BRITISH STANDARD BS 7777-1:

1993
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Flat-bottomed, vertical,
cylindrical storage
tanks for low
temperature service —
Part 1: Guide to the general provisions
applying for design, construction,
installation and operation
 BS 7777-1:1993

Committees responsible for this

British Standard
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The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by the Pressure Vessel
Standards Policy Committee (PVE/-) to Technical Committee PVE/15, upon
which the following bodies were represented:

British Chemical Engineering Contractors’ Association

British Compressed Gases Association
British Gas plc
Concrete Society
Energy Industries Council
Engineering Equipment and Materials Users’ Association
Institution of Gas Engineers
Institution of Mechanical Engineers
Process Plant Association
Thermal Insulation Contractors’ Association
Welding Institute

This British Standard, having

been prepared under the
direction of the Pressure Vessel
Standards Policy Committee, was
published under the authority of
the Standards Board and comes
into effect on
15 June 1993
Amendments issued since publication

© BSI 12-1998 Amd. No. Date Comments

The following BSI references

relate to the work on this
standard:
Committee reference PVE/15
Draft for comment 90/73016 DC

ISBN 0 580 21162 2

 BS 7777-1:1993

Contents
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Page
Committees responsible Inside front cover
Foreword iii
1 Scope 1
2 References 1
2.1 Normative references 1
2.2 Informative references 1
3 Definitions 1
3.1 Types of containment 1
3.2 Other terms 5
4 Design conditions 5
5 Information to be exchanged between the purchaser and the
contractor 6
5.1 Information to be supplied by the purchaser 6
5.2 Optional and/or alternative information to be supplied by the
purchaser 6
5.3 Information to be agreed between the purchaser and contractor 6
6 Storage concepts 6
6.1 General 6
6.2 Criteria for the selection of storage concept 7
7 Loading cases and design considerations 7
7.1 General 7
7.2 Normal loading cases 7
7.3 Abnormal loading cases 10
8 Pressure relief 11
8.1 General 11
8.2 Primary internal positive and internal negative pressure relief
system design 11
8.3 Location of pressure relief valves 11
8.4 Construction of pressure relief valves 11
8.5 Determination of capacity of pressure relief systems 12
9 Commissioning and decommissioning 12
9.1 Commissioning 12
9.2 Decommissioning 13
10 Inspection and tank monitoring 14
10.1 General 14
10.2 Equipment 14
Annex A (informative) Guidance on operation 15
Annex B (informative) Guidance on a method of seismic analysis for
refrigerated liquid gas tanks 19
Annex C (informative) Guidance on safety and other aspects 20

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Page
Figure 1 — Examples of single containment tanks 2
Figure 2 — Examples of double containment tanks 3
Figure 3 — Examples of full containment tanks 4
Figure A.1 — Typical example of level alarm 15
Figure A.2 — Typical example of condensation in dome
roof for butane gas 16
Figure A.3 — Arrangement of sensors under tank bottom 18
Figure A.4 — Typical heating time recording curve 18
Figure A.5 — Flotation of the inner tank 19
Figure C.1 — Pilot-operated pressure relief valve 22
Figure C.2 — Dead weight type pressure relief valve 22
Figure C.3 — Pilot-operated low-pressure relief valve 23
Figure C.4 — Dead weight type internal negative pressure relief valve 24
Figure C.5 — Arrangement of pressure control valves (PCVs)
to flare, and internal positive pressure relief valves to atmosphere,
internal negative pressure relief valves, locked block valves and spare
positions 25
Table 1 — Loading cases associated with tank types shown
in Figure 1 to Figure 3 8
Table B.1 — Component transient loading criteria 20
List of references Inside back cover

ii © BSI 12-1998
 BS 7777-1:1993

Foreword
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This Part of BS 7777 has been prepared under the direction of the Pressure
Vessels Standards Policy Committee.
Flat-bottomed, vertical, cylindrical, storage tanks for refrigerated liquefied gases
have traditionally been of the single containment design where the liquid is
contained in a single shell surrounded by a conventional low bund wall at a
considerable distance. Where a double shell construction was used, the outer shell
was mainly there to contain the insulation.
These tanks were built in accordance with two British Standards:
BS 4741:1971, Specification for vertical cylindrical welded steel storage tanks for
low temperature service: single wall tanks for temperatures down to – 50 °C.
BS 5387:1976, Specification for vertical cylindrical welded storage tanks for
low-temperature service: double-wall tanks for temperatures down to – 196 °C.
Until the 1970s it was normal practice to store all refrigerated products in single
containment tanks. Since that time it has increasingly become the practice for the
inner tank for hydrocarbons or ammonia to be surrounded by an outer tank or
wall. It is still the practice to store liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen or liquid argon
in single containment tanks. The outer tank or wall is intended to prevent the
release of the liquefied products into the surrounding area in case of leakage from
or damage to the inner tank. This philosophy results in increased safety for the
surrounding area. Such constructions are known as double containment tanks
and full containment tanks.
Depending on the lowest service temperature, the inner tank may be made from
carbon-manganese steel, low nickel steel, 9 % nickel steel, aluminium or stainless
steel. The double containment tanks and full containment tanks generally have
outer tanks or walls made from prestressed concrete, reinforced concrete with an
earth embankment or one of the metals specified for the inner tank. BS 4741 and
BS 5387 specified requirements for single containment tanks only and
consequently did not include the requirements for material selection, design,
construction, loading cases, etc. that are necessary for double containment
tanks and full containment tanks.
To redress this situation, the Storage Tank Committee of The Engineering
Equipment and Materials Users’ Association (EEMUA) published in 1986
Recommendations for the design and construction of refrigerated liquefied gas
storage tanks, Publication No. 147[1]. The intention of EEMUA was that this
document would form the basis of a British Standard to be published a few years
later. Together, BS 7777-1 to BS 7777-4 supersede BS 4741:1971 and
BS 5387:1976, which are withdrawn.
Although experience has demonstrated that the risk of failure of a single
containment tank designed and fabricated in accordance with British Standards
is very low, this can be further reduced by more stringent requirements for
material selection, design, construction, inspection and testing. For certain stored
products, however, the consequences of failure may be considered so great that an
outer tank or wall is deemed necessary. Thus a further reduction of risk of failure
can be achieved through the use of a double or full containment storage concept.
The definitions of single, double and full containment tanks are given in 3.1 of
this Part of BS 7777.

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The selection of the storage concept should take into account the location, the
operational conditions and the environmental conditions. This standard covers
only flat-bottomed, cylindrical, stand-alone storage tanks. However, it is not
intended to exclude the use of other storage concepts and designs which have been
proven in service.
This British Standard comprises four Parts:
— Part 1: Guide to the general provisions applying for design, construction,
installation and operation;
— Part 2: Specification for the design and construction of single, double and full
containment metal tanks for the storage of liquified gas at temperatures down
to – 165 °C;
— Part 3: Recommendations for the design and construction of prestressed and
reinforced concrete tanks and tank foundations, and for the design and
installation of tank insulation, tank liners and tank coatings;
— Part 4: Specification for the design and construction of single containment
tanks for the storage of liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen or liquid argon.
A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity
from legal obligations.

Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to iv,
pages 1 to 28, an inside back cover and a back cover.
This standard has been updated (see copyright date) and may have had
amendments incorporated. This will be indicated in the amendment table on
the inside front cover.

