Bearing Capacity of soil

Concept of bearing capacity, ultimate bearing capacity, safe bearing capacity and allowable
bearing pressure

Soils behave in a complex manner when load is applied, thus, it is important to know about the
bearing capacity of soil. Soil when stressed due to loading, tend to deform. The resistance to
deformation of the soil depends upon factors like water content, bulk density, angle of internal
friction and the manner in which load is applied on the soil.

When excessive load is transmitted to the soil by foundation, the settlement of the foundation takes
place which can endanger the stability of the structure. A foundation is meant for distributing the
loads of the superstructure on a large area. The foundation should be designed such that:

a) The soil below it doesn’t fail in shear.

b) Settlement is within safe limits

The maximum load per unit area which the soil or rock can carry without yielding or
displacement is termed as the bearing capacity of soils. In other words, bearing capacity is
the ability of soil to safely carry the pressure placed on the soil from any engineered
structures without undergoing shear failure or large settlements.

Figure 1 Superstructure above foundation soil

1. Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Soils
The total pressure at the base of foundation, at which soil fails in shear, is called ultimate bearing
capacity of soil.

2. Safe Bearing Capacity of Soils

The maximum intensity of loading that the soil will safely carry without risk of shear failure is
called safe bearing capacity of soil. This is obtained by dividing the ultimate bearing capacity by
a certain factor of safety, and it is the value which is used in the design of foundation. The factor
of safety normally varies from 2 to 3.

3. Allowable Bearing Capacity:

Allowable bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity is divided by suitable Factor of Safety.

5.2 Terzaghi’s analysis and assumptions made

Terzaghi in 1943 gave a general bearing capacity theory for a strip foundation. Terzaghi considered
a continuous footing of width B placed at a depth of D below the ground surface as shown in
figure. In the derivation of the equation the following assumptions were made.

Figure.2: Terzaghi Analysis

 The soil is homogeneous, isotropic and columb’s law of shear strength is valid.
 The footing is continuous and has a rough base.
 Failure zone does not extend above the base of the foundation.
 Shear resistance of the soil above the base of the foundation is neglected.
 The soil above the base of the foundation is replaced by a uniform surcharge.
 Principal of superposition holds good.
FAILURE MECHANISM

1. The soil is assumed to fail along the surface aedcgfb. The failure surface consists of 5 zones.
The Zone I, abc is an elastic zone. Zone II, which comprises wedges beg and acd is the zone
of radial shear, which is a transition from elastic to plastic state. The wedges bfg and ade
comprise Zone III and are known as passive Rankine’s zone and will be in a plastic state.

2. When the footing is loaded the wedge ‘abc’ sinks into the ground as an integral part of the
footing and remains in the elastic state due to the cohesion and adhesion between the base of
the footing and the soil. The straight boundaries ‘ac’ and ‘bc’ of this zone are inclined at an
angle ‘φ’¸ with the base of the footing.

3. In Zones II and III, shear patterns develop. Zone II, the zone of radial shear constitutes a set of
radial lines emerging from the outer edges ‘b’ and ‘a’ of the footing.
4. The boundaries of passive Rankine’s Zone III are inclined at angles (450 – α/2) with the
horizontal. The ultimate bearing capacity Qult is obtained by considering the equilibrium of the
elastic wedge in Zone I as shown in Figure below. The Various forces acting on the Wedge
are:

Figure.3: Equilibrium of elastic wedge

Pp = the resultant passive earth resistance at failure offered by the wedge bcgfb

C = Soil adhesion acting along ac and bc

φ = Angle of internal friction

Qult = Ultimate bearing capacity

For equilibrium,

Qult*B*1 = 2Pp + 2ca* ac sin φ – W

𝐵 𝐵
= 2Pp + 2ca*2 cos ∅ sin φ- 2 γ*cd

𝐵2
= 2Pp + ca Btan φ – γtan φ
4

2𝑃𝑝 𝐵
Thus, Qult = + ca tan φ – 4 γtan ∅ ------- (1)
𝐵

The passive force Pp is determined by considering the equilibrium of the passive wedge bcdeb.
This is obtained by carrying out the three independent operations. The operations comprise:

1. Soil is assumed to have weight and possess no cohesion and surcharge.

2. Soil is assumed to have surcharge only and possess no cohesion and weight.
3. Soil is assumed to have cohesion only and possess no weight and surcharge.

