SUPREME INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT

&TECHNOLOGY

CA2 ASSIGNMENT

NAME – RUPSA KOLEY

STREAM – B.SC IN CYBER SECURITY
YEAR - 2ND
SEMESTER - 3RD
UNIVERSITY ROLL - 36440423031
REGISTRATION NO - 233642410138
ACADEMIC YEAR - 2023-2026
SUBJECT NAME – OPERATING SYSTEM AND DBMS
SUBJECT CODE – FYCYS 302
1.Define Process State
ANS - Process State Overview

In an operating system, a process undergoes several stages throughout its lifecycle.

Each stage represents a specific condition of the process and affects how the
system manages it. The primary process states are as follows:
A. New (Creation):
- Definition: The process is being created. During this phase, essential structures
and resources are allocated.
- Details: The operating system sets up the process control block (PCB), initializes
memory, and prepares the environment necessary for execution. The process is not
yet eligible to run.
B. Ready:
- Definition: The process is ready to execute but is waiting for the CPU to become
available.
- Details: The process has all the resources it needs except for the CPU. It resides
in a queue of processes that are waiting for execution. The scheduler will eventually
select it to move to the running state.
C. Running:
- Definition: The process is currently being executed by the CPU.
- Details: In this state, the process performs its computations and instructions. It
utilizes the CPU fully. If the process encounters a need for resources or must wait
for I/O operations, it will transition to the waiting state.
D. Waiting (Blocked):
- Definition: The process is waiting for an external event or resource to proceed.
 - Details: This state occurs when a process is dependent on an I/O operation,
synchronization event, or other conditions. The process is temporarily halted and
placed in a waiting queue until the required condition is met.
E. Terminated (Exit):
- Definition: The process has completed its execution or has been terminated by
the operating system.
- Details: All resources associated with the process are released. The process is
removed from the process table, and any exit status or results are finalized. The
system performs cleanup tasks as necessary.
State Transitions:
- From New to Ready: The process transitions from the new state to ready once
initialization is complete and it is prepared to run.
- From Ready to Running: The process is moved to the running state when the CPU
scheduler selects it from the ready queue.
- From Running to Waiting: If the process requires waiting for an external event or
resource, it moves to the waiting state.
- From Waiting to Ready: Once the waiting condition is resolved, the process returns
to the ready state, ready to be scheduled for execution.
- From Running to Terminated: Upon completion of execution or termination, the
process moves to the terminated state.
By managing these states and transitions, an operating system ensures efficient
process scheduling, resource allocation, and multitasking. Each state plays a crucial
role in maintaining system performance and stability.

2.Elaborate the term PCB.

ANS - The Process Control Block (PCB) is a critical data structure used by the
operating system to manage and track the execution of a process. It contains all the
necessary information about a process, allowing the OS to efficiently switch
between processes during multitasking and maintain system control. Each process
in an operating system has its own PCB, which acts as a repository for process-
related information.
Key Components of a PCB:
A.Process ID (PID):
A unique identifier assigned to each process. This helps the operating system
distinguish between multiple processes running simultaneously.
B.Process State:
The current state of the process (e.g., new, ready, running, waiting, or terminated).
This helps the scheduler decide which process to execute next.
C.Program Counter (PC):
This contains the address of the next instruction that the process needs to execute.
It allows the operating system to resume the process from the point it was last
interrupted.
D.CPU Registers:
The values of various CPU registers (such as the accumulator, index registers,
stack pointer, and general-purpose registers) at the moment the process was
paused. These registers store temporary data, addresses, and results during
process execution.
E.Memory Management Information:
Includes information about the process's memory allocation, such as:
Base and limit registers: Define the memory boundaries for the process.
Page tables or segment tables: If the operating system uses virtual memory, these
tables store the mapping between virtual and physical memory.
Memory protection details: Ensures that the process does not access memory
outside its allocated space.
F.Scheduling Information:
Contains priority, process scheduling queue pointers, and other data used by the
scheduler to determine when and for how long a process should run.
G.I/O Status Information:
Information about the I/O devices allocated to the process, the status of I/O
operations, and the list of open files. This is essential for managing the process's
interaction with peripherals such as disks, printers, or network devices.
H.Accounting Information:
This includes data about resource usage by the process, such as:
CPU time used: The total time the process has spent executing on the CPU.
Time limits: Maximum allowed execution time.
Process start and end times: The timestamp for when the process was created and
when it terminates.
I.Process Privileges:
Defines the security level and permissions associated with the process, including
the access rights to system resources and files.
J.Parent/Child Process Information:
Links to the parent process that created it and any child processes spawned by this
process. This helps the OS manage process hierarchies.
Importance of the PCB:
Context Switching: During multitasking, the operating system often interrupts a
running process and switches to another. The PCB allows the system to save the
state of the interrupted process and resume it later from where it left off.
Process Control: The PCB centralizes all process-related information, making it
easier for the operating system to manage, monitor, and control processes.
Fault Recovery: In case of errors, the OS can use the PCB to roll back or terminate
faulty processes safely.
The PCB plays a vital role in the smooth execution of processes and the overall
efficiency of the operating system.

