SOLUTIONS TO VTU MODEL QUESTION PAPER SET 1

Q.01 A.
Define SHM and mention any two examples. Derive the differential equation using
Hooke’s law.
It is the periodic oscillations of an object caused when the restoring force on the object is proportional
to the displacement. The restoring force is directed opposite to displacement.
Ex: 1. Oscillation of mass connected to spring
2. Oscilations of prongs of Tuning fork
3. Simple pendulum
Restoring force α – displacement
F = -k x
Here k is the proportionality constant known as spring constant. It represents the amount of restoring
force produced per unit elongation and is a relative measure of stiffness of the material.
FRe storing  kx
d 2x
m  kx
dt 2
k
Let o 
2

m
2
d x
 o x  0
2
2
dt

Here ωo is angular velocity = 2.π.f

1 k
f is the natural frequency f 
2 m

The Solution is of the form x(t) = A cosωot + B sinωot.

This can also be expressed as x(t) = C cos(ωot-ѳ) where C  A2  B2 tanѳ = B/A

Q 1B
With a neat diagram, explain the construction and working of Reddy’s shock tube.
Mention the any three applications of shock waves.
Reddy shock tube:
A shock tube is a device used to study the changes in pressure & temperature which occur due to the propagation
of a shock wave. A shock wave may be generated by an explosion caused by the buildup of high pressure which
causes diaphragm to burst.
It is a hand driven open ended shock tube. It was conceived with a medical syringe. A plastic sheet placed
between the plastic syringe part and the needle part constitutes the diaphragm.
  A high pressure (driver) and a low pressure (driven) side separated by a diaphragm.
 When diaphragm ruptures, a shock wave is formed that propagates along the driven section.
 Shock strength is decided by driver to driven pressure ratio, and type of gases used.

Working:

 The piston is initially at rest and accelerated to final velocity V in a short time t.
 The piston compresses the air in the compression tube. At high pressure, the diaphragm ruptures and
the shock wave is set up. For a shock wave to form, V piston> V sound.
Formation of shock wave:

As the piston gains speed, compression waves are set up. Such compression waves increase in number.
As the piston travels a distance, all the compression waves coalesce and a single shock wave is formed.
This wave ruptures the diaphragm.
Uses:

 Aerodynamics – hypersonic shock tunnels, scramjet engines.

 High temperature chemical kinetics – ignition delay
 Rejuvenating depleted bore wells
 Material studies – effect of sudden impact pressure, blast protection materials
 Investigation of traumatic brain injuries – Nerve activation
 Needle-less drug delivery
 Wood preservation – Sandlewood oil extraction

Q1C
A free particle is executing S.H.M in straight line with a period of 5 seconds after it
has crossed the equilibrium point, the velocity is found to be0.7m/s. Find the
displacement at the end of10 seconds ,and also the amplitude of oscillation.
2
  1.25rad / s
T
Vmax  0.7 m / s   A
A  0.56m
x  A sin(t )  0.121m

Q 2A
What are damped oscillations. Discuss the theory of damped oscillations.
Represent overdamping, critical damping and under damping by graph.

In damped oscillations, the oscillator looses energy due to frictional forces causing the decrease in amplitude.
Let us assume that in addition to the elastic force F =- kx, there is a force that is opposed to the velocity, F = b
v where b is damping coefficient
For the oscillating mass in a medium with resistive coefficient b, the equation of motion is given by

d 2x dx
m  kx  b 0
dt 2 dt

This is a homogeneous, linear differential equation of second order.

b k
The auxiliary equation is D2  D 0
m m

b 1 b 1
The roots are D1    b 2  4mk and D2    b 2  4mk
2m 2m 2m 2m
  b 1   b 1 
  b 2  4 mk  t   b 2  4 mk  t
The solution can be derived as x(t )  Ce  2m 2m 
 De  2m 2m 
…….(1)

2

b
k  b 
cost    where  
t
Note: This can be expressed as x(t) = Ae 2m
 
m  2m 

A  C 2  D 2   tan 1 ( D / C )

b
 t
Here, the term Ae 2m
represents the decreasing amplitude and (ωt-ɸ) represents phase

Case 1: b 2  4mk OVER DAMPING

Case 2: b 2  4mk UNDER DAMPING

Case 3: b 2  4mk CRITICAL DAMPING

Over damping

Critical damping
Under damping

displacement

time

Q 2B Define Mach number. Distinguish between Ultrasonic, subsonic,

supersonic, and hypersonic waves.
Mach number: M = Velocity of fluid/velocity of sound.

