For the circuits shown in Fig. P4.

2 using ideal
diodes, find the values of the voltages and
currents indicated.

The solution is here

4.11 For the rectifier circuit of Fig. 4.3(a), let
the input sine wave have 120-V rms value
and assume the diode to be ideal. Select a
suitable value for R so that the peak diode
current does not exceed 40 mA. What is the
greatest reverse voltage that will appear
across the diode?
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4.12 Consider the rectifier circuit of Fig.

4.3(a) in the event that the input source v I
has a source resistance R s . For the case R s
=R and assuming the diode to be ideal, sketch
and clearly label the transfer characteristic v
O versus v I

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4.13 A symmetrical square wave of 5-V peak-

to-peak amplitude and zero average is
applied to a circuit resembling that in Fig.
4.3(a) and employing a 100- resistor.What is
the peak output voltage that results? What is
the average output voltage that results? What
is the peak diode current? What is the
average diode current? What is the
maximum reverse voltage across the diode?
4.13 A symmetrical square wave of 5-V peak-to-peak

amplitude and zero average is applied to a circuit resembling

that in Fig. 4.3(a) and employing a 100- resistor.What is the

peak output voltage that results? What is the average output

voltage that results? What is the peak diode current? What

is the average diode current? What is the maximum reverse

voltage across the diode?

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4.15 Design a battery-charging circuit,

resembling that in Fig. 4.4(a) and using an
ideal diode, in which current flows to the 12-
V battery 25% of the time with an average
value of 100 mA. What peak-to-peak sine-
wave voltage is required? What resistance is
required? What peak diode current flows?
What peak reverse voltage does the diode
endure? If resistors can be specified to only
one significant digit, and the peak-to-peak
voltage only to the nearest volt, what design
would you choose to guarantee the required
charging current? What fraction of the cycle
does diode current flow? What is the average
diode current? What is the peak diode
current? What peak reverse voltage does the
diode endure?
*4.15 Design a battery-charging circuit, resembling that

in Fig. 4.4(a) and using an ideal diode, in which current flows

to the 12-V battery 25% of the time with an average value of

100 mA. What peak-to-peak sine-wave voltage is required?

What resistance is required? What peak diode current flows?

What peak reverse voltage does the diode endure? If resistors

can be specified to only one significant digit, and the

peak-to-peak voltage only to the nearest volt, what design

would you choose to guarantee the required charging current?

What fraction of the cycle does diode current flow? What is

the average diode current? What is the peak diode current?

What peak reverse voltage does the diode endure?

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4.16 The circuit of Fig. P4.16 can be used in a
signaling system using one wire plus a
common ground return. At any moment, the
input has one of three values: +3 V, 0 V, –3 V.
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4.17 Calculate the value of the thermal

voltage, V T –55°C, 0°C, +40°C, and +125°C.
At what temperature is V T exactly 25 mV?
4.17 Calculate the value of the thermal voltage, V

–55°C, 0°C, +40°C, and +125°C. At what temperature is

exactly 25 mV?
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4.18 At what forward voltage does a diode

conduct a current equal to 10,000I S ? In
terms of I S , what current flows in the same
diode when its forward voltage is 0.7 V?
4.18 At what forward voltage does a diode conduct a current

equal to 10,000I

? In terms of I

, what current flows in the

same diode when its forward voltage is 0.7 V?

4.19 A diode for which the forward voltage
drop is 0.7 V at 1.0 mA is operated at 0.5
V.What is the value of the current?
4.19 A diode for which the forward voltage drop is 0.7 V at

1.0 mA is operated at 0.5 V.What is the value of the current?

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4.20 A particular diode is found to conduct 1

mA with a junction voltage of 0.7 V.What
current will flow in this diode if the junction
voltage is raised to 0.71 V? To 0.8 V? If the
junction voltage is lowered to 0.69 V? To 0.6
V?What change in junction voltage will
increase the diode current by a factor of 10?
4.20 A particular diode is found to conduct 1 mA with a

junction voltage of 0.7 V.What current will flow in this diode

if the junction voltage is raised to 0.71 V? To 0.8 V? If the

junction voltage is lowered to 0.69 V? To 0.6 V?What change

in junction voltage will increase the diode current by a factor

of 10?