3. Define various page replacement algorithm with example.

ANS - Page replacement algorithms are essential in managing memory in
systems that use virtual memory. When a process requests a page that is not
currently in physical memory (a page fault occurs), the operating system must
decide which page in memory to swap out to make room for the new one. Page
replacement algorithms determine which page to replace, aiming to minimize page
faults and optimize system performance. Here are some common page replacement
algorithms:

A. First-In, First-Out (FIFO) Page Replacement

Concept: The simplest page replacement algorithm. Pages are stored in a queue,
and when a new page is needed, the oldest page (the one that was brought in first)
is removed.

How It Works:

1. When a page fault occurs and a new page is loaded into memory, the oldest
page (at the front of the queue) is replaced.
2. Example:
 Disadvantage: FIFO may replace frequently used pages, leading to more page
faults. This issue is known as Belady's anomaly, where adding more memory
can sometimes increase the number of page faults.

B. Optimal Page Replacement

Concept: Replaces the page that will not be used for the longest period in the future.
It results in the least number of page faults.

How It Works:

1. Examines the future use of pages and selects the one that will not be needed
for the longest time.
2. Example:

Disadvantage: Requires future knowledge of the reference string, making it

impractical in real-time systems. It is mainly used as a benchmark.

C. Least Recently Used (LRU) Page Replacement

Concept: Replaces the page that has not been used for the longest period. Pages
used recently are assumed to be more likely to be used again soon.

How It Works:

1. Tracks the order of page accesses and replaces the least recently used page
when a page fault occurs.
 2. Example:

Advantage: LRU approximates the optimal algorithm’s performance by using

past behavior to predict future needs.

Disadvantage: Can be expensive to implement due to the need to track the order of
page references, either by timestamps or stacks.

D. Least Frequently Used (LFU) Page Replacement

Concept: Replaces the page that has been used the fewest times, based on the
assumption that pages with low frequency of use are less likely to be accessed
again.

How It Works:

1. Maintains a count of how frequently each page is accessed, and the page with
the smallest count is replaced.
2. Example:

Disadvantage: LFU does not account for recency, so a page that was frequently
used in the past but is no longer needed may remain in memory longer than
necessary.
Summary

Page replacement algorithms aim to optimize memory management by minimizing

page faults. Each algorithm has its own strengths and weaknesses:

• FIFO: Simple but may lead to inefficiency due to Belady's anomaly.

• Optimal: Ideal but impractical in real-time systems due to the need for future
knowledge.
• LRU: Good approximation of optimal but resource-intensive.
• LFU: Focuses on frequency but can overlook recency.

The choice of algorithm depends on specific system needs, including memory size,
application behaviour, and performance requirements.