Subsonic speed Vobject< V sound Mach number <1

Sonic speed Vobject= V sound Mach number = 1

Supersonic speed V object > V sound Mach number >1

Transonic Mach number 0.8

-1.2

Hypersonic Mach number >5

Q 2C.
The distance between two pressure sensors in a shock tube is 200 mm. The time
taken by a shock wave to travel this distance is 0.4ms. If the velocity of sound
under the same condition is 340 m/s. Find the Mach number of the shock wave,

 x 0.2
 
    0.0004  1,47
Vshock t
Mack number 
Vsound 340 340

Q 3A.
State Wein’s law and Rayleigh-Jeans law and mention their drawbacks.

Rayleigh –Jeans Law: Intensity of radiation from a hot body is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
the wavelength .

8kT
I   
4

As a consequence, the energy radiated by a hot body must become very high at lower wavelengths (ultraviolet
region) leading to ‘ultraviolet catastrophe’. However, experimentally the intensity of radiation decreases with
decrease in temperature. It fails to account for Black body spectrum at short wavelengths.

Weins law : Energy density of a Black body is given by

 
8hc  1 
E  d   5   h  

 e  kT  

This law where as it gives agreeing results at shorter wavelengths, fails to explain Black body spectrum at
longer wavelengths.

Q 3B
Assuming the time independent Schrodinger’s wave equation discuss the solution
for a particle in one dimensional potential well of infinite height and hence obtain
the normalized wave equation.

Particle in an infinite potential well problem:

Consider a particle of mass m moving along X-axis in the region from X=0 to X=a in a
one dimensional potential well as shown in the diagram. The potential energy is assumed
to be zero inside the region and infinite outside the region.
 Region (1)
Region(2
)

X=0 X=a

Applying, Schrodingers equation for region (1) as particle is supposed to be present in

region (1)

d 2  8 2 mE
  0 V  0
dx 2 h2
8 2 mE
But k 2 
h2
d 2
 2
 k 2  0
dx


Auxiliary equation is D  k x  0
2 2

Roots are D = +ik and D = -ik

The general solution is

x  Ae ikx  Be  ikx
 A(cos kx  i sin kx)  B (cos kx  i sin kx)
 ( A  B) cos kx  i ( A  B) sin kx
 C cos kx  D sin kx

The boundary conditions are

1. At x=0,   0 C  0
2. At x=a,   0
D sin ka = 0  ka = n  ………(2)
where n = 1, 2 3…
 
   D sin n x
 a

n2h2
From (1) and (2) E =
8ma 2
To evaluate the constant D:
Normalisation: For one dimension

 dx  1
2

n
a

D )xdx  1
2
sin 2 (
0
a

But cos 2  1  2 sin 2 

n
a
1
D (1  cos 2( ) x)dx  1
2

0
2 a

n
a a
D2 1
0 2 dx  0 2 cos 2( a ) x)dx  1
D2a
  n  x a
[sin 2  ]0  1
2  a 2

a
D2  0 =1
2

2
D=
a

2  
 n  sin n  x
a  a
For n = 1, First state

2  
 1  sin1.  x
a  a

Q3C
A particle having mass of 0.5MeV/c2 has a kinetic energy of 100 eV. Calculate
the deBroglie wavelength, where c is the velocity of light.
 0.5 x106 x1.6 x10 19
mass   0.08x10 30 kg
(3x108 ) 2
h 6.62x10 34
   4.1x10 10 m
30 19
2mE 2 x0.08x10 x100x1.6 x10