iv © BSI 12-1998
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1 Scope 3 Definitions
This Part of BS 7777 provides guidance on design For the purposes of this Part of BS 7777, the
conditions, criteria for the selection of a storage following definitions apply.
concept, loading cases, internal positive pressure 3.1 Types of containment
and internal negative pressure relief, testing,
commissioning and decommissioning, inspection 3.1.1
and monitoring for single, double and full single containment tank
containment tanks for above ground installation at either a single tank or a tank comprising an inner
service temperatures down to – 165 °C, and for tank and an outer container designed and
single containment tanks down to – 196 °C. constructed so that only the inner tank is required
Guidance on operation, seismic analysis and safety to meet the low temperature ductility requirements
is given in Annex A to Annex C. for storage of the product
Tanks are intended to contain liquid products to be the outer container (if any) of a single containment
stored at temperatures equal to or just above their storage tank is primarily for the retention and
boiling points at atmospheric pressure. The liquids protection of insulation and to constrain the vapour
stored in tanks covered by this standard typically purge gas pressure, but is not designed to contain
include liquid petroleum gas, ethylene, ethane, refrigerated liquid in the event of leakage from the
liquid natural gas and similar hydrocarbons, as well inner tank
as ammonia, oxygen, nitrogen and argon. a single containment tank is normally surrounded
For the purposes of this standard, it is intended that by a low bund wall (see 3.2.1) to contain any leakage
tanks for the storage of hydrocarbons and ammonia NOTE Examples of single containment tanks are given in
are selected from three types (single, double and full Figure 1.
containment tanks) taking into account local 3.1.2
circumstances and particular needs. For tanks double containment tank
storing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen or liquid
argon, it is intended that single containment tanks a double tank designed and constructed so that both
the inner tank and the outer tank are capable of
should be used.
independently containing the refrigerated liquid
This standard does not address the detail design of stored. To minimize the pool of escaping liquid, the
ancilliary equipment such as pump tubes, pumps, outer tank or wall is located at a distance not
valves and instrumentation, but it does refer to exceeding 6 m from the inner tank
these components where there is an effect on
mechanical design. Information regarding the inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid
under normal operating conditions. The outer tank
ancilliary equipment is conventionally part of the
or wall is intended to contain the refrigerated liquid
purchaser specification.
product leakage from the inner tank, but it is not
2 References intended to contain any vapour resulting from
product leakage from the inner tank
2.1 Normative references NOTE Examples of double containment tanks are given in
This Part of BS 7777 incorporates, by reference, Figure 2. Figure 2 does not imply that the outer tank or wall is
necessarily as high as the inner tank.
provisions from specific editions of other
publications. These normative references are cited 3.1.3
at the appropriate points in the text and the full containment tank
publications are listed on the inside back cover. a double tank designed and constructed so that both
Subsequent amendments to, or revisions of, any of the inner tank and the outer tank are capable of
these publications apply to this Part of BS 7777 only independently containing the refrigerated liquid
when incorporated in it by updating or revision. stored. The outer tank or wall should be 1 m to 2 m
2.2 Informative references distant from the inner tank
This Part of BS 7777 refers to other publications the inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid
that provide information or guidance. Editions of under normal operating conditions. The outer roof is
these publications current at the time of issue of this supported by the outer tank. The outer tank is
standard are listed on the inside back cover, but intended to be capable both of containing the
reference should be made to the latest editions. refrigerated liquid and of controlled venting of the
vapour resulting from product leakage after a
credible event
NOTE Examples of full containment tanks are given in
Figure 3.

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2
BS 7777-1:1993

Figure 1 — Examples of single containment tanks

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© BSI 12-1998
Figure 2 — Examples of double containment tanks

3
BS 7777-1:1993
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4
BS 7777-1:1993

Figure 3 — Examples of full containment tanks

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3.2 Other terms 3.2.9

3.2.1 shell
bund wall a general term used to describe any metallic vertical
a low construction of earth or concrete surrounding cylinder
the storage tank, at a considerable distance from the 3.2.10
tank, to contain spilled liquid cover
NOTE Illustration of a bund wall is given in Figure 1. a device providing weather protection for the
3.2.2 annular space of a double containment tank
boil-off 3.2.11
a process of vaporization of very small quantities of roof
refrigerated liquid by heat conducted through the a member on top of a shell or wall, sealing off the
insulation surrounding the storage tank contents from the atmosphere
3.2.3 3.2.12
embankment suspended deck
a bank of selected earth and other material placed a structure for supporting the internal insulation
against the outer face of a reinforced concrete wall under the roof
3.2.4 3.2.13
roll-over wall
an uncontrolled mass movement of a stored liquid, a general term used to describe any concrete,
correcting an unstable state of stratified liquids of vertical, cylindrical structure
different density
3.2.14
NOTE Roll-over results from differences in temperature or
composition throughout the depth of the liquid. It is generally container
accompanied by a large release of vapour inside the tank. a non-liquid-containing metallic, flat-bottomed
3.2.5 cylinder, including the roof, to hold insulation and
purchaser vapour or purge gas, or the metallic upper part
the company or its agent which prepares and agrees above the concrete wall of a full containment tank
a proposal with a contractor (or contractors) for the
design, construction, testing and commissioning of a 4 Design conditions
tank for storing refrigerated liquefied gas Tanks should be designed to suit the pressures that
NOTE It is not the purpose of this standard to define terms of are met in service. The internal positive pressure
reference or to allocate responsibilities between contracting should be not greater than 140 mbar1) (gauge), and
parties when the purchaser is not the owner or operator of the
storage facility.
the internal negative pressure should be not greater
than 6 mbar (gauge).
3.2.6
NOTE 1 The internal positive pressure of 140 mbar (gauge)
contractor may be exceeded subject to agreement between the purchaser
the company with which the purchaser agrees a and contractor, but for large diameter tanks the design of the roof
to shell joint and anchorage might be limiting
proposal for the design, construction, testing and (see BS 7777-4).
commissioning of a tank for storing refrigerated NOTE 2 For tanks with concrete roofs the internal positive
liquefied gas pressure of 140 mbar (gauge) may be exceeded because of
increased dead weight.
3.2.7
inner tank The lowest service temperature permitted
is – 165 °C for tanks conforming to BS 7777-2
a flat-bottomed, vertical, metallic cylinder, with or and – 196 °C for tanks conforming to BS 7777-4.
without a roof, designed to store liquid during
service
3.2.8
outer tank
a flat-bottomed, vertical cylinder designed to
contain liquid from the inner tank in the event of
leakage

1) 1 mbar = 10–3 bar = 100 N/m2 = 100 Pa.

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5 Information to be exchanged 5.2 Optional and/or alternative information to

between the purchaser and the be supplied by the purchaser
contractor The following optional and/or alternative
information should be fully documented, as
5.1 Information to be supplied by the
appropriate.
purchaser
a) Intensity and duration of reflected blast
The following basic information should be fully
pressure [see 7.3.2 a)].
documented.
b) Weight and velocity of flying objects
a) Geographical location of the tank. [see 7.3.2 b)].
b) Selected storage concept (see 3.1 and clause 6).
c) Impact loading resulting from the sudden
c) Diameter and height or capacity of the tank failure of the inner tank (see 7.3.5).
including ullage.
d) Seismic loading conditions (see 7.3.1 and
NOTE 1 Where only the capacity of the tank is specified, Annex B).
ground conditions should be included.
d) Diameter and height of outer tank, container e) Precautions to prevent roll-over (see 7.3.7).
or wall. f) Facilities to be provided for the detection and
e) Type of foundation and detail of bottom heating removal of liquid in the annular space
(see A.6). (see Annex A).
f) Areas of responsibility between tank 5.3 Information to be agreed between the
contractor, foundation contractor and contractor purchaser and contractor
responsible for the construction of the concrete The following information should be fully
outer wall, where these are not the same. documented.
g) Loadings, conditions and considerations to be a) Nature and magnitude of significant loads or
taken into account in the design of the storage moments applied to the tank from piping, valves,
concept (see clause 6). or other aspects including tank and pipe support
h) Relevant properties of the contained fluid, settlement [see 7.2.2 g)].
including relative density, temperature, b) Design and operation of the internal positive
corrosion allowance (as appropriate), and pressure/internal negative pressure relief
permissible boil-off. systems (see 8.1).
i) Design internal positive pressure and design c) Conditions for determining the minimum
internal negative pressure of the inner tank capacity of the internal positive pressure/internal
and/or the outer tank or wall or container, as negative pressure relief systems (see 8.5.1).
appropriate. d) Combination of flows to be used for
j) Minimum and maximum design metal determining the minimum capacity of the
temperatures for the tank. internal positive pressure/internal negative
k) Minimum and maximum ambient pressure relief systems (see 8.5.2).
temperatures. e) Use of isolating valves between pressure relief
l) Predicted maximum total and differential valves and tank (see 8.2 and C.2.4).
foundation settlement during water testing and f) Commissioning procedure (see 9.1).
during service lifetime of the tank [see 7.2.2 f)]. g) The materials to be used.
m) Size, number and type of all mountings and NOTE 1 It is essential that relevant information is exchanged
accessories, and their locations. between the purchaser and contractor before implementing the
provisions of this standard.
n) Maximum filling and emptying rates and any NOTE 2 It is essential that all relevant provisions of this
special venting arrangements. standard, and other documented data, are satisfied before a claim
o) Quality of the water to be used for the of compliance is made.
hydrostatic test.
6 Storage concepts
p) Other specifications to be read in conjunction
with this standard. 6.1 General
NOTE 2 The purchaser should consider the tank, insulation The purchaser should select the storage concept,
and foundation designs together to achieve the most taking into account national or local authority
economical purchase arrangement.
requirements and the influence of loadings,
conditions and considerations that are appropriate
for the location (see 6.2 and Annex C).