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4.21 The following measurements are taken

on particular junction diodes for which V is
the terminal voltage and I is the diode
current. For each diode, estimate values of I
S and the terminal voltage at 10% of the
measured current. (a) V = 0.700 V at I = 1.00
A (b) V = 0.650 V at I = 1.00 mA (c) V = 0.650
V at I = 10 μA (d) V = 0.700 V at I = 100 mA
4.21 The following measurements are taken on particular

junction diodes for which V is the terminal voltage and I is

the diode current. For each diode, estimate values of I

and

the terminal voltage at 10% of the measured current.

(a) V = 0.700 V at I = 1.00 A

(b) V = 0.650 V at I = 1.00 mA

(c) V = 0.650 V at I = 10 μA

(d) V = 0.700 V at I = 100 mA

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4.22 Listed below are the results of

measurements taken on several different
junction diodes. For each diode, the data
provided are the diode current I and the
corresponding diode voltage V. In each case,
estimate I S , and the diode voltage at 10I and
I/10. (a) 10.0 mA, 700 mV (b) 1.0 mA, 700 mV
(c) 10 A, 800 mV (d) 1 mA, 700 mV (e) 10 μA,
600 mV
4.22 Listed below are the results of measurements taken on

several different junction diodes. For each diode, the data

provided are the diode current I and the corresponding diode

voltage V. In each case, estimate I

, and the diode voltage at

10I and I/10.

(a) 10.0 mA, 700 mV

(b) 1.0 mA, 700 mV

(c) 10 A, 800 mV

(d) 1 mA, 700 mV

(e) 10 μA, 600 mV

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4.23 The circuit in Fig. P4.23 utilizes three

identical diodes having I S = 10 −14 A. Find
the value of the current I required to obtain
an output voltage V O = 2.0 V. If a current of
1 mA is drawn away from the output
terminal by a load, what is the change in
output voltage?
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4.24 A junction diode is operated in a circuit

in which it is supplied with a constant current
I. What is the effect on the forward voltage of
the diode if an identical diode is connected in
parallel?
4.24 A junction diode is operated in a circuit in which it is supplied with a constant current I.
What is the effect on the forward voltage of the diode if an identical diode is connected in
parallel?

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4.25 Two diodes with saturation currents IS1

connected in parallel with their cathodes
joined together and connected to grounds.
The two anodes are joined together and fed
with a constant current I. Find the currents I
flow through the two diodes, and the voltage
V across their parallel combination.
4.25 Two diodes with saturation currents I

S1

connected in parallel with their cathodes joined together and

connected to grounds. The two anodes are joined together and

fed with a constant current I. Find the currents I

flow through the two diodes, and the voltage V

across their parallel combination.

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4.26 Four diodes are connected in parallel:

anodes joined together and fed with a
constant current I, and cathodes joined
together and connected to ground. What
relative junction areas should these diodes
have if their currents must have binary-
weighted ratios,with the smallest being
0.1mA?What value of I is needed?
4.26 Four diodes are connected in parallel: anodes joined

together and fed with a constant current I, and cathodes joined

together and connected to ground. What relative junction

areas should these diodes have if their currents must have

binary-weighted ratios,with the smallest being 0.1mA?What

value of I is needed?
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4.27 In the circuit shown in Fig. P4.27, D 1

junction area ofD 2 .What value of V results?
To obtain a value for V of 60 mV, what
current I 2 is needed?
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4.28 For the circuit shown in Fig. P4.28, both

diodes are identical. Find the value of R for
which V =50 mV.
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4.29 A diode fed with a constant current I=1
mA has a voltage V =690 mVat 20°C. Find
the diode voltage at−20°C and at +85°C.
4.29 A diode fed with a constant current I=1 mA has a

voltage V =690 mVat 20°C. Find the diode voltage at−20°C

and at +85°C.

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4.30 In the circuit shown in Fig. P4.30, D 1 is

a large-area, high-current diode whose
reverse leakage is high and independent of
applied voltage, while D 2 is a much smaller,
low-current diode. At an ambient
temperature of 20°C, resistorR 1 is adjusted
tomakeV R1 =V 2 =520 mV. Subsequent
measurement indicates that R 1 is 520
k .What do you expect the voltages V R1 and
V 2 to become at 0°C and at 40°C?
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4.31 When a 10-A current is applied to a

particular diode, it is found that the junction
voltage immediately becomes 700 mV.
However, as the power being dissipated in the
diode raises its temperature, it is found that
the voltage decreases and eventually reaches
600 mV. What is the apparent rise in
4.31 When a 10-A current is applied to a particular diode,

it is found that the junction voltage immediately becomes

700 mV. However, as the power being dissipated in the diode

raises its temperature, it is found that the voltage decreases and

eventually reaches 600 mV. What is the apparent rise in

junction temperature? What is the power dissipated in the

diode in its final state? What is the temperature rise per watt

of power dissipation? (This is called the thermal resistance.)