Q4a

Starting from Planck’s quantum theory of radiation arrive at Wein’s law and
Rayleigh- Jean’s law
Deduction of Weins law:

It is applicable at smaller wavelengths.

h
For smaller wavelengths e kT  1

h h
e kT
 1  e kT

So Planck’s radiation law becomes

 
8hc  1 
E  d   5   h  

 e  kT  

Deduction of Rayleigh Jeans Law:

It is applicable at longer wavelengths.

h
For longer wavelengths  1
kT

h
h  h  1 h
2

 e kT  1     .......... ....  1 
kT  kT  2 kT
8hc 1 8kT
E  d  5 . d  4 d
 h 
1 1
kT

Q4b

State Heisenberg uncertainty Principle. Show that electron does not exists
inside the nucleus by this Principle.
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
The position and momentum of a particle cannot be determined accurately and
simultaneously.The product of uncertainty in the measurement of position ( x ) and
h
momentum ( p ) is always greater than or equal to .
2
h
( x ) . ( p ) 
4

TO SHOW THAT ELECTRON DOES NOT EXIST INSIDE THE NUCLEUS:

We know that the diameter of the nucleus is of the order of 10 -14m.If the electron is to
exist inside the nucleus, then the uncertainty in its position Δx cannot exceed the size of
the nucleus
x  5 x1015 m
Now the uncertainty in momentum is
x  5 x1015 m
h
P   0.1x1019 kg.m / s
4 xx
Then the momentum of the electron can atleast be equal to the uncertainty in momentum.
P  P  0.1x1019 kg.m / s

Now the energy of the electron with this momentum supposed to be present in the
nucleus is given by (for small velocities -non-relativistic-case)
E p 2c 2  mo2c 4  1.56 x1017 J  98MeV

The beta decay experiments have shown that the kinetic energy of the beta particles
(electrons) is only a fraction of this energy. This indicates that electrons do not exist

within the nucleus. They are produced at the instant of decay of nucleus ( n  p  e  

/ p  n  e  ).

Q4C

A quantum particle confined to one dimensional box of width ‘a’ is in its first excited
state. What is the probability of finding the particle over an interval of ‘a/2’ marked
symmetrically at the center of the box.
 0.75 A0
2 2 n 2 1  cos 2nx / a
Pr obability   dx   x.dx   (
2
sin )dx
0.25 A0
a a a 2
0.75 A0 0.75 A0
2 cos 2nx / a 1  sin 2nx / a 
dx  x   
2 1 1
 
a 0.25 A0 2
dx 
2a  a a  2n / a  0.25 A0
 0.5  0.008  0.492

Q5A

Define the terms population inversion and Meta stable state. Explain the
construction and working of semiconductor laser.
Population inversion: It is a state in which number of atoms in an excited energy state
is more than the number of atoms in the ground state.

h
N ground
From Boltzmanslaw ,  e kT
N excited

Metastable states: Population inversion is achieved in certain systems which possess

metastable states. The life time of the excited atoms in these energy levels is
higher(10-3 s).Hence atoms stay for a longer time .
Semiconductor laser :
It is the only device which can be used for amplification in the infrared and optical ranges.
Amplification is possible if the population of the valence and conduction bands could be inverted as
shown in the diagram.

L=nλ/2

E p region
n region

k
The first laser action was observed in a GaAs junction(8400Å) which is a direct gap semiconductor.
When a heavily doped junction is forward biased (optical pumping source), electrons from n side are
injected into p side causing population inversion. Electron –Hole recombination occurs releasing Laser
photons. The junction region is the active region .The optical cavity is formed by the faces of the crystal
itself which are taken on the cleavage plane and are then polished. The wavelength of the radiation
depends on temperature. The wavelength of laser increases as the temperature increases as the energy
gap decreases. The frequency can be increased to the optical region by alloying with phosphor
according to the relation Ga  As 1 x Px .

hc
If Eg is the energy gap, then E g  eV forward 

Q5B

With neat diagram explain the working of Intensity based displacement sensor using
optical fiber.
FIBER OPTICS SENSOR FOR DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT

This technique is one of the simplest techniques for the displacement measurement, which is based on
comparing the transmitted light intensity against incident intensity to provide information on the
displacement between the probe and the target. A silicon photo-diode is used to measure the transmitted
and reflected light intensity.