With the above assumptions the passive resistance Ppγ, Ppq and Ppc respectively due to weight,
surcharge and cohesion are determined and the values are superimposed. Hence, Pp can be written
as:

Pp = (Pp)γ + (Pp)q + (Pp)c ———- (2)

Substituting the value of Pp in equation (1) we get,

2[(𝑃𝑝)𝛾 + (𝑃𝑝)𝑞 + (𝑃𝑝)𝑐] 1

𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = + 𝑐 tan 𝜑 − 𝐵𝛾 tan 𝜑
𝐵 4

2(𝑃𝑝)𝛾 𝐵𝛾 tan ∅ 2(𝑃𝑝)𝑞 2(𝑃𝑝)𝑐

𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = [ − ]+ +[ + 𝑐 tan 𝜑]
𝐵 4 𝐵 𝐵

1
𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾 + 𝑞𝑁𝑞 + 𝑐𝑁𝑐
2
Where,

4(𝑃𝑝)𝛾 1
𝑁𝛾 = − tan ∅
𝛾𝐵 2 2

2(𝑃𝑝)𝑞
𝑁𝑞 =
𝑞𝐵

2(𝑃𝑝)𝑐
𝑁𝑐 = + tan ∅
𝐵𝑐
The factors Nγ, Nq and Nc are called bearing capacity factors. These factors are functions of angle
of internal friction ‘ǿ’.

Safe Bearing Capacity

The safe bearing capacity is obtained as per the following. Let Qnet be the net bearing capacity.
The net bearing capacity, as per definition is obtained as:

Qnet= Qult – q = Qult – γDf

1
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 + 𝑞(𝑁𝑞 − 1) + 𝑐𝑁𝑐
2
1
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓(𝑁𝑞 − 1) + 𝑐𝑁𝑐
2
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 1
𝑄𝑠 = + 𝛾𝐷𝑓 = [ 𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓(𝑁𝑞 − 1) + 𝑐𝑁𝑐] /𝐹 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓
𝐹 2

Equation developed by terzaghi is for strip foundation, which is considered as two dimensional.
Terzagi suggested following modification for other footings such as square, circular, rectangular
etc.

Square Footing

𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 0.4𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓𝑁𝑞 + 1.2𝑐𝑁𝑐

Circular Footing

𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 0.3𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓𝑁𝑞 + 1.2𝑐𝑁𝑐

Rectangular Footing

𝐵 𝐵
𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 [1 − 0.2 ] + 𝛾𝐷𝑓𝑁𝑞 + 𝑐𝑁𝑐 [1 + 0.2 ]
𝐿 𝐿

Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity of soil is influenced by various factors. They are listed as:

 Types of foundation
 Size of foundation
 Depth of foundation
 Shape of foundation
 Settlement of foundation
 Relative density of soil
  Engineering properties of soil (Density, cohesion, Friction, position of water table, original
stresses)

Note: In case of granular soil like sands, the cohesion C is negligible. Thus, bearing capacity
equation becomes: 𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓𝑁𝑞 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾.

And, in case of cohesive soil, the angle of internal friction ǿ is 0. Accordingly, Nγ=0 and Nq= 1.
Hence, for clays, the bearing capacity equation becomes: 𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓𝑁𝑞 + 𝑐𝑁𝑐.

Effect of water table on bearing capacity

The position of ground water has a significant effect on the bearing capacity of soil. Presence of
water table at a depth less than the width of the foundation from the foundation bottom will reduce
the bearing capacity of the soil. The bearing capacity equation incorporating the ground water table
correction factors is given below.

𝑄𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑐𝑁𝑐 + 𝛾𝐷𝑓𝑁𝑞𝑅𝑤1 + 0.5𝐵𝛾𝑁𝛾𝑅𝑤2

Where Qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of soil in (KN/m2)

c = Cohesion of soil in (kN/m2)

Nc, Nq Nγ are Terzaghi’s bearing capacity constants.

Df = depth of foundation in meters

B = Width of the foundation in meters

Rw1 and Rw2 are water table correction factors

The water table correction factors can be obtained from the equations given below:

1. When the water table is below the base of foundation, at a distance ‘b’ the correction Rw2 is
given by the following equation
𝑏
𝑅𝑤2 = 0.5 + 0.5 ≤ 1
𝐵
When b =0, Rw2 = 0.5

2. When water table further rises above base of foundation, correction factor Rw1 comes into
action, which is given by the following equation.
𝑎
𝑅𝑤1 = 1 − 0.5 ( ) ≤ 1
𝐷𝑓
When a =Df, Rw1 = 0.5
 Figure.4: Water Table Correction
When water table is at a depth greater than or equals to the width of foundation, from the
foundation bottom, the correction factor Rw2 is 1, which implies, there is no effect on the safe
bearing capacity.