6 © BSI 12-1998
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The possibility of sudden failure of the inner tank is 7.2 Normal loading cases
not a normal design consideration, but in cases 7.2.1 Dead loads
where the purchaser specifies that it should be
taken into consideration, it is essential that the The most significant dead loads of the normal
outer tank or wall is designed to withstand the loading cases are designated as follows:
consequent impact loading (see 7.3.5). a) tank weight;
6.2 Criteria for the selection of storage b) insulation weight;
concept c) roof weight;
The following list summarizes a number of loadings, d) suspended deck weight (where applicable)
conditions and considerations that influence the including the weight of insulation and support
selection of the storage concept. structure;
a) Criteria not subject to control: e) weight of accessories, e.g. pipes, valves,
1) earthquake; platforms, walkways and hand rails;
2) wind, snow, climate; f) weight of concrete foundations;
3) hazard from outside the plant. g) weight of concrete walls (where applicable).
b) Criteria subject to limited control: 7.2.2 Imposed loads
1) in-plant flying objects; The most significant imposed loads of the normal
2) pressure waves from internal plant loading cases are as follows.
explosions; a) General loads. A uniformly distributed load
3) maintenance hazards; of 1.2 kN/m2 over the projected fixed roof area
should be applied.
4) fire in bund or at adjacent tank or plant;
The roof should be able to carry a concentrated
5) overfill;
load of 5 kN over a square area
6) process overpressure; of 300 mm × 300 mm placed at any location.
7) roll-over; A uniformly distributed load of 2.4 kN/m2 acting on
8) major metal failure, e.g. brittle fracture; the roof platform and access-way areas should be
9) minor metal failure, e.g. leakage; applied.
10) metal fatigue; NOTE 1 This includes both snow loading and internal
negative pressure loading.
11) corrosion; NOTE 2 It is recommended that the minimum uniformly
12) failure of pipework attached to bottom, distributed load on a suspended deck should be 1.0 kN/m2
during erection and maintenance. This may be regarded as a
shell or roof; temporary or permanent loading, but in any event this
13) foundation behaviour. loading should be applied to the fixed roof.

c) Criteria subject to full control: b) Snow loads. The loading cases and design
considerations of item a) should apply.
1) proximity of other plant;
c) Internal negative pressure loads. For tank
2) proximity of control rooms, offices and other components other than the fixed roof, the design
buildings within plant; should be based on 6 mbar gauge.
3) proximity of habitation outside plant; NOTE 3 Loads on the fixed roof are taken into account in
4) requirements of national or local authority; general loads [see item a)].

5) requirements of the applied design codes. d) Insulation pressure loads. Where appropriate,
both inner and outer tanks, walls or containers
7 Loading cases and design should be designed for the pressure exerted by
considerations loose powder insulation in the annular space.
NOTE 4 The loose powder insulation exerts an external
7.1 General pressure on the inner tank and internal pressure on the outer
tank, wall or container.
The loading cases and design considerations for NOTE 5 The loose powder insulation pressure can be
single, double, or full containment tanks, should reduced by the presence of resilient blankets on the outside of
conform to 7.2 and 7.3. (For the application of 7.2 the inner tank.
and 7.3 to the different types of tank, see Table 1 e) Loads due to internal pressure. Depending on
and Figure 1 to Figure 3.) the design, loads due to internal pressure can act
on either the inner tank or the outer tank, wall or
container, and can be due to either the product
vapour pressure or the purge gas pressure.

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f) Settlement loads. The storage tank and its

NOTE 6 A value should be specified by the purchaser and
should be consistent with the design condition for vapour
foundation should be designed to take account of
pressure (see clause 4).
the maximum total and differential foundation
settlements predicted to occur during the life of
the tank (see BS 7777-3).
Table 1 — Loading cases associated with the tank types shown in Figure 1 to Figure 3
Clause Loading case Tank type Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
number
a) b) c) d) a) b) c) a) b) c)
7.2 Normal loading cases
7.2.1 Dead load Inner tank × × × × × × × × × ×
Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×
7.2.2 Imposed loads
7.2.2 a) General loads Inner tank × × — × × — — — — —
Steel outer tank — — — — — — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — — — — × —
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×

7.2.2 b) Snow load Inner tank × × — — × — — × — —

Steel outer tank — — — — — — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — — — — × —
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×

7.2.2 c) Internal negative Inner tank × × — × × — — — — —

pressure Steel outer tank — — — — — — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — — — — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×

7.2.2 d) Insulation pressure Inner tank — — × × — × × × × ×

Steel outer tank — — — — — — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — — — — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — —

7.2.2 e) Internal pressure Inner tank × × — × × — — — — —

Steel outer tank — — — — — — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — — — — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×

7.2.2 f) Settlement Inner tank × × × × × × × × × ×

Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — — — — — —

7.2.2 g) Applied load As applicable As applicable

7.2.3 Product liquid load Inner tank × × × × × × × × × ×

Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — — — — — — — — —

7.2.4 Wind loading Inner tank × × — — — — — — — —

Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×

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Table 1 — Loading cases associated with the tank types shown in Figure 1 to Figure 3
Clause Loading case Tank type Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
number
a) b) c) d) a) b) c) a) b) c)
7.2.5 Hydrostatic and pneumatic Inner tank × × × × × × × × × ×
testing Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — — — — — —
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×

7.2.6 Additional loading cases As applicable As applicable

7.2.7 Induced loads

7.2.7.1 Thermal Inner tank × × × × × × × × × ×

Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — × ×
7.2.7.2 Condensate — — × — — × × × × ×
7.3 Abnormal loading cases
7.3.1 Seismic loads Inner tank × × × × × × × × × ×
Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×
7.3.2 External explosions and their Inner tank × × — — × — — — — —
effects Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — — — — — ×
7.3.3 Fire hazards Inner tank × × — — — — — — — —
Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — × × — × × — — ×
7.3.4 Leakage of inner tank Inner tank — — — — — — — — — —
Steel outer tank — — — — × — — × — —
Concrete outer tank — — — — — × × — × ×
Steel outer container — — — — — — — — — —
NOTE 1 Table 1 gives a summary of the loading cases appropriate to those tank configurations shown in Figure 1 to Figure 3. The
relevance of a clause is marked “×”. For tank configurations not shown, as well as for uses where additional loading are specified by
the purchaser, the appropriate clauses have to be established, for which use can be made of the table.
NOTE 2 From the loading cases, listed under clause 7, the selection of the appropriate loadings is made for all structural
components. So, for example, for tanks shown in Figure 1 a) and Figure 1 b) the outer shell is not a load carrying structure, but
merely a lagging container. All loads are, therefore, applied to the inner tank roof.
NOTE 3 For tanks shown under Figure 1 c) and Figure 1 d) the outer shell and roof are designed to carry the vapour or purge gas
pressures as well as all external loads. The liquid loads are carried by the inner tank.

g) Applied loads. Pipes, valves and other items a) Inner tank. The inner tank should be designed
connected to the shell, bottom or roof should be for a product liquid loading at the minimum
designed such that no significant additional loads design temperature specified.
or moments are applied to the shell, bottom, or The design product level or the maximum
roof. Where such loads or moments are product level should be not higher than 0.5 m
unavoidable, the purchaser and the contractor below the top of the shell.
should agree their nature and magnitude NOTE 1 The free board for earthquake sloshing need not be
[see 5.3 a)]. Tank and pipe support settlements included in the design product level.
should also be taken into consideration. b) Outer tank. The outer tank should be designed
7.2.3 Product liquid loading to contain the maximum product liquid content of
There are three product liquid loadings which are as the inner tank at the minimum design
follows. temperature specified.
NOTE 2 Item b) applies to double or full containment tanks.