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4.32 A designer of an instrument that must

operate over a wide supply-voltage range,
noting that a diode’s junction-voltage drop is
relatively independent of junction current,
considers the use of a large diode to establish
a small relatively constant voltage. A power
diode, for which the nominal current at 0.8 V
is 10 A, is available. If the current source
feeding the diode changes in the range 1 mA
to 3 mA and if, in addition, the temperature
changes by ±20°C, what is the expected range
of diode voltage?
*4.32 A designer of an instrument that must operate

over a wide supply-voltage range, noting that a diode’s

junction-voltage drop is relatively independent of junction

current, considers the use of a large diode to establish a small

relatively constant voltage. A power diode, for which the

nominal current at 0.8 V is 10 A, is available. If the current

source feeding the diode changes in the range 1 mA to 3 mA

and if, in addition, the temperature changes by ±20°C, what

is the expected range of diode voltage?

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*4.33 As an alternative to the idea suggested

in Prob- lem 4.32, the designer considers a
second approach to produc- ing a relatively
constant small voltage from a variable
current supply: It relies on the ability to
make quite accurate copies of any small
current that is available (using a process
called current mirroring). The designer
proposes to use this idea to supply two diodes
of different junction areas with equal cur-
rents and to measure their junction-voltage
difference. Two types of diodes are available:
for a forward voltage of 700 mV, one
conducts 0.1 mA, while the other conducts 1
A. Now, for identical currents in the range of
1 mA to 3 mA supplied to each, what range of
difference voltages result? What is the effect
of a temperature change of±20°Con this
arrangement?
*4.33 As an alternative to the idea suggested in Prob-

lem 4.32, the designer considers a second approach to produc-

ing a relatively constant small voltage from a variable current

supply: It relies on the ability to make quite accurate copies

of any small current that is available (using a process called

current mirroring). The designer proposes to use this idea to

supply two diodes of different junction areas with equal cur-

rents and to measure their junction-voltage difference. Two

types of diodes are available: for a forward voltage of 700 mV,

one conducts 0.1 mA, while the other conducts 1 A. Now, for

identical currents in the range of 1 mA to 3 mA supplied to

each, what range of difference voltages result? What is the

effect of a temperature change of±20°Con this arrangement?

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*4.33 As an alternative to the idea suggested

in Prob- lem 4.32, the designer considers a
second approach to produc- ing a relatively
constant small voltage from a variable
current supply: It relies on the ability to
make quite accurate copies of any small
current that is available (using a process
called current mirroring). The designer
proposes to use this idea to supply two diodes
of different junction areas with equal cur-
rents and to measure their junction-voltage
difference. Two types of diodes are available:
for a forward voltage of 700 mV, one
conducts 0.1 mA, while the other conducts 1
A. Now, for identical currents in the range of
1 mA to 3 mA supplied to each, what range of
difference voltages result? What is the effect
of a temperature change of±20°Con this
arrangement?
*4.33 As an alternative to the idea suggested in Prob-

lem 4.32, the designer considers a second approach to produc-

ing a relatively constant small voltage from a variable current

supply: It relies on the ability to make quite accurate copies

of any small current that is available (using a process called

current mirroring). The designer proposes to use this idea to

supply two diodes of different junction areas with equal cur-

rents and to measure their junction-voltage difference. Two

types of diodes are available: for a forward voltage of 700 mV,

one conducts 0.1 mA, while the other conducts 1 A. Now, for

identical currents in the range of 1 mA to 3 mA supplied to

each, what range of difference voltages result? What is the

effect of a temperature change of±20°Con this arrangement?