Apparatus consists of two set of fiber, one set is connected to a light source and is termed as the
transmitting fiber, and the other set is connected to a silicon detector and is known as the receiving
fiber. In the experiment, the transmitting fiber located opposite to the receiving fiber is moved laterally
and axially. The light is scattered after travelling out from the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber
collect a portion of the scattered light to transmit into the silicon detector where its intensity is
measured. The intensity of the collected light is a function of axial and lateral displacement of the fiber.
The light source is a He-Ne laser with a peak wavelength of 633 nm.
Q5C

Estimate the attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m when a light

signal of power 100mW emerges out of fiber with a power 90Mw.
10 P  10  100 
 log  in   log    0.91dB / km
L  PO  0.5km  90 

Q 6A
Derive the expression for numerical aperture of an optical fiber. Mention
any two merits and demerits of optical communication.
Expression for condition for propagation :

Consider a light ray falling in to the optical fibre at an angle of incidence θ0 equal to
acceptance angle. Let n0 be the refractive index of the surrounding medium .

Let n1 be the refractive index of the core.

Let n2 be the refractive index of the cladding.

From Snell’s Law:

For the ray OA n0 sin 0  n 1 sin r  n1  

1  cos 2 r …………. (1)

n1 sin(90  r )  n 2 sin 90
For the ray AB n1 cos r  n2
n2
cos r 
n1

[ here the angle of incidence is (90 - r) for which angle of refraction is 900].

Substituting for cosr in equation (1)

n 22
n0 sinθ0 = n1 1 
n12

n12  n22
sinθ0 =
n0

If the medium surrounding the fiber is air then n0 = 1,

Numerical aperture = sinθ0 = n12  n22

The total internal reflection will take place only if the angle of incidence θi< θ0
  sinθi< sin θ0

sinθi< n12  n22

This is the condition for propagation.

Merits and Demerits of optical fiber communication

Merits –

Large bandwidth (1000GHz)

Data security

No Electrical Interference (No cross talk)

Low loss (0.01dB/km)

Portable

Cheaper

Demerits

Repair costs high

Light emitting sources are limited to low power

The distance between the transmitter and receiver should keep

short or repeaters are needed to boost the signal.

Q6B

Explain how laser find application in eye surgery

Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK)
In recent years, a number of possible surgical procedures in ophthalmology has offered prospective
patients an alternative to wear spectacles or contact lenses. Laser is used to modify the shape of the
cornea and correct myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism, and presbyopia. Introduction of the excimer laser
to reshape the cornea has resulted in remarkable developments in the correction of these refractive
errors. Combined with other advanced ophthalmic instruments, laser refractive eye surgery has resulted
in a substantial increase in the safety, efficacy, and predictability of surgical outcomes.
Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) surgery can correct refractive errors and for elimination of myopic
refractive errors.
The preoperative myopic sphere was − 3.50 ± 1.70 D and postoperative was −0.20 ± 0.4D
Q6C

The ratio of population of two energy levels out of which upper one
corresponds to a metastable state is 1.059x 10-30 . Find the wavelength of
light emitted at 330 K.

hc
N ex 
 e  kT
N gr
1
1.059 x1030  hc
e  kT
  633x109 m

Q7A
Mention any four assumptions of Drude-Lorentz model and discuss the success of Quantum free
electron theory.
Classical free electron theory: (Drude – Lorentz theory)

Assumptions:

1. A metal is assumed to possess a three dimensional array of positive ions with

randomly moving free electron gas confined to metallic boundary.
2. These free electron gas is treated as equivalent to gas molecules and they are
assumed to obey the laws of kinetic energy of gases. In the absence of any
electric field the energy associated with electrons is equal to
3
Kinetic energy = kT
2

3. The electric current in a metal is due to the drift of electrons in a direction

opposite to applied Electric field.