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c) Outer container. The outer container should be 7.2.7.2 Loads due to condensate formation
designed to contain the insulation surrounding Increases in the effective weight of the suspended
the inner tank and either the inert purge gas or deck should be considered in the design.
the vaporized product.
NOTE In locations where the ambient temperature falls below
NOTE 3 The outer container should not be designed to storage content temperature, condensation can occur on the
contain any stored liquid. inside of the outer tank roof and run onto the suspended deck.
7.2.4 Wind loading 7.3 Abnormal loading cases
Wind loadings are as follows. 7.3.1 Seismic loads
a) Steel tanks. The wind speed used in the An assessment of the effect of seismic loadings
calculations is the maximum Class A, 3 s gust. should be made (see Annex B).
NOTE 1 This wind speed is estimated to be exceeded on
average only once in 50 years.
7.3.2 External explosions and their effects
b) Concrete tanks. The wind speed used in the Depending on the location of the storage tank from
calculations is the maximum Class B, 5 s gust for an environmental aspect and in relation to
tanks up to 50 m diameter, and the maximum associated or other plant items, either within the
Class C, 15 s gust for tanks equal to or greater boundary of the owner or in adjacent third-party
than 50 m diameter. owned properties, consideration should be given to
NOTE 2 For wind speed classification for UK conditions, the possibility of explosion occurring, within the
see CP 3:Chapter V-2. vicinity of the tank, with the following
7.2.5 Hydrostatic and pneumatic testing consequences.
The inner tank should be filled with water to a level a) Resultant blast or pressure wave. The blast
or pressure wave produced by a nearby explosion
equal to the maximum product level specified.
could be “reflected” by the tank. Such pressure
Steel outer tanks designed to contain the liquid waves are of short duration and are site and time
product should be hydrostatically tested to the level dependent. The dynamic response of the tank
reached when the volume of test water in the inner structure, including foundations, should be taken
tank is contained by the outer tank. into account in the design calculations.
NOTE Prestressed concrete and reinforced concrete tanks with
earth embankments do not need to be hydrostatically tested
The values for the intensity and time duration of
unless this is specified by the purchaser. reflected blast pressure should be specified by
During hydrostatic testing of the outer tank, the the purchaser or his consultant, the purchaser
water level in the inner tank should always be above being responsible for ensuring that they are
that of the water in the outer tank to prevent taken into account in the design specification.
damage to the inner tank. b) Impact of flying objects on the tank.
The roof of the inner tank, where appropriate, as Storage tanks should be able to withstand flying
well as the roof and shell of the outer tank should be objects that could hit the tank as a result of an
pneumatically tested. external explosion. The mass and velocity of a
missile to be used in the calculation should be
After either hydrostatic or pneumatic testing the
specified by the purchaser.
anchorage, where present, should be checked when
NOTE It may be considered reasonable to use the impact from
the tank is empty. a valve weighing 50 kg travelling at 45 m/s.
7.2.6 Additional loadings 7.3.3 Fire hazards
Any additional loads resulting from the proposed A fire occurring near a tank normally results in heat
methods of construction, commissioning and radiation and a temperature increase of the tank
decommissioning should be taken into account. structure. The temperature rise should be limited to
7.2.7 Induced loads prevent strength reduction of the tank components.
7.2.7.1 Thermal loads NOTE 1 Credible fires to be considered may consist of:
a) fire in catchment or bunded area;
The effects of tank movement due to differential b) fire from leaking flange joint;
thermal expansion of the outer tank components c) fire from atmospheric vent pipe;
should be assessed. d) fire from neighbouring tank.
All tank attachments should be designed to The radiation heat flux from the assumed fire
minimize the thermal loads and moments on the should be calculated. When the heat flux value has
tank components. been ascertained, the structure temperature rise
should be determined, taking into account the
presence of an active fire protection system and
considering the reliability of the system.

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NOTE 2 If the temperature were to rise above 300 °C, the 8.2 Primary internal positive and internal
structural integrity of the roof and shell of steel tanks would be negative pressure relief system design
adversely affected.
Prestressed and reinforced concrete tanks should be For conditions outlined in 8.5.1 a) to 8.5.1 f), both
designed to conform to the fire resistance inner and outer tanks should be protected by relief
requirements given in BS 7777-3:1993. systems that prevent:
NOTE 3 The guidance given in 7.3.3 may affect the minimum a) the internal positive pressure at the top of the
spacing of tanks. tank from exceeding the design internal positive
7.3.4 Leakage of the inner tank of a double or pressure by more than 10 %;
full containment tank b) the internal negative pressure exceeding the
The outer tank should be designed and constructed design internal negative pressure by more
in such a manner that it contains the maximum than 2.5 mbar.
liquid content of the inner tank, assuming that the NOTE 1 In order to meet these restrictions, pressure relief
annular space between the shells is filled gradually. valves may have to be set in such a way that they start to open at
a lower pressure than design pressure.
The height of the outer tank or wall should be For conditions outlined in 8.5.1 g) and 8.5.1 h),
sufficient to contain a leak at any elevation. supplementary pressure relief capacity should be
7.3.5 Sudden failure of the inner tank installed. These pressure relief valves should be
Provision for sudden rupture of the inner tank as capable of preventing the pressure from exceeding
the result either of material failure or of seismic the design vapour pressure by more than 20 %.
action is not considered in this standard. Even where the size of a single pressure relief valve
NOTE Where provision for such a sudden rupture is included as satisfies the provisions of this clause, to facilitate
a design feature, the outer tank needs to be designed to inspection and maintenance a duplicate pressure
withstand the consequent impact loading as evaluated by the relief valve of the same capacity should be fitted.
purchaser (see clause 5).
When multiple pressure relief valves are needed for
7.3.6 Overfill of the inner tank
venting, those for each duty should be of the same
Multiple independent level controls should be capacity. At least one additional valve of the same
provided to prevent overfill of the inner tank. capacity should be fitted as a standby.
NOTE 1 The independent level controls utilized are level NOTE 2 If more than one pressure relief valve is needed to give
measuring devices, alarms and automatic shut-off valves. the venting duty, it is good practice to arrange the settings so that
NOTE 2 Provision of these controls means that overfill is not a only one will operate in the event of a process upset.
design consideration (see Annex A).
The use of isolating valves installed between the
7.3.7 Roll-over pressure relief valve and the tank should be agreed
Roll-over is not a design consideration of this between the purchaser and the contractor [see 5.3 e)
standard. and C.2.4].
NOTE Precautions such as mixing can be taken to prevent The relief system should be designed and operated
roll-over. to ensure that the full internal positive and internal
negative pressure relief is available at all times.
8 Pressure relief
8.3 Location of pressure relief valves
8.1 General
Pressure relief valves should be located on the tank
Tanks designed and constructed in accordance with so that they cannot be sealed off by the contents or
BS 7777-2:1993 and BS 7777-4:1993 should be by external sources such as snow.
provided with a system which ensures that the Provision should be made for maintenance access.
design internal positive pressure and design
internal negative pressure are not exceeded. This Venting from pressure relief valves should be
system should consist of vapour control valves arranged so that cold products do not impinge on the
capable of withdrawing and injecting sufficiently outer tank.
large quantities of product vapour to prevent 8.4 Construction of pressure relief valves
frequent lifting of the safety relief valves. Safety Pressure relief valves should be constructed of
relief valves should vent to and from atmosphere. materials suitable for the intended service.
NOTE The design and operation of pressure relief systems
should be agreed between the purchaser and the contractor Pressure relief valve seats and moving parts should
before the order is placed (see 5.3). be so constructed that performance is not impaired
by frost, ice or corrosion.

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8.5 Determination of capacity of pressure 9.1.2 Physical examination