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*4.34 Consider the graphical analysis of the

diode circuit of Fig. 4.10 with V DD =1 V,
R=1 k , and a diode having I S =10 −15 A.
Calculate a small number of points on the
diode characteristic in the vicinity of where
you expect the load line to intersect it, and
use a graphical process to refine your
estimate of diode current. What value of
diode current and voltage do you find?
Analytically, find the voltage corresponding
to your estimate of current. By howmuch
does it differ from the graphically estimated
value?
*4.34 Consider the graphical analysis of the diode circuit

of Fig. 4.10 with V

DD

=1 V, R=1 k , and a diode having

=10

−15

A. Calculate a small number of points on the diode

characteristic in the vicinity of where you expect the load

line to intersect it, and use a graphical process to refine

your estimate of diode current. What value of diode current

and voltage do you find? Analytically, find the voltage

corresponding to your estimate of current. By howmuch does

it differ from the graphically estimated value?

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4.35 Use the iterative-analysis procedure to

determine the diode current and voltage in
the circuit of Fig. 4.10 for V DD =1 V, R=1 k ,
and a diode having I S = 10 −15 A.
4.35 Use the iterative-analysis procedure to determine the

diode current and voltage in the circuit of Fig. 4.10 for

DD

=1 V, R=1 k , and a diode having I

= 10

−15

A.

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4.36 A “1-mA diode” (i.e., one that has v 1

mA) is connected in series with a 500- resistor
to a 1.0 V supply.
4.36 A “1-mA diode” (i.e., one that has v

1 mA) is connected in series with a 500- resistor to a 1.0 V

supply.

(a) Provide a rough estimate of the diode current you would

expect.

(b) Estimate the diode current more closely using iterative

analysis.

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4.37 Assuming the availability of diodes for

which v 0.75 V at i D = 1 mA, design a circuit
that utilizes four diodes connected in series,
in series with a resistor R connected to a 15-V
power supply. The voltage across the string of
diodes is to be 3.3 V.
4.37 Assuming the availability of diodes for which v

0.75 V at i

= 1 mA, design a circuit that utilizes four diodes

connected in series, in series with a resistor R connected to a

15-V power supply. The voltage across the string of diodes is

to be 3.3 V.

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4.38 A diode operates in a series circuit with a

resistance R and a dc source V. A designer,
considering using a constant-voltage model,
is uncertain whether to use 0.7 V or 0.6 V for
V D . For what value of V is the difference in
the calculated values of current only 1%? For
V = 3 V and R = 1 k , what two current
estimates would result from the use of the
two values of V D ? What is their percentage
difference?
4.38 A diode operates in a series circuit with a resistance

R and a dc source V. A designer, considering using a

constant-voltage model, is uncertain whether to use 0.7 V

or 0.6 V for V

. For what value of V is the difference in

the calculated values of current only 1%? For V = 3 V and

R = 1 k , what two current estimates would result from

the use of the two values of V

? What is their percentage

difference?
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4.39 A designer has a supply of diodes for

which a current of 2 mA flows at 0.7 V. Using
a 1-mA current source, the designerwishes to
create a reference voltage of 1.3 V. Suggest a
combination of series and parallel diodes that
will do the job as well as possible. How many
diodes are needed? What voltage is actually
achieved?
4.39 A designer has a supply of diodes for which a current

of 2 mA flows at 0.7 V. Using a 1-mA current source, the

designerwishes to create a reference voltage of 1.3 V. Suggest

a combination of series and parallel diodes that will do the

job as well as possible. How many diodes are needed? What

voltage is actually achieved?

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4.40 Solve the problems in Example 4.2 using

the constant-voltage-drop (V D = 0.7 V) diode
model.
4.40 Solve the problems in Example 4.2 using the

constant-voltage-drop (V

D
= 0.7 V) diode model.

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4.41 For the circuits shown in Fig. P4.2, using

the constant-voltage-drop (V D = 0.7 V) diode
model, find the voltages and currents
indicated.
4.41 For the circuits shown in Fig. P4.2, using the

constant-voltage-drop (V

= 0.7 V) diode model, find the

voltages and currents indicated.

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4.42 For the circuits shown in Fig. P4.3, using

the constant-voltage-drop (V D = 0.7 V) diode
model, find the voltages and currents
indicated.
4.42 For the circuits shown in Fig. P4.3, using the

constant-voltage-drop (V

= 0.7 V) diode model, find the

voltages and currents indicated.

4.43 For the circuits in Fig. P4.9, using the

constant-voltage-drop (V D = 0.7 V) diode
model, find the values of the labeled currents
and voltages.
4.43 For the circuits in Fig. P4.9, using the
constant-voltage-drop (V

= 0.7 V) diode model, find the

values of the labeled currents and voltages.

