Data Communications

Chapter 2 - Network Models

Network Models
▪ Networks require a combination of
hardware and software to send data from
one location to another
▪ To make communications efficient, many
components are involved, each with a
specific function or service

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Layered Tasks
▪ Hierarchy
The complex task is broken into smaller subtasks
▪ Services
The higher layer uses the services of the lower
layer

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Example of Person-to-person communication

▪ Cognitive : Defines purpose of message exchange

▪ Linguistic : Provides common language

▪ Physical : Physically transmits information

between users

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Example of Sending a letter

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Internet Model
▪ Dominant model in data communications and
networking
▪ 5 ordered layers; often referred to as TCP/IP
protocol suite

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Internet Model Layers
▪ Each layer defines distinct functions
▪ Each layer calls services of layer just below and
provides services to layer just above
▪ Between machines, corresponding layers
communicate (i.e. network to network; transport
to transport, etc.) are called peer-to-peer
processes
▪ This communication is governed by protocols

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Peer-to-Peer Process

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Data Exchange Between Two Devices

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Physical layer

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Physical Layer Responsibilities
▪ Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
▪ Representation of bits without interpretation
▪ Data rate: number of bits per second
▪ Synchronization of bits

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 Note:

The physical layer is responsible for

transmitting individual bits from one
node to the next.

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Data link layer

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Data Link Layer Responsibilities
▪ Defines frames into manageable data units
▪ Physical addressing
▪ Flow control
▪ Error control
▪ Access control

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 Note:

The data link layer is responsible for

transmitting frames from
one node to the next.

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Node-to-node delivery

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Example 1
In below figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a
node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a
link. At the data link level this frame contains physical addresses in
the header. These are the only addresses needed. The rest of the
header contains other information needed at this level. The trailer
usually contains extra bits needed for error detection

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Network layer

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Network Layer Responsibilities
▪ If the two systems are attached to different
networks with connecting devices between the
networks, there is often a need for the network
layer
▪ Source-to-destination delivery, possibly across
multiple networks
▪ Logical addressing
▪ Routing

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 Note:

The network layer is responsible for

the delivery of packets from the
original source to the
final destination.

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Source-to-destination delivery

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Example 2
In Figure 3.11 we want to send data from a node with
network address A and physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a network address P and
physical address 95, located on another LAN. Because
the two devices are located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses only; the physical
addresses only have local jurisdiction. What we need here
are universal addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical) addresses have this
characteristic.

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Figure 3.11 Example 2

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Transport layer

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Transport Layer Responsibilities
▪ Process-to-process delivery of entire message
▪ Port addressing
▪ Segmentation and reassembly
▪ Connection control: connectionless or
connection-oriented
▪ End-to-end flow control
▪ End-to-end error control

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 Note:

The transport layer is responsible for

delivery of a message from one process
to another.

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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Example 3
Figure 3.14 shows an example of transport layer
communication. Data coming from the upper layers have
port addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending
process, and k is the address of the receiving process).
Since the data size is larger than the network layer can
handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet
retaining the port addresses (j and k). Then in the network
layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each
packet.

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Figure 3.14 Example 3

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Application layer

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Application Layer Responsibilities
▪ Enables user access to the network
▪ User interfaces and support for services such as
E-Mail
File transfer and access
Remote log-in
WWW

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 Note:

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

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Summary of duties

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OSI Model
▪ Open Systems Interconnection model
▪ 7 layer theoretical model of how a protocol stack
should be implemented

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OSI model

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OSI model define two extra layers
▪ Session layer: network dialog controller; establish,
maintain, and synchronize communications
between systems
▪ Presentation layer: To handle the syntax and
semantics of the information exchange between
the two systems.
data translation
encryption/decryption
compression
▪ These duties are often handled by other layers
now, hence the Internet model

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Summary of OSI model

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TCP/IP and OSI model

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OSI vs TCP/IP
OSI TCP/IP
Application

User space
Presentation Application

Software
Session
Transport Transport

Operating System
Firmware
Network Network

Hardware
Data Link Data Link
Physical Physical
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Some common data communications standards

Layer Common Standards

5. Application layer HTTP, HTML (Web)
MPEG, H.323 (audio/video)
IMAP, POP (e-mail)

4. Transport layer TCP (Internet)

SPX (Novell LANs)
3. Network layer IP (Internet)
IPX (Novell LANs)
2. Data link layer Ethernet (LAN)
PPP (dial-up via modem)
1. Physical layer RS-232c cable (LAN)
Category 5 twisted pair (LAN)
V.92 (56 kbps modem)
Protocol Stacks

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Information Format
▪ Frame
An information unit whose source and
destination are data link layer entities
Composed of the data link layer header (trailer)
and upper-layer data

Frame
Data link layer Data link layer
Upper layer data
header trailer

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Information Format Layer (cont.)
▪ Packet
An information unit whose source and
destination are network layer entities
Composed of the network layer header (trailer)
and upper-layer data

Packet

Network layer Network layer

Upper layer data
header trailer

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Information Format Layer (cont.)
▪ Datagram
Usually refers to an information unit whose source
and destination are network layer entities that use
connectionless network service
▪ Segment
Refers to an information unit whose source and
destination are transport layer entities
▪ Message
An information unit whose source and destination
entities exist above the network layer (often at the
application layer)
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Information Format Layer (cont.)
▪ Cell
An information unit of a fixed size whose source
and destination are data link layer entities
Cells are used in switched environments, such
as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and
Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS)
network.
Cell

Cell header (5 Payload

bytes) (48 bytes)

53 bytes
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Credits
▪ All figures obtained from publisher-provided
instructor downloads
Data Communications and Networking, 3rd edition by
Behrouz A. Forouzan. McGraw Hill Publishing, 2004

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