relief systems Prior to final closing-up, the tank should be visually
8.5.1 Maximum capacity inspected to ensure that it is free from any obvious
When determining maximum capacity, physical damage, that it is clean and free from any
consideration should be given to the effects of the foreign matter and that all the fittings and
following: instruments are correctly installed.
NOTE It should be ensured at this stage that the tank is
a) vapour displaced during filling; physically isolated from entry of any external source of gas, liquid
b) rate of withdrawal of liquid product; or product other than air, by the removal of spool pieces and the
fitting of blank flanges. Reliance should not be placed on shut-off
c) possible escape of product under emergency valves for tank isolation.
conditions; 9.1.3 Submerged pumps
d) suction capacity of compressor;
Where discharge pumps are submerged in the
e) heat leakage to tank from atmosphere; product, the following precautions should be taken.
f) barometric pressure variation; a) The pumps should not be installed prior to the
g) fire exposure; tank hydrostatic test.
h) any other special circumstances. b) Before installation of the pumps, the direction
NOTE 1 The minimum capacity should be agreed between the of rotation should be checked against the known
purchaser and contractor, but should not be less than that phase rotation of the incoming electricity supply,
determined in accordance with the American Petroleum Institute to ensure that the pumps rotate in the specified
(API) Standard 2000[2].
NOTE 2 Reference should be made to the relevant safety code
direction.
in Cryogenics safety manual — a guide to good practice[3]. c) The pumps should be thoroughly dried,
NOTE 3 For tanks with concrete roofs, the provision of preferably by blowing with heated dry oil-free air
additional emergency pressure relieving capacity should be
considered to avoid over-pressurization under conditions outside
or nitrogen.
the limits of this standard. d) After installation the pumps should be
8.5.2 Single and combination flows maintained in a dry pressurized atmosphere.
Pressure relief systems should be capable of 9.1.4 Internal shut-off valves
relieving the flow capacity for the largest single flow Internal shut-off valves fitted to tanks, and located
or the largest possible combination of the flows as below liquid level, should be capable of being
given in 8.5.1 a) to 8.5.1 h). operated from outside the tank.
The determination of the combination of flows Prior to tank cooldown, the tank valves should be
should be subject to agreement between purchaser thoroughly dried and actuated a number of times to
and contractor [see 5.3 d) and note 1 to 8.5.1]. ensure that they operate.
Tank valves should be checked to ensure that they
9 Commissioning and retain freedom of movement at all times during
decommissioning cooldown.
9.1 Commissioning Valves should be actuated shortly after
9.1.1 General commencement of and during cooldown, and also
when immersed in cold liquid.
Commissioning comprises the procedures involved
in converting the tank from its finally erected Tank valves should be checked to ensure that they
condition to its cold condition where it contains an retain freedom of movement in subsequent service.
amount of stored product. The provisions of this NOTE Failure of any valve to operate requires
clause are regarded as a minimum for stored decommissioning and entry into the tank to correct the fault.
products. 9.1.5 Closing-up prior to purging
A tank is considered to be complete only after it has All access openings should be closed prior to the
been satisfactorily commissioned. A comprehensive commencement of purging.
commissioning procedure should be agreed between The tank should be vented to atmosphere to prevent
the purchaser and contractor. the occurrence of pressure differentials.
9.1.6 Purging and final drying
9.1.6.1 Purging
For tanks used to contain combustible gases, the
possibility of creating an explosive atmosphere
should be avoided by purging.

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NOTE Purging is normally undertaken with nitrogen. 9.2 Decommissioning

Purging should be continued until the residual 9.2.1 General
oxygen is insufficient to form an explosive mixture.
For new facilities, decommissioning at least once
The safe oxygen level should be calculated and a during the lifetime of the tank should be specified by
safety margin allowed against the possibility of the purchaser.
sampling error and non-uniformity of composition
NOTE 1 Decommissioning of refrigerated liquid storage
within the tank. systems is not to be regarded as a normal operational
9.1.6.2 Final drying requirement and should not be attempted on any routine basis.
NOTE 2 Decommissioning is necessary subsequent to an upset
The tank should be dried out to ensure that it or failure of a component in the system, where there is a need for
operates satisfactorily. entry.
NOTE 1 Areas needing special attention include the insulation, 9.2.2 Safety
instrument lines and pipework.
NOTE 2 The measurement of dew-point is normally the most
To ensure that decommissioning and entry into a
appropriate means for the determination of the state of dryness. tank can be conducted safely, the original system
9.1.6.3 Precautions design should include equipment, instrumentation
and safety facilities to permit entry by personnel for
The purging and drying procedure should be such inspection and/or repair.
that the purging of one section of the tank does not
The facilities for decommissioning should be
deposit moisture in another section.
designed and organized to avoid the need for an
NOTE 1 The annular space and the tank should be purged
separately, to preclude the transfer of moisture from one to the
inert atmosphere in the tank during the entry
other. period and to simplify inspection and repair.
During the purge of the annular space, the When planning shutdown entry into the tank and
maximum pressure differential across the bottom of recommissioning, consideration should be given to
the inner tank should be agreed between the the following.
purchaser and contractor. a) Provision of instrumentation for monitoring
NOTE 2 For an excessive differential pressure there is a and recording of gaseous and liquid content of the
tendency for the bottom to lift. tank during emptying and purging operations.
When a granular insulant is used, precautions b) Provision of tank purge connections for an
should be taken to prevent it being fluidized by the effective purge operation based on the condition
purge gas. of a system which has been in operation for a
9.1.6.4 Completion of purging specified period of years.
Upon completion of purging all parts of the tank NOTE This is also based on individual plant design
parameters.
should remain under a positive pressure of purge
gas until the next stage of commissioning. c) Provision of sufficient monitoring and/or
control devices to ensure that during the purge,
9.1.7 Cooldown the inner and outer tanks are not subjected to
Prior to filling, the tank should be cooled at a positive or negative pressures beyond the design
controlled rate to prevent thermal overstressing and limits.
supercooling of the liquid. d) Provision of instrumentation to permit regular
The maximum rate of cooling should be specified by sampling and monitoring of the atmosphere in
the tank designer. the tank during inspection and repair to ensure
NOTE 1 Cooldown is accomplished by spraying with the cold freedom from hydrocarbons or any hazardous
liquid. gases.
Temperature gauges should be provided to monitor Before construction commences, a detailed
the cooldown process. procedure for decommissioning the tank should be
NOTE 2 Cooldown is complete when liquid accumulates in the made available.
base of the tank.
9.1.8 Completion of commissioning
After completion of cooldown the tank should be
visually inspected for any irregularities such as
leakage, cold spots or physical defects.
After commissioning the condition of the tank
should be monitored at regular intervals especially
during the first filling and emptying.

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10 Inspection and tank monitoring

10.1 General
Refrigerated storage tanks are not normally
internally inspected during their lifetime but, as an
example, checks might be made of bottom heating
and settlement.
10.2 Equipment
When monitoring is required only suitable
equipment should be supplied and used.

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Annex A (informative) The cooldown of the tank should be undertaken very

Guidance on operation carefully. Special cooldown skin thermocouples
should be connected to the inner-tank bottom and
A.1 Cooldown of the tank inner-tank shell. The permissible temperature
Refrigerated storage tanks have an operating difference between adjacent thermocouples should
temperature at the atmospheric pressure boiling be established by the designer.
temperature of the refrigerated gas to be stored. The use of nitrogen in cooldown may result in
This gives a temperature range of – 5 °C for butane sub-cooling of the tank below its design
tanks to – 165 °C for liquefied natural gas (LNG) temperature, e.g. butane tank to – 45 °C, propane
tanks. Cooldown of the tanks is required and this tank to – 70 °C and LNG tank to – 180 °C. This
work starts after the drying and purging of the tank. sub-cooling should always be avoided by the careful
In general, purging of the tanks is undertaken with introduction of refrigerated gas into the tank, a slow
nitrogen. Hence the cooldown proceeds with cooldown and frequent, accurate temperature
nitrogen in the tank. monitoring.
A gradual and constant rate cooldown of the inner A.2 Prevention of overfill
tank results only in shrinkage of the inner tank,
without unacceptable stress generation of the tank The normal maximum operating levels are
material. A local cool down results in temperature calculated by using time intervals based on local
operating conditions so that a stepwise overfill
gradients, abnormal shrinkage and unacceptable
protection system exists. The typical levels to be
stress. These stresses, combined with those already
noted are shown in Figure A.1. The distances a, b
existing from fabrication and welding, result in
and c should be determined on the basis of the
cracking at a location of stress concentration.
selected time interval, e.g. 1 h, and the pump-in
rate.
The level high, high alarm with cut out should have
a trip function on the liquid supply line.