4. The electric field due to all the ions is assumed to be constant.

Success of quantum theory:

1. Specific heat:
Classical theory predicted high values of specific heat for metals on the basis of theassumption that all the
conduction electrons are capable of absorbing the heat energy as per Maxwell - Boltzmann distribution i.e.,
3
CV= RT
2

But according to the quantum theory, only those electrons occupying energy levels close to Fermi energy (EF )
are capable of absorbing heat energy to get excited to higher energy levels. Thus only a small percentage of
electrons are capable of receiving the thermal energy and specific heat value becomes small.

It can be shown that CV = 10 4 R .

This is in conformity with the experimental values.

2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity.

According to classical free electron theory,

1
Electrical conductivity 
Temperature

Where as from quantum theory

Electrical conductivity
1 1 1
  
collisional area of crosssec tion of lattice atoms vibrational energy Temperature

This is in agreement with experimental values.

3. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration:

According to classical theory,

ne 2
    n
m

But it has been experimentally found that Zinc which is having higher electron concentration

than copper has lower Electrical conductivity.

According to quantum free electron theory,

ne 2   
Electrical conductivity     where VF is the Fermi velocity.
m  VF 

Zinc possesses lesser conductivity because it has higher Fermi velocity.

 Metal n 𝜎
Cu 8.45x1028/m3 6x107(Ωm)-1
Zn 13x1028/m3 1x107(Ωm)-1

Q7B

Derive Clausius-Mossotti equation.

CLAUSIUS – MOSOTTI RELATION:

This expression relates dielectric constant of an insulator (ε) to the polarization of individual
atoms(α) comprising it.
 r  1 N

 r  2 3 0
where N is the number of atoms per unit volume
α is the polrisability of the atom
εr is the relative permittivity of the medium
εo is the permittivity of free space.
Proof:
If there are N atoms per unit volume,the electric dipole moment per unit volume –known as
polarization is given by
P = NαEi
By the definition of polarization P, it can be shown that
P =  0 E a  r 1  NE i
 0 r E a  0 Ea  NEi
NEi …………………..(1)
r  1
 0 Ea
The internal field at an atom in a cubic structure(γ =1/3) is of the form
p NEi
Ei  Ea   Ea 
3 0 3 0
Ei 1

Ea   N 
1   
  3 0 
E
Substituting for i in equation (1)
Ea
   N  N 0 2  N 
   0 1    1   
N  1    
  0  0 
3 3
r  1 0


 0  N    N  1  N 
 1     0 1   1  
  3 0    3 0  3  0 
 N
1  2 / 3
0
1
N
1  (1 / 3)
  r 1  0 N
  
  r  2  1  (2 / 3) N 3 0
0
2
N
1  (1 / 3)
0

Q7C

Show that occupation probability at an energy EF+ΔE is equal to non-

occupation probability at the energy EF-ΔE
For an energy level E above Fermi level by ∆E,
Probability of occupation is
1 1
f (E)  E  EF
  E
( )
e kT
1 e kT
1

For an energy level E below Fermi level by ∆E,

Probability of occupation is
1 1
f (E)  E  EF
 E
( )
e kT
1 e kT
1
Non occupation probability = 1-f(E)
 E
1 e kT
11 1 1
=  1 E
 E
 E
  E
e kT
1 e kT
1 e kT
1 1 e kT

E
 E
kT kT
e e

Q8A
What is Hall effect. Obtain the expression for the Hall coefficient

Here B is along –X , V is along –Y axis

Lorentz force= = e (VXB)
 
 e  ˆj X  iˆ   kˆ
So the electron is deflected along + Z axis

Conventional current
current
 Lorentz force (FL)

Electric force (eE)

Hall effect: When a conductor carrying current is placed in transverse magnetic field, an electric field
is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to both current and the magnetic field.