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4.44 For the circuits in Fig. P4.10, utilize Th
́evenin’s theo- rem to simplify the circuits and
find the values of the labeled currents and
voltages. Assume that conducting diodes can
be represented by the constant-voltage-
dropmodel (V D =0.7 V).
4.44 For the circuits in Fig. P4.10, utilize Th ́evenin’s theo-

rem to simplify the circuits and find the values of the labeled

currents and voltages. Assume that conducting diodes can be

represented by the constant-voltage-dropmodel (V

=0.7 V).

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4.45 Repeat Problem 4.11, representing the
diode by the constant-voltage-drop (V D = 0.7
V) model. How different is the resulting
design?
4.45 Repeat Problem 4.11, representing the diode by the

constant-voltage-drop (V

= 0.7 V) model. How different is

the resulting design?

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4.46 The small-signal model is said to be valid

for voltage variations of about 5 mV. To what
percentage current change does this
correspond? (Consider both positive and
negative signals.) What is the maximum
allowable voltage signal (positive or negative)
if the current change is to be limited to 10%?
4.46 The small-signal model is said to be valid for voltage

variations of about 5 mV. To what percentage current change

does this correspond? (Consider both positive and negative

signals.) What is the maximum allowable voltage signal

(positive or negative) if the current change is to be limited

to 10%?

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4.47 In a particular circuit application, ten

“20-mA diodes” (a 20-mAdiode is a diode
that provides a 0.7-Vdropwhen the current
through it is 20 mA) connected in parallel
operate at a total current of 0.1 A. For the
diodes closely matched, what current flows in
each?What is the corresponding small-signal
resistance of each diode and of the
combination?Compare this with the
incremental resistance of a single diode
conducting 0.1 A. If each of the 20-mA diodes
has a series resistance of 0.2 associated with
the wire bonds to the junction, what is the
equivalent resistance of the 10 parallel-
connected diodes? What connection
resistance would a single diode need in order
to be totally equivalent? (Note: This is why
the parallel connection of real diodes can
often be used to advantage.)
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4.48 In the circuit shown in Fig. P4.48, I is a

dc current and v s is a sinusoidal signal.
Capacitors C 1 and C 2 are very large; their
function is to couple the signal to and from
the diode but block the dc current
fromflowing into the signal source or the load
(not shown). Use the diode small-signal model
to show that the signal component of the
output voltage is
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4.49 In the attenuator circuit of Fig. P4.48, let

R s The diode is a 1-mA device; that is, it
exhibits a voltage drop of 0.7 V at a dc
current of 1 mA. For small input signals,
what value of current I is needed for v o /v s =
0.50? 0.10? 0.01? 0.001? In each case, what is
the largest input signal that can be used while
ensuring that the signal component of the
diode current is limited to ±10% of its dc
current? What output signals correspond?
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4.50 In the capacitor-coupled attenuator

circuit shown in Fig. P4.50, I is a dc current
that varies from 0 mA to 1 mA, and C 1 and
C 2 are large coupling capacitors. For very
small input signals, so that the diodes can be
represented by their small-signal resistances r
d1 and r d2 , give the small-signal equivalent
circuit and thus showthat v o v i = r d2 r d1
+r d2 and hence that v o v i =I, where I is in
mA. Find v o /v i for I =0 μA, 1 μA, 10 μA,
100 μA, 500 μA, 600 μA, 900 μA, 990 μA, and
1 mA. Note that this is a signal attenuator
whose transmission is linearly controlled by
the dc current I.
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*4.51 In the circuit shown in Fig. P4.51,

diodes D 1 D 4 are identical, and each
exhibits a voltage drop of 0.7 V at a 1-mA
current. (a) For small input signals (e.g., 10-
mV peak), find the small-signal equivalent
circuit and use it to determine values of the
small-signal transmission v o /v i for various
values of I: 0 μA, 1 μA, 10 μA, 100 μA, 1 mA,
and 10 mA.
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**4.52 In Problem 4.51 we investigated the