Figure A.1 — Typical example of a level alarm

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A.3 Prevention of overpressure A.5 Prevention of condensation

Refrigerated storage tanks normally operate at a At certain locations, where the ambient
pressure considerably lower than their design temperature in winter drops below the atmospheric
pressure, e.g. with an operating pressure in the boiling point of the product, say – 5 °C for butane,
range 20 mbar gauge to 50 mbar gauge. The design condensation in the tank against the underside of
pressure would be approximately 75 mbar gauge. the roof occurs (see Figure A.2). Due to the
The normal operating pressure is maintained by the condensation the pressure in the tank drops.
boil-off compressor and gas/liquid supply. All operating conditions are to be evaluated so that
If the pressure increases to a value above the regular opening of the internal negative pressure
normal operating level, then gas will be released to relief valves is prevented. Gas injection into the
the flare or vent. At a further increase of the dome, such as an injection of propane into butane,
pressure, the emergency-relief system will give a should be considered as an active protection system
final protection. Where conditions allow, the and should be carried out before each winter.
emergency pressure release is to atmosphere. During the winter period, regular sampling should
A.4 Prevention of excess internal negative be undertaken to check the composition of the gas in
pressure the space between inner suspended roof and outer
The gas/liquid supply maintains the pressure at the roof.
normal operating pressure. Should the pressure A.6 Tank heating system
drop, then the boil-off compressor is tripped and If the soil under the tank is allowed to become too
liquid removal from the tank stopped. In addition, cold, frost penetrates into the ground, ice lenses
an excess internal negative pressure-breaking gas form in the soil (mainly in clay types of soil), and the
supply system may be used, but at the final stage growth of these ice lenses results in high expansion
the internal negative pressure relief valves should forces which lift and damage the tank or parts of the
open and allow air to enter the tank. This typically tank (e.g. the tank bottom connection). To prevent
happens at a pressure of – 5 mbar gauge. This is, this, the heating system needs to operate in the
however, an emergency condition that in practice foundation and also in the vertical outer wall for
should never occur. tanks with an earth embankment.

Figure A.2 — Typical example of condensation in dome roof for butane gas

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An automatic on/off switch system should activate If liquid enters the annular space there is a danger
the heating system and ensure that the tank of damage to the inner tank and the bottom
foundation, at its coldest location, is within a insulation. Large quantities of liquid in the annular
temperature range of + 5 °C to + 10 °C. Other areas space may cause upward bulging of the tank bottom
of the tank foundation may have a higher and ultimately flotation of the inner tank. In this
temperature. condition, damage to the lower shell courses
The performance of the whole heating system (e.g. buckling) is also likely to occur. In addition, the
should be monitored by a number of sensors. These light foam glass blocks, located under the inner
sensors should be evenly distributed over the whole bottom, are caused to float so that the entire
tank base (see Figure A.3). If applicable, wall insulation system is disturbed and damaged
sensors should also be provided. One or more of (see Figure A.5).
these sensors should have an alarm function. If liquid is detected in the annular space it should be
Typically the set point for the “low temperature removed carefully. Pumping out should start in the
alarm” is 0 °C and for the “high temperature annular space so that the level in the inner tank is
alarm” + 50 °C (see Figure A.4) always higher than in the annular space, to prevent
Proper and frequent control of the monitoring the possibility of buckling of the inner tank shell.
systems of the base and wall is essential because it Small quantities of liquid in the annular space can
provides the first indication of a tank leak. In the be removed by the special venting system which
event of a leak the sensor located near this leak may be located at the bottom of the annular space.
shows a sudden temperature drop. Daily recording Hot gas or nitrogen may be used to accelerate the
of all bottom sensor readings is therefore evaporation.
recommended. Tanks with an open annular space and not filled
Another indication of an abnormal situation is a with perlite insulation may have a pump to remove
change in duty cycle or heating power consumption. the liquid and a liquid detection system. This would
This produces a change in on-off time. Normally the consist of either a bubbler or a level measuring
heating system is activated for 40 % to 60 % of the device. Either device should be set in such a way
operating time and a sudden change to 100 % that it detects small depths of liquid. A typical depth
activation would indicate that there is something might be 100 mm.
wrong with the system, or that a leak is present. It For tanks with a perlite filled annular space it is
is recommended that a daily record is maintained of difficult to install liquid detection instruments to
whether the heating is activated or not. control leaks and hence a pump for the removal of
A.7 Liquid in the annular space liquid is not feasible. Liquid can only be removed by
evaporation. The detection and control of leaks from
Liquid may be present in the annular space adjacent
the inner tank relies on monitoring of the heating
to the inner tank due to one of the following
system under the tank bottom.Temperature sensors
abnormal conditions:
may be used for detection.
a) spillage from the inner tank;
b) condensation at the outside of the inner tank;
c) leak of the inner tank.

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Figure A.3 — Arrangement of sensors under tank bottom

Figure A.4 — Typical heating time recording curve

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Figure A.5 — Flotation of the inner tank

Annex B (informative) B.2 Analytical method

Guidance on a method of seismic B.2.1 General
analysis for refrigerated liquid gas Guidelines for the seismic analysis method are
tanks given in B.2.2 to B.2.5. A distinction can be made
B.1 General between a static and a dynamic analysis of the tank
structure.
When historical evidence indicates that a particular
B.2.2 Static analysis
site is subject to a significant risk of seismic activity,
or when the local foundation conditions are known A static analysis of the tank structure may be used
to be unfavourable, then a site specific review in the following cases:
should be undertaken. a) for inner tanks of double and full containment
The objective of the site specific review is to systems;
establish peak ground accelerations for a given b) for outer tanks (steel or concrete) of double and
return period associated with the operating basis of full containment systems, for areas with low
the safe shutdown earthquake, together with free seismicity;
field site response spectra. This forms the basis for c) for inner tanks and outer containers of single
a seismic analysis of the tank shell and bottom containment systems, for areas with low
plates. seismicity.
NOTE For simple seismic loading cases, reference should be
made to appendix G of BS 2654:1989. For the static analysis of concrete tanks, local
building codes may be used (e.g. the US Uniform
building code[4]). For the static analysis of steel
tanks, appendix G of BS 2654:1989) should be used
as a guideline.

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Table B.1 — Component transient loading criteria

Component Stress Transient loading
Wind loading or OBE plus all SSE plus all other loading
other loading
Plate  Tensile stress 0.85 × yield of proof stress Yield or proof stress

 Compressive stress G.3 of BS 2654:1989 Lesser of design stress to
BS 7777-2 and (0.4 × Et/R)
Anchor Tensile or compressive 0.85 × yield or proof stress Yield or proof stress
stress
Key to variables Abbreviations

E = Young’s modulus; OBE = operating basic earthquake;

t = thickness; SSE = safe shutdown earthquake.

R = tank radius.

NOTE Refer to appendix G of BS 2654:1989 for seismic provisions for storage tanks.

B.2.3 Dynamic analysis Annex C (informative)

A full dynamic analysis of the tank structure should Guidance on safety and other aspects
be carried out in the following cases:
C.1 General
a) for outer tanks (steel or concrete) of double and
Two aspects relating to the storage of refrigerated
full containment systems, for areas with high
liquid gases (RLG) warrant particular attention.
seismicity; The first of these is that the liquid concerned is
b) for inner tanks and outer containers of single maintained in that state by virtue of artificially
containment systems, for areas with high created thermal conditions. If it were to escape from
seismicity. its container it would revert to a much greater
For a dynamic analysis of the tank structure, a volume of gas. The second aspect is economic. The
finite element programme with modal analysis or value of the contents of a large storage system can
direct integration techniques can be used. The input be several million pounds sterling. Thus there are
for such calculation is a time-ground acceleration strong incentives, both financial and
history or a design response spectrum. environmental, to ensure that the contained liquid
They are based on certain recurrence intervals to be does not escape.
specified by the purchaser (see B.1). It is common Long experience has shown that single containment
practice to set the recurrence period for the outer systems, of concrete or metal, can be operated for
tank of double and full containment systems one many years without trouble. The safety record of
order of magnitude higher than the recurrence RLG storage is very good.
period for the inner tank. However, modern requirements for environmental
B.2.4 Sloshing safety and the limitation of social risk involve
A method for calculating the height of the sloshing enhanced safety measures, often to guard against
wave can be found in Basis of design provisions for events which are beyond the control of the owner or
welded steel storage tanks by R.S. Wozniak and operator of the system.
W.W. Mitchell[5]. Safeguards of this type are embodied in national
B.2.5 Allowable stresses and local authority requirements and regulations.
These vary from country to country, and sometimes
The peak tensile and compressive stresses should be within the same country. The requirements for a
compared with code allowable values as defined in particular site are determined by consultation
Table B.1. The tank bottom should be checked for between the owner/operator and the relevant
lift-off. authorities. It is the responsibility of the owner to
ensure that they are included in the statement of
design philosophy. The wide variations in specific
site requirements make it difficult to lay down hard
and fast rules, but guidance can be obtained from
the British Standards and other references listed on
the inside back cover.

