Introduction to Elements of Indian History

History is the study of past events. It helps us to understand those processes that enabled the
early humans to successfully conquer their environment and develop the present day
civilizations. It is not just a study of battles and kings as is normally understood by some. It is
an analysis of society, economy and cultural trends over a long period as reflected in
available sources.

OBJECTIVES

 understand historical construction of India’s ancient past;

 know about various types of source material used by ancient historians and
 identify changing traditions of history writing.

SOURCES FOR RECONSTRUCTING ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

A historian needs source material to reconstruct the past. But sources themselves do not
reveal the past. They need interpretation and the historian makes them speak. In fact the
historian is expected to track the source, read texts, follow clues, ask relevant questions, cross
check evidence to offer meaningful explanation.

1. LITERARY SOURCES

1.1. RELIGIOUS LITERATURE

Most ancient Indian texts contain religious themes and these are known as Vedas. They are
assigned to 1500–500 B.C.

Religious Sources:

 Vedic texts(four Vedas) The Vedas are four in number. The Rig Veda mainly consists of
prayers. The other three, Sama, Yajur and Atharva-contain prayers, rituals, magic and
mythological stories. The Upanishads contain philosophical discus- sion on atma and
pramatma. They are also referred to as Vedanta.

 Epics are also a part of Brahmanic text, Mahabharata and Ramayana being most important
among them. Ramayana was created by Valmiki in Post- Mauryan period. Though, the
historicity of this text is doubtful but it created a picture of ideal Indian society. Mahabharata
was the second epic which was compiled by Vedvyas and it was completed in Gupta period.
 Puranas After Smriti texts Purans were compiled, which were mainly 18 in number.

 Smriti texts After sutras , Smritis texs were formed. Manusmriti is the oldest Smriti text,
which was formed between 200B.C- 200A.D (400 Years).

 Buddhist texts Pitakas are the oldest Buddhist texts.

 Jain texts The Agama texts are the main Jain texts.

2. NON-LITERARY SOURCES

2.1. INSCRIPTIONS
Inscriptions are permanent writings engraved on hard surface such as stone, metal or
terracotta. Study of inscriptions is called epigraphy. The earliest inscriptions were written on
stone. They usually record the achievements, activities and ideas of those who got them
inscribed.

2.2. COINS

The study of coins is known as numismatics. It not only includes visual elements such as
script and images on the coins but also metallurgical analysis. Ancient coins were mostly
minted in metals such as copper, silver, gold and lead. The earliest coins found in India
contained certain symbols and were called punch-marked coins.

3. ARCHAEOLOGY

The material remains of the past can be studied with the help of archaeology. Archaeology is
a science that enables us to systematically dig the successive layers of old mounds and to
form an idea of the material life of the people of the past on the basis of remains found there.
Archaeology is very important to study prehistory i.e. the period before the invention of
writing.

Monuments or Memorials:

Monuments are one of the most important elements of archeological sources. The study of
these monuments not only helps us to interpret about the technical skills, living standard,
economic condition of the time but also help us to know about the architectural style of the
time. Where the magnificent monuments depicts the prosperity of a ruler or the dynasty on
the improvement of the empire.

Potteries:

Potteries are one of the important part of archeological sources. These potteries help us to
know about the spread of the culture and civilization. These potteries are available right from
pre- historic period to historic period. For example- in Rig vedic period BRW, OCP, PGW
potteries were used. In later vedic period BW, RW, BRW and PGW potteries were used
during the period of Buddhism NBPW culture was formed. Thus, it signifies that potteries
play a vital role in reformation of history.

Sculpture:

Sculpture is the important element of Ancient Indian History. The statues made of that time
provides us information about the religious conditions of the time.

Paintings:

This art is also an important elements of history. Ajanta paintings are beautiful example of
Ancient Indian History. In these paintings various natural and humanitarian scenes are
painted which is extremely unique to witness. Thus, archeological sources, forms a huge part
of ancient Indian sources, which can be considered as more authentic more reliable and less
biased. But inorder to study ancient Indian history, literary sources are equally important as
archeological sources.
Methods used in History; History & historiography

Historiography deals with how history itself is documented or passed down through the ages.
It examines various means by which the historical source is formed, especially the credibility
of the sources that are used, the intention of the historian composing the history, and the
authenticity of the sources.

The existence of historical sources provides valuable inputs regarding the past.
Historiographers tend to differentiate these sources in the context of written and oral
histories. Oral history is dynamic because it is spread by word-of-mouth; on the other hand,
written history is fixed and emphasizes the recording of facts.

Historiography tries to place various sources of information into specific contexts. This
means that the historiographer does not merely accept the content of a source at face value
but identifies the source, looking for various motifs in its formation. While reconstructing a
historical event, it may be possible that the historiographer may include or exclude facts,
because of various reasons. In such a scenario, one of the questions the historiographer must
investigate is how some facts remain included or excluded from a history. Comparing
different accounts of a single event can highlight inclusions or exclusions from a history. In
contrasting these sources, one can understand not only the event but also the precise
perspective of the author of the source.

SPECIAL FEATURES AND CHARACTERISTICS

International research and access to high quality research literature is essential for the
effective study of historical methodologies.

1. RESEARCH
The study of manuscript books, or codices, in all aspects, including their physical
structure, texts, script, binding, decoration, and other features.

2. OCCUPATIONAL AREAS

 archiving
 historical museums and exhibitions
 universities and research institutes
 adult education and continuing education
 media and communications
 cultural institutions
 publishing and libraries
 journalism and specialist journalism
 academic work
 administration and public service

Introduction to sociological concepts-structure, system, organization, social institutions,

Culture social stratification (caste, class, gender, power).State & civil society.
Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social
stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings based on factors
like wealth, income, education, family background, and power.
Culture refers to the patterns of thought and behaviour of people