Let us assume water table starts rising, then, the effect of Rw2 comes into action. The correction
factor will be less than 1. When the water table reaches the bottom of foundation, which implies,
when b = 0, Rw2 = 0.5.

Now let us assume water table further raises, above the depth of foundation. When the depth of
water table is just touching the bottom of foundation, a = 0. This means Rw1= 1.0. On further rising,
when the water table reaches the ground level, Rw1 becomes 0.5. Hence, the assessment of ground
water level is an important aspect in any site investigation.

FIELD METHODS FOR DETERMINATION OF BEARING CAPACITY

Field measurement of bearing capacity of soil, also often called in-situ test are the methods
commonly carried out directly on the ground, rock or soil at a particular site. The tests are
conducted to gather information about geotechnical properties of soil such as strength, stiffness
permeability, bearing capacity and many more.

In-situ testing is an important part of site investigation as it helps to obtain a better understanding
of the characteristics and behavior of soil and rock at the actual site conditions. The results obtained
from in-situ testing are used to assess the geotechnical properties of soil and rock, which in turn
are used for design and construction of various civil engineering projects such as buildings, roads,
bridges, dams, and tunnels.

In-situ testing can also provide information on the presence of natural hazards such as landslides,
liquefaction, and subsidence. By understanding the geotechnical properties of the site, engineers
can design appropriate foundations, earthworks, and other geotechnical structures to minimize the
risk of failure and ensure the safety and stability of the structures over their design life.

Types of in-situ tests are:

 Standard penetration test

 Cone penetration test
 Pressure meter test
 Vane shear test
 Plate load test
Plate load test
Plate load test is a field test to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and also the probable
settle under the given load. The test procedure involves, placing a steel plate on the ground surface
and loading it with a hydraulic jack until the plate starts to sink into the soil. The amount of
settlement and the pressure applied to the plate are measured at different stages of loading to
establish a load-settlement curve. From the load-settlement curve, the ultimate bearing capacity of
the soil can be estimated, along with the deformation modulus and other soil properties. This
information is useful in designing shallow foundations for structures, such as buildings and
bridges, and in assessing the stability of embankments and slopes. PLT is typically used in
conjunction with other site investigation techniques, such as borehole drilling and sampling, and
geophysical surveys, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the soil and rock conditions at
a site.
The test setup is shown in the figure below. Generally, square or round plates, ranging in sizes
from 30 to 60 cm and 2.5 cm thickness are used in the test. Test procedure is explained as:
 A pit five times the size of plate is excavated at a proposed depth of foundation. Pit is leveled
and the test plate is placed in the center of pit.
 A seating load of 70 gm/cm2 is applied and released after some time.
 The plate is loaded either through the Kentledge or by the reaction through a truss or a beam.
 Load is applied in the increments of 1/5th of the design load.
 For each increment of load four dial gauges are fixed on the plate to measure the settlement.
 Then higher load is applied when the rate of settlement of the plate becomes 0.25 mm per hour.
 Figure.5: Plate Load test setup

Interpretation of Results:
From the test result, a load settlement curve is plotted. The load intensity and settlement
observations of the plate load test are plotted in the form of load settlement curves.
 Curve I is typical for loose to medium non-cohesive soils. It can be seen that initially this
curve is a straight line, but as the load increases it flattens out. There is no clear point of
shear failure.
 Curve II is typical for cohesive soils. This may not be quite straight in the initial stages and
leans towards settlement axis as the settlement increases.
 Figure.6: Load Settlement curve from Plate load test

The ultimate bearing capacity for clay is obtained from curve II whereas allowable bearing
capacity is obtained by dividing ultimate bearing capacity by suitable factor of safety. For sands
allowable soil pressure is governed by settlement criteria.
𝐵𝑝(𝐵𝑓+0.3)
𝑆𝑝 = 𝑆𝑓 [𝐵𝑓(𝐵𝑝+0.3)]2
Where,

B = width of footing in mm.

Bp = width of test plate in mm.
Sp= settlement of test plate in mm.
Sf = settlement of footing in mm.

Standard penetration test

A widely used soil testing procedure is the Standard Penetration Test (SPT). This test is still used
because of its simplicity and low cost.