Consider a rectangular slab of an n type semiconductor carrying a current I along + X axis. Magnetic
field B is applied along –Z direction. Now according to Fleming’s left hand rule, the Lorentz force on
the electrons is along +Y axis. As a result the density of electrons increases on the upper side of the
material and the lower side becomes relatively positive. This develops a potential V H-Hall voltage
between the two surfaces. Ultimately, a stationary state is obtained in which the current along the X
axis vanishes and a field Ey is set up.
Expression for Hall Coefficient:
At equilibrium, Lorentz force is equal to force due to applied electric field
Bevd  eEH
Hall Field EH = BVd
Current density J  ne evd
J
vd 
ne e
J
EH  B
ne e
Hence
EH 1
  RH
JB ne e

Q8B
Obtain expression for electrical conductivity in metals on quantum model
Expression for Electrical conductivity:

Imagine a conductor across which an electric field E is applied. Let the wave number change from k1 to k2 in
time interval τF in the presence of electric field.

The force on the free electron is

F= dp/dt = eE

2 2 2p
k  
 h/ p h
hk
p
2
dp h  dk 
  
dt 2  dt 
2
dk  eEdt
h
 2 .eE. F
On integration k 2  k1  k  …….(1)
h

h
From quantum theory, conductivity J  k .ne. ………..(2)
2 .m 
Substituting (1) in (2)

ne 2 F
We get J  E …(3)
m
Since from Ohm’s, J = σE, conductivity σ can be written as

ne2 F ne2 
  
m m vF

Q8C
Find the temperature at which there is 1% probability that a state with an
energy 0.5 eV above the fermi energy is occupied.
1
f (E)  E  EF
( )
e kT
1
E  EF
1
e KT
1 
f (E)

E  EF
1
e KT
 1
f (E)
E  EF 1
ln e e  ln(  1)  ln 99
kT 0.01
E  EF 0.05x1.6 x1019
T   1261K
k  ln 99 1.38x10 23 x ln 99

Q 9A

With neat diagram, explain the principle, construction and working of Atomic Force
Microscope.
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY

PRINCIPLE: In AFM, a sharp tip is mounted on a very flexible cantilever. As in the STM, it is rastered
over the surface by means of piezoelectric transducers. Tip-surface interaction forces are sensed in
AFM by the deflection of the lever. AFM is therefore ideal for studies of insulating materials that are
not directly accessible to STM imaging. The resolution of AFM is not truly atomic, as is the case with
STM. The forces of interaction produce a contact spot that is several tens of angstroms in diameter,
depending on the applied load. Thus atomic-size point defects are not observed in AFM.

SPECIMEN: Metal –Cells – DNA

VACUUM: Not required
INSTRUMENTATION: Sharp tip attached to scanner, sample holder, force sensor, Display
Force sensor: When a potential is applied across Piezoelectric sensor, it changes geometry. Expansion
coefficient of the sensor is 0.1nm/V. It controls the motion of the Force sensor (cantilever) across the
sample surface.
Atomic force between the sample – Tip is a measure of separation distance. A Laser beam is reflected
by the backside of cantilever onto a photodetector. When the tip experiences a force, it bends and the
reflected path will change whose magnitude is related to surface structure.
Working: When the tip encounters an increase in force, the force sensor delivers feedback to Piezo
scanner to move away from the surface. The amount scanner moves up / down to maintain the force
constant gives surface topography.

Detector LASER

Piezo
scanner CANTILEVER

TIP

Q 9B

Explain in brief how crystal size is determined by Scherrer’s equation.