20 © BSI 12-1998
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It is becoming common practice for the A disadvantage of this type of valve is that, if
owner/operator, in conjunction with the approving blockage occurs in the pilot sensing line with the
authority, to perform a hazard and systems analysis tank pressure near set pressure, the relieving
for proposed RLG storage sites and designs. The pressure of the valve can be as high as twice the set
analysis includes a probability assessment of pressure. For all tanks an extra valve of the same
various accident scenarios and the effects of safety capacity should be installed to allow for the possible
measures. The consequences of credible accidents maloperation of one of the valves.
are considered, and the physical implications of C.2.2 Internal negative pressure safety valves
possible leaks and spills are derived.
Separate safety valves should allow air into the
Computational models, incorporating dynamic vapour space between the outer roof and the
effects, and the response behaviour of the storage suspended roof for the following reasons:
system and its components, are employed. The
a) restricted flow, if there is a long inlet pipe and
components considered include the support system
a low differential pressure available across the
and the foundation/soil interaction.
valve;
C.2 Pressure and vacuum relief
b) condensation problems, if wet air is allowed to
C.2.1 Pressure relief safety valves enter the cold inner tank.
For the purposes of relief of the inner tank, internal Pilot-operated internal negative pressure relief
positive pressure relief valves should be entirely valves are not acceptable for pressure protection
separate from the internal negative pressure relief because the valve action is not fail-safe against
valves. This requires the inlet piping to penetrate main valve diaphragm or bellows rupture.
the suspended roof where applicable, thus Conventional pallet type internal negative pressure
preventing cold vapour from entering the warm valves should be used. Since the tanks normally
space between outer roof and suspended roof under operate at a slight overpressure, there will be
relieving conditions. The influence of this piping enough margin between operating pressure and
should be considered in relief valve capacity valve setting to keep the valve tightly shut
calculations. (see Figure C.4).
Pilot-operated pressure relief valves are preferred to C.2.3 Valve setting for maximum relief
dead weight type pressure relief valves for pressures
refrigerated storage tanks. These valves stay tight
It is essential that the set pressure of relief valves
up to the set pressure and open wide when this
does not exceed the design pressure of the tank. The
pressure is reached (see Figure C.1 and Figure C.2).
relief valve capacity should be such that the
This no-flow/full-flow characteristic prevents icing
maximum relief pressure does not exceed 1.1 times
at the valve seats.
the design pressure for all emergencies, except an
NOTE Icing is a cause of leakage in the shut position.
external fire. For fire conditions the maximum relief
An advantage of pilot-operated pressure relief pressure should not exceed 1.2 times the design
valves is that the valve pilot setting is verifiable in pressure.
situ. Because the pilot operates against atmosphere,
its set pressure does not vary with back-pressure.
This is important in the case of discharge into a vent
or flare system (see Figure C.3).

© BSI 12-1998 21
 BS 7777-1:1993
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Figure C.1 — Pilot-operated pressure relief valve

Figure C.2 — Dead weight type pressure relief valve

22 © BSI 12-1998
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© BSI 12-1998
Figure C.3 — Pilot-operated low-pressure relief valve

23
BS 7777-1:1993
 Licensed Copy: Mott Macdonald User, Mott Macdonald, Mon Dec 25 15:26:32 GMT+00:00 2006, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) BSI

24
BS 7777-1:1993

Figure C.4 — Dead weight type internal negative pressure relief valve

© BSI 12-1998
 BS 7777-1:1993
Licensed Copy: Mott Macdonald User, Mott Macdonald, Mon Dec 25 15:26:32 GMT+00:00 2006, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) BSI

Figure C.5 — Arrangement of pressure control valves (PCVs) to flare, and internal positive
pressure relief valves to atmosphere, internal negative pressure relief valves, locked block
valves and spare positions
C.2.4 Spare venting capacity C.2.5 Relief of compressed vapour
Internal positive pressure relief valves and internal There are two means of relieving the compressed
negative pressure relief valves for refrigerated vapour of a tank system, as follows.
storage tanks should be provided with interlocked a) Relief to controlled system. Vapour relieved
block valves and spare positions, so that a faulty from the pressure relief valve of a tank should be
pressure relief valve can be exchanged without conducted to a location such as a flare system
opening the tank to atmosphere (see Figure C.5). where it is safely discharged.

© BSI 12-1998 25
 BS 7777-1:1993
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b) Relief to atmosphere. Vapour should be safely Vapour cloud generation should be avoided for
vented directly to atmosphere, provided that this reasons other than fire and explosion. Ammonia, for
is accomplished without creating the following instance, is highly poisonous in comparatively small
problems: concentrations, and thus needs special
1) formation of flammable toxic mixtures at consideration. Dense vapour clouds can also cause
ground level or on elevated structures where suffocation and the low temperature of the liquid
personnel are likely to perform their duties; and vapour is a hazard.
2) ignition of the relieved vapours at point of C.3.2 Risk of external leakage to atmosphere
emission. The risk of external leakage to the atmosphere can
NOTE The hydrocarbon vapour outflow from internal be minimized by:
positive pressure relief valves can be ignited by one of the a) avoiding all connections on the tank below the
following.
i) Lightning. Except for emergency relief associated
maximum liquid level;
with power failure or atmospheric pressure drop which b) where such connections are unavoidable,
may occur during a thunderstorm, the probability of limiting both their number and size;
lightning occurring simultaneously with the opening of
a relief valve is negligible. Leaking relief valves c) use of emergency remote control and/or
increase the probability of lightning ignition. automatic fail safe shut-off valves on liquid
The inert gas snuffing system connected to the connections on the tank and other important
discharge pipework may be used to extinguish the
ignited vapours. locations;
ii) Adjacent tank fire. The expansion of vapour in the d) use of double valving for all liquid connections
dome of a tank subject to radiation from an adjacent on the tank below the maximum liquid level, the
tank fire could cause the atmospheric relief valve to
open. If the venting vapour ignites, the additional
first being as near to the tank shell as practicable;
radiation from the vent fire causes further expansion, e) use of welded connections upstream of the first
thus requiring additional venting capacity, and results shut-off valve on each connection below the
in high roof-plate temperature.
The inert gas snuffing system would not normally be
maximum liquid level.
designed to extinguish the flames and use should be C.3.3 Local internal leaks
made of adequate water spray/exposure protection
facilities. The guidance given in this and related standards
C.3 Leakage and spillage regarding prevention of leaks in storage tanks is to
C.3.1 General ensure that the tanks are liquid tight. It is
In considering the consequence of leakage or important to highlight the need for attention to
spillage, account should be taken both of the volume detail in the design, construction and testing of each
of the leak or spill and of the nature of the product. tank bottom and its attachment to the lowest course
All refrigerated liquids when spilled evaporate at a of the shell. The recommendations made should be
rate which is directly related to the surface area of applied to both inner and outer tanks,
the spilled liquid. leak-tightness being further confirmed by vacuum
box testing of the welds in the inner tank after the
Small leaks or spills may require forced ventilation hydrostatic test (see BS 7777-2:1993).
of potential pockets of gas, for instance under the
bases of above-ground tanks. This is particularly the Any local cooling in the tank interbottom space
case with heavy gases such as butane or propane. could lead to unacceptably high local thermal
Gases, such as methane, which are lighter than air stresses in the outer tank bottom. To prevent the
at ambient temperatures are usually denser than possibility of outer bottom failure due to thermal
air when they are first evolved, and are thus capable stress, consideration should be given to suitable
of forming a low-lying vapour. protective layers of liquid-proof thermal insulation
over the outer tank bottom, or to the use of low
When larger spills are to be considered, measures temperature quality steel for the outer tank bottom
are normally taken to limit the pool surface area of and the lower shell course. In double containment
the spill, and hence the rate of vapour formation. tanks and full containment tanks
These may take the form of concrete guard walls, (see BS 7777-2:1993) a suitable low temperature
earth bunds, or a system of channels leading to a quality steel has to be provided for the outer tank
remote collection area. Some tanks are located bottom, shell or the liners, unless, in the case of
below ground level for similar reasons. outer concrete tanks, the concrete is designed for
direct contact with the liquid.