 This test is conducted by driving a split spoon into the soil for a distance of 450mm by a
standard hammer of 65 kg weight falling through a height of 760 mm.
 The spoon attached to a drill rod is lowered into the bottom of hole.
 The standard hammer usually known as monkey hammer is allowed to fall on the top of the
drill rod until the sampler gets penetrated into the soil through a distance of 150 mm. This
depth of penetration is the seating drive and it is not accounted for.
 After the seating drive, the actual test is started and blows required for next two successive
penetrations of 150 mm are recorded and added. This value is called N-value or SPT value.
 The test is conducted for each 1.5 m interval of depth or for special situation for each 75 cm
depth.
 If N-value record is 50 before full penetration of 30 cm it is taken as refusal and the test is
terminated.

Figure.7: SPT test set up

SPT Value correction- The observed SPT values as measured in the field are to be corrected.
There are two types of corrections, which are usually applied. They are dilatancy and overburden
pressure corrections.

Dilatancy Correction: Dilatancy correction is applied when the test is conducted in fine or silty
saturated sand when recorded blow count is more than 15. The correction is suggested by
Terzaghi and Peck (1967) is as follows:

1
𝑁𝑐 ′ = 15 + (𝑁0 − 15)
2
Where,
No= Observed N-value
Nc’= Corrected N-value
In no case, the corrected values shall be greater than twice the observed value.
Overburden correction- With the increase in confining pressure in sands N-values are increased
considerably. As a result, values of relative density other than actual values are obtained so the
observed values are to be corrected. The correction on SPT value for overburden pressure as
suggested by Peck et al (1974) is:
2000
𝑁𝑐 = 𝐶𝑛 × 𝑁𝑐 ′ = 0.77 log ( ) × 𝑁𝑐 ′ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑜′ ≥ 25 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑃𝑜′
Nc’= N-value corrected for dilatancy
Po’= Effective overburden pressure

CN = Correction factor

Typical values of bearing capacity from Building code

Table 1: Value of bearing capacity from building code

Category Types of rocks and soils Presumed bearing

value
Non-cohesive Dense gravel or dense sand and >600 kN/m²
soils gravel
Medium dense gravel, <200 to 600 kN/m²
or medium dense sand and gravel
Loose gravel, or loose sand and <200 kN/m²
gravel
Compact sand >300 kN/m²
Medium dense sand 100 to 300 kN/m²
Loose sand <100 kN/m²
Cohesive soils Very stiff bolder clays & hard clays 300 to 600 kN/m²
Stiff clays 150 to 300 kN/m²
Firm clay 75 to 150 kN/m²
Soft clays and silts < 75 kN/m²

Define active earth pressure and passive earth pressure, structures subjected to earth
pressure in the field

The soil that is retained by various structures like retaining walls, they exert force on those
structures. The force is called earth pressure and the material that retains that force is called
backfill. There are three types of earth pressure. They are:
 Active earth pressure
  Passive earth pressure
 Earth pressure at rest

Figure.8: Earth pressure acting on a retaining wall

For a rigid and unyielding retaining wall, soil mass is in rest condition, deformation doesn’t take
place on the wall. The type of earth pressure under this condition is earth pressure at rest.
Ko is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest whose value is given as:
𝜎ℎ 𝜇
𝐾𝑜 = = = 1 − sin ∅
𝜎𝑣 1 − 𝜇
Where,
σ h = Horizontal stress
σ v = Vertical stress
μ= poisson’s ratio
φ= angle of internal friction
𝑃𝑜 = 𝐾𝑜𝛾𝑧
Where, Po = Earth pressure at rest.
If the retaining wall rotates about its toe, moving away from the backfill, soil mass expands and
earth pressure on the wall reduces. The pressure under this condition is called active earth
pressure.
 1 − sin ∅
𝐾𝑎 = = tan 2 ∅
1 + sin ∅ (45− )
2

Where, Ka= coefficient of active earth pressure

Pa= Kaγz
Pa= Active earth pressure
If the retaining wall moves towards its backfill, then the backfill soil compresses and pressure on
it increases. The earth pressure under this condition is called passive earth pressure. Therefore,
the passive earth pressure is more than active earth pressure.
1 + sin ∅
𝐾𝑝 = = tan 2 ∅
1 − sin ∅ (45+ )
2

Where, Kp= coefficient of passive earth pressure

Pp= Kpγz
Pp= Passive earth pressure

Figure 9: Development of active and passive earth pressure