While its
limitations have led to the adoption of Unicode, it remains a critical part of
computing history.

EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange

Code)
EBCDIC is an 8-bit character encoding system developed by IBM in the 1960s
for use on its mainframe computers. It is primarily designed to encode text and
control characters, enabling communication between IBM systems and
peripherals. Unlike ASCII, EBCDIC uses a different binary pattern for characters
and is not as widely used outside IBM systems.

Key Features of EBCDIC

1. 8-Bit Encoding:
o Uses 8 bits (1 byte) to represent each character, allowing

for 256 unique characters.

o This includes letters, numbers, punctuation, control

characters, and symbols.

2. Character Blocks:
o Characters are grouped into blocks based on their

purpose, such as uppercase letters, lowercase letters,

and digits.

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 o The layout differs significantly from ASCII, making
EBCDIC incompatible with ASCII systems.
3. Designed for IBM Systems:
o EBCDIC was developed for punch cards and

mainframes, such as the IBM System/360.

o It remains in limited use today, primarily on legacy IBM

systems.

Advantages of EBCDIC
1. Backward Compatibility:
o Maintains compatibility with older IBM systems, making it

suitable for legacy applications.

2. Customizable Character Sets:
o Can be tailored for different languages and regions by

defining different EBCDIC variants.

3. 8-Bit Design:
o Supports extended character sets beyond the 7-bit ASCII

standard.

Disadvantages of EBCDIC
1. Incompatibility with ASCII:
o EBCDIC and ASCII use different encoding patterns,

making them incompatible without conversion tools.

o ASCII became the dominant standard in computing,

relegating EBCDIC to niche use cases.

2. Complexity:
o EBCDIC's character grouping is less intuitive than ASCII,

making it harder for programmers to work with.

3. Limited Usage:
o EBCDIC is rarely used outside of IBM mainframe

environments, making it impractical for modern systems.

Comparison Between EBCDIC and ASCII

Aspect EBCDIC ASCII
Bits per 7 (128 characters),
8 (256 characters)
Character extended to 8 bits in
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 Aspect EBCDIC ASCII
modern ASCII
IBM mainframes and General-purpose
System Usage
legacy systems computing systems
Not compatible with Universally adopted
Compatibility
ASCII standard
Limited to IBM Widespread in modern
Adoption
systems systems
Example: Character Encoding in EBCDIC vs ASCII
Character EBCDIC (Decimal) ASCII (Decimal)
A 193 65
a 129 97
0 240 48
Conclusion
EBCDIC was a critical innovation for IBM in the early days of computing but has
become largely obsolete in favor of more universal standards like ASCII and
Unicode. However, it remains in use on some legacy IBM mainframe systems
where backward compatibility is essential.

Unicode (Universal Code)

Unicode is a universal character encoding standard designed to ensure that text
and symbols from all languages, scripts, and writing systems can be consistently
represented and understood across digital platforms, devices, and applications. Its
goal is to provide a single standard for all written languages, enabling seamless
communication and data exchange.

Key Features of Unicode

1. Comprehensive Character Set:
o Unicode supports over 140,000 characters from

various languages, scripts, and symbol sets, including

letters, numbers, emojis, and mathematical symbols.
o It encompasses scripts like Latin, Cyrillic, Arabic, Chinese,

Devanagari, and many more.

2. Standardized Encoding:

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 o Each character is assigned a unique code point, written
in the format U+XXXX (e.g., U+0041 represents the letter
A).
o Unicode ensures that the same character is represented
identically across all systems, preventing compatibility
issues.
3. Encodings (UTF):
o Unicode supports multiple encoding formats to store and

transmit characters:
 UTF-8: Variable-length encoding (1–4 bytes), widely

used on the web.

 UTF-16: Fixed-length (2 or 4 bytes), common in

some systems.
 UTF-32: Fixed-length (4 bytes), used when simplicity

is preferred over storage efficiency.

4. Backward Compatibility:
o Unicode is compatible with ASCII, meaning the first 128

characters of Unicode correspond directly to ASCII.

Advantages of Unicode
1. Global Text Representation:
o Unicode allows for the consistent representation of text

across different languages, eliminating the need for

multiple encoding standards.
2. Interoperability:
o Ensures compatibility between systems, applications,

and devices worldwide.

3. Support for Special Characters:
o Includes a wide range of non-language symbols, such as

emojis, mathematical operators, and technical symbols.

4. Extensibility:
o Unicode continues to expand, adding support for more

scripts and symbols as needed.

Challenges of Unicode
1. Storage Overhead:
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 o Unicode characters may require more storage space
compared to simpler encoding standards like ASCII.
o For example, UTF-8 characters can use up to 4 bytes,
while UTF-32 uses 4 bytes for every character.
2. Complexity:
o Handling multiple encoding formats (e.g., UTF-8, UTF-16,

UTF-32) can add complexity to software development.

3. Transition Issues:
o Legacy systems built with older encoding standards may

face compatibility challenges when adopting Unicode.

Applications of Unicode
 Multilingual Websites: Enables websites to display text in
multiple languages seamlessly.
 Global Software: Ensures applications can handle user
input and output in any language.
 Emoji Representation: Unicode standardizes emojis across
devices, ensuring consistent appearance.
 Digital Communication: Used in email, text messaging,
and file storage to prevent encoding errors.

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