26 © BSI 12-1998
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C.3.4 Internal condensation C.4 Tank layout and spacing

In tanks containing product gas in the annular C.4.1 Distances
space, the possibility of condensation in the Various national and US standards include
interbottom space and the intershell space exists. requirements for minimum distances between steel
The presence of product liquid on the outer tank tanks, distances to property lines and secondary
floor may result in flotation of the inner tank and bunds (see American Federal Safety Standard
significant damage to inner and outer tanks. (AFSS) 49 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
Instrumentation enabling the operator to be warned Part 193[6], National Fire Protection Association
of the existence of such condensation and a means (NFPA) Standards 59 and 59A[7,8] and Chemical
for its removal should be considered and specified at Industries’ Association Code of practice for large
the tank design stage. scale storage of fully refrigerated anhydrous
At certain locations where the outside temperature ammonia in the United Kingdom[9]).
in winter can drop below the atmospheric boiling C.4.2 Location and spacing
point of the product, say – 5 °C for butane,
The containment system of tanks, and their
condensation on the underside of the tank roof will
associated bunds and impounding basins, should be
occur. Large quantities of condensate, comparable
located and spaced so that in the event of a tank fire,
with a very heavy rainfall, may drop down on the
or a fire in a bund/impounding basin, which results
suspended deck. Thus drainage holes should be
from the ignition of spillage, radiation flux levels are
provided in the deck so that the liquid can enter the
in accordance with the recommendations of the IP
inner tank. A drain protection system should be
model code of safe practice in the petroleum industry
provided above the annular space, so that the
Part 9: Volume 1[10], hereafter referred to as the IP
condensate is directed to the inner tank. No liquid
code.
should enter the annular space.
NOTE For tank layout and spacing reference should be made to
C.3.5 Overfilling “Refrigerated storage” in the IP code[10].
To prevent overfilling, two separate independent C.4.3 Radiation flux levels
level instruments should be provided. The level The radiation flux levels laid down in the
instruments should be equipped to provide remote IP code[10] are based on the ignition of the product,
readings and high level alarm signals in the control either in the tank or spilling from it and forming a
room. As backup to these level instruments, pool. The radiation flux level is determined by the
separate independent Level High Alarms (LHA) spillage rate, evaporation rate and duration of the
and Level High, High Alarms with Cut Out [LHHA spillage, together with the topography/location of
(CO)] are recommended. The LHHA (CO) should be the bund/impounding basin.
hard wired directly to close the motor-operated
NOTE An example of a calculation for radiation levels is given
liquid inlet valves to the tank (see A.2). in “Refrigerated storage” in the IP code[10].
C.3.6 Accidental spillage C.5 Fire protection and loss control systems
The outer tank should be protected from the adverse For a concrete outer tank, the fire rating will be
effects of any accidental spillage of the product onto affected by such aspects as the thickness of the wall,
the tank roof or shell. slab or roof, the cover thickness over the
Areas on the tank roof where the spillage is most reinforcement, and the position of the prestressing
likely to occur are flanged joints. cables.
The tank areas where such spillage is possible need The installation of at least four combustible gas
to be protected by low temperature steel roof detectors equally spaced around a tank is
plating, or product catchment trays, liquid proof recommended. Alarms should be located in the
insulation and suitable drainage directing the control room. In some cases these detectors should
spillage to a safe disposal area. The size of these automatically close the tank liquid valves.
trays should take account of wind dispersion. Consideration should be given to the use of gas
detectors for early warning, taking account of such
aspects as points of potential leakage, drainage
gullies, sumps, and tank and bund geometry.
Pumps and compressors should not be located
within the storage tank bund for a single
containment tank as they have a higher potential
for leaks or fires than most other equipment.
NOTE For fire protection and loss control systems reference
should be made to “Refrigerated Storage” in the IP code[10].

© BSI 12-1998 27
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C.6 Protection against explosion and impact Any metal part which may be electrically
In any industrial plant handling hazardous liquids, isolated from the tank, e.g. by a gasket or even
the possibility of an explosion cannot be ruled out. by a rust layer, should be bonded to the tank by
The credibility of such an event forms part of the the shortest possible route.
hazard analysis. The physical implications should c) Where a tank or pipeline is cathodically
be assessed to provide the basis for the design protected, either spark arresters, enclosed spark
philosophy. gap devices or similar devices should be fitted
Commonly, an external blast overpressure and across any insulated flanges.
external missile impact are included in the hazard C.8 Effect of radio transmissions, static
analysis. Since the blast loading is time dependent, electricity and cathodic protection systems
a full dynamic analysis should be considered to In certain circumstances a hazard may exist when a
determine its effect on the complete storage system, flammable substance is stored in the vicinity of
and its individual elements. This includes the certain types of high powered radio transmitters.
foundations. Radio waves can induce sufficient energy in steel
C.7 Lightning protection members to cause incendive sparks at distances up
The structure should be provided with adequate to 20 km.
protection to prevent damage and fire by lightning. NOTE This distance is based on an m.f. broadcast radio
The requirements of local codes should be observed transmitter of 150 kW, and a Group IIC gas (see appendix B of
BS 6656:1991).
in full.
Normal provision of on-site radio systems, amateur
Where tankage is required to be protected against and CB radios should not create a hazard at
lightning, the following guidance is given. distances above 200 m. If there is any doubt on the
a) Provided there is a minimum steel thickness possibility of a hazard existing then expert advice
of 5 mm, a lightning discharge should not should be sought (see BS 6656).
penetrate the tank and the absolute value of the Static voltages can also be built up in unearthed
earthing of a vertical storage tank is not metalwork with a danger of spark creation.
important as far as the tank is concerned.
Cathodic protection systems for buffed steelwork
Where it is necessary to earth a storage tank for can also give rise to break sparks. If any of these
other reasons, such as installed electrical hazards are relevant to a particular location, a more
equipment, static discharge, or protection of the detailed study should be undertaken. Enhanced
supporting structures, the absolute value of the earthing provisions may be necessary to overcome
earthing resistance should be determined. the danger arising.
b) Electrical appliances and cabling either on or
in tankage should be electrically earthed.

28 © BSI 12-1998
 BS 7777-1:1993

List of references (see clause 2)

Licensed Copy: Mott Macdonald User, Mott Macdonald, Mon Dec 25 15:26:32 GMT+00:00 2006, Uncontrolled Copy, (c) BSI

Normative references

BSI standards publications

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, London

BS 7777, Flat-bottomed, vertical cylindrical storage tanks for low temperature service.
BS 7777-2:1993, Specification for the design and construction of single, double and full containment metal
tanks for the storage of liquified gas at temperatures down to – 165 °C.
BS 7777-3:1993, Recommendations for the design and construction of prestressed and reinforced concrete
tanks and tank foundations, and the design and installation of tank insulation, tank liners and tank
coatings.
BS 7777-4:1993, Specification for the design and construction of single containment tanks for the storage of
liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen or liquid argon.

Informative references

BSI standards publications

BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, London

BS 2654:1989, Specification for manufacture of vertical steel welded non-refrigerated storage tanks with
butt-welded shells for the petroleum industry.
BS 6656:1991, Guide to prevention of inadvertent ignition of flammable atmospheres by radio-frequency
radiation.
BS 8110, Structural use of concrete.
BS 8110-1:1985, Code of practice for design and construction.
BS 8110-2:1985, Code of practice for special circumstances.
CP 3, Code of basic data for the design of buildings.
CP 3:Chapter V, Loading.
CP 3:Chapter V-2:1972, Wind loads.
Other references
[1] THE ENGINEERING EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS USERS’ ASSOCIATION (EEMUA).
Recommendations for the design and construction of refrigerated liquefied gas storage tanks. EEMUA
publication 147:19862).
[2] AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE (API). Venting atmosphere and low pressure storage tanks
(non-refrigerated and refrigerated), 2nd edition. API Standard 2000:1987.
[3] BRITISH CRYOGENICS COUNCIL, SAFETY PANEL. Cryogenics safety manual — a guide to good
practice. Rushden: Reed Book Services, 1991.
[4] Uniform building code. International conference of building officials, Whittier, CA, USA:1988.
[5] WOZNIAK, R.S., and MITCHELL, W.W. Basis of design provisions for welded steel storage tanks,
Proceedings of the refining department of the American Petroleum Institute, Vol. 57:1978.
[6] American Federal Safety Standard (AFSS) 49 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 193.
[7] NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION (NFPA). Standard for the storage and handling of
LPG at utility gas plants. NFPA standard 59:1992.
[8] NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION (NFPA). Standard for the production, storage and
handling of LNG. NFPA standard 59A:1992.
[9] CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES’ ASSOCIATION. Code of practice for large scale storage of fully refrigerated
anhydrous ammonia in the United Kingdom. 1992.
[10] IP model code of safe practice in the petroleum industry. Part 9: Liquefied petroleum gas. Volume 1
Large bulk pressure storage and refrigerated LPG. Chichester: John Wiley, 1987.

2) Referred to in the foreword only.

© BSI 12-1998
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