operation of the circuit in Fig. P4.51 for small
input signals. In this problem we wish to find
the voltage-transfer characteristic (VTC) v O
versus v I for −12V ≤ v I ≤ 12V for the case I
= 1 mA and each of the diodes exhibits a
voltage drop of 0.7 V at a current of 1 mA.
Toward this end, use the diode exponential
characteristic to construct a table that gives
the values of: the current i O in the 10-k
resistor, the current in each of the four
diodes, the voltage drop across each of the
four diodes, and the input voltage v I , for v O
= 0, +1 V, +2 V, +5 V, +9 V, +9.9 V, +9.99 V,
+10.5 V, +11 V, and +12 V. Use these data,
with extrapolation to negative values of v I
and v O , to sketch the required VTC. Also
sketch the VTC that results if I is reduced to
0.5 mA. (Hint: From symmetry, observe that
as v O increases and i O correspondingly
increases, i D3 and i D2 increase by equal
amounts and i D4 and i D1 decrease by (the
same) equal amounts.)
**4.52 In Problem 4.51 we investigated the operation of the

circuit in Fig. P4.51 for small input signals. In this problem

we wish to find the voltage-transfer characteristic (VTC) v

versus v

for −12V ≤ v

≤ 12V for the case I = 1 mA

and each of the diodes exhibits a voltage drop of 0.7 V at

a current of 1 mA. Toward this end, use the diode exponential

characteristic to construct a table that gives the values of: the

current i
O

in the 10-k resistor, the current in each of the four

diodes, the voltage drop across each of the four diodes, and

the input voltage v

, for v

= 0, +1 V, +2 V, +5 V, +9 V,

+9.9 V, +9.99 V, +10.5 V, +11 V, and +12 V. Use these

data, with extrapolation to negative values of v

and v

, to

sketch the required VTC. Also sketch the VTC that results if

I is reduced to 0.5 mA. (Hint: From symmetry, observe that

as v

increases and i

correspondingly increases, i

D3

and i
D2

increase by equal amounts and i

D4

and i

D1

decrease by (the

same) equal amounts.)

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*4.53 In the circuit shown in Fig. P4.53, I is a

dc current and v i is a sinusoidal signal with
small amplitude (less than 10 mV) and a
frequency of 100 kHz. Representing the diode
by its small-signal resistance r d ,which is a
function of I, sketch the small-signal
equivalent circuit and use it to determine the
sinusoidal output voltage V o , and thus find
the phase shift between V i and V o . Find the
value of I that will provide a phase shift of –
45°, and find the range of phase shift
achieved as I is varied over the range of 0.1
times to 10 times this value.
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*4.53 In the circuit shown in Fig. P4.53, I is a

dc current and v i is a sinusoidal signal with
small amplitude (less than 10 mV) and a
frequency of 100 kHz. Representing the diode
by its small-signal resistance r d ,which is a
function of I, sketch the small-signal
equivalent circuit and use it to determine the
sinusoidal output voltage V o , and thus find
the phase shift between V i and V o . Find the
value of I that will provide a phase shift of –
45°, and find the range of phase shift
achieved as I is varied over the range of 0.1
times to 10 times this value.
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*4.54 Consider the voltage-regulator circuit

shown in Fig. P4.54. The value of R is
selected to obtain an output voltage V O
(across the diode) of 0.7 V.
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*4.55 Consider the voltage-regulator circuit

shown in Fig P4.54 under the condition that a
load current I L is drawn from the output
terminal. (a) If the value of I L is sufficiently
small that the corre- sponding change in
regulator output voltagefiV O is small enough
to justify using the diode small-signal model,
show that fiV O I L = − r d ∫R This quantity is
known as the load regulation and is usually
expressed in mV/mA. (b) If the value of R is
selected such that at no load the voltage
across the diode is 0.7 V and the diode
current is I D , show
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*4.56 Design a diode voltage regulator to

supply 1.5 V to a 1.5-k load. Use two diodes
specified to have a 0.7-V drop at a current of
1 mA. The diodes are to be connected to a+5-
V supply through a resistorR.Specify the
value forR.What is the diode current with the
load connected? What is the increase
resulting in the output voltage when the load
is disconnected? What change results if the
load resistance is reduced to 1 k ? To 750 ? To
500 ? (Hint:Use the small-signal diodemodel
to calculate all changes in output voltage.)
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4.57 A voltage regulator consisting of two

diodes in series fed with a constant-current
source is used as a replacement for a single
carbon–zinc cell (battery) of nominal voltage
1.5 V. The regulator load current varies from
2 mA to 7 mA. Constant-current supplies of 5
mA, 10 mA, and 15 mA are available. Which
would you choose, and why? What change in
output voltage would result when the load
current varies over its full range?
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