Crystal size by Determination by Scherrer equation

 b
Full width at Half maxima FWHM (2 ) 
D cos 

where FWHM is the full width of the peak( 2θ is the scattering angle in radians),
λ is the wavelength, b is a constant, which normally takes a value between 0.89 and 0.94 depending
on the function used to fit the peak,
D is the dimension of the crystallites

Q 9C

Determine the wave length of X-rays for crystal size of 1.188×10-6 m, peak
width is 0.5 and peak position 30O, for a cubic crystal. Given Scherrer’s
constant k=0.92.
b
FWHM (2 ) 
D cos 

D cos ( peakwidth in radian) 1.188x106 x cos 30(0.5 x3.14 / 180)

   9.7 x109 m
b 0.92

Q 10 A
Explain the construction and working of X-Ray diffractometer.
X-ray diffraction spectrometer:

Construction: X –ray beam after reflection from the crystal enters the ionization chamber mounted
on a mechanical arm which can turn co axially with the turn table .This ionization chamber is coupled
with the turn table so that if the turn table rotates through an angle ‘θ’, the ionization chamber rotates
through ‘2θ’.The ionization current produced by X-rays is recorded by the electrometer.

Working: The ionization current is measured for different values of glancing angle ‘θ’. A plot is then
obtained between ‘θ’ and ionization current .For certain values of ‘θ’, the intensity of Ionization
current increases abruptly.

Whenever the crystal receives X-rays at an angle of incidence satisfying Bragg’s law 2d sinθ = nλ
,constructive interference takes place and maximum intensity occurs .The rise in current occurs more
than once as ‘θ’ is varied because the law is satisfied for various values of ‘n’ i.e., 2d sin θ = 1λ ,2λ,3λ
etc and Interplanar distance d for the crystal can be determined.

Q 10 B

With neat diagram, explain the principle, construction and working of X-ray
photoelectron spectroscope.
X RAY PHOTOELECTRON MICROSCOPY
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is widely applied to all types of solids, including metals, ceramics,
semiconductors, and polymers, in many forms, including foils, fibers, and powders. It has also been
used to obtain spectra of gas phase compounds. When applied to solids, XPS is a surface sensitive
technique. The nominal analysis depth is on the order of 1 to 10 nm (10 to 100 monolayers). Surface
sensitivity can be increased by collecting the emitted photoelectrons at to glancing angles to the surface.
The primary limitation of XPS is the need for ultrahigh vacuum conditions during analysis. This
generally limits the type of material to those with a low vapor pressure (<108 mbar) at room
temperature and limits the sample size to that which will fit through the introduction ports on the
vacuum chamber.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) uses x rays of a characteristic energy (wavelength) to excite
electrons from orbitals in atoms. The photoelectrons emitted from the material are collected as a
function of their kinetic energy, and the number of photoelectrons collected in a defined time interval
is plotted versus kinetic energy to obtain XPS spectrum.Peaks appear in the spectrum at discrete
energies due to emission of electrons from states of specific binding energies (orbitals) in the material.
An incident X-ray photon can have sufficient energy to knock out an inner-shell electron, for example,
from the atom’s K shell. In such a case, the K-shell electron would be ejected from the surface as a
photoelectron with kinetic energy EK. Knowing the kinetic energy EK, we can calculate the binding
energy of the atom’s photoelectron (EB) based on the following relationship
EB = hv − EK − Φ
ϕ is the parameter representing the energy required for an electron to escape from a material’s surface,
h is Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency. The binding energies of atomic electrons have
characteristic values required to identify elements,
The positions and shapes of the peaks in an XPS spectrum can also be analyzed in greater detail to
determine the chemical state of the constituent elements in the material, including oxidation state,
partial charge, and hybridization.

Q 10 C
The first order Bragg reflection occurs when a monochromatic beam of X-rays of wavelength 0.675A0 is
incident on a crystal at a glancing angle of 40. What is the glancing angle for third order Bragg’s reflection to
occur?
From Bragg’s law

CASE 1 : 2d sin 1  n  1
CASE 2 : 2d sin  2  n  3
sin 1 1

Sin 2 3
 2  120
 Turn table on which powdered
crystal is taken
Vernier
scale

slit

Coolidge tube (Source of X-ray)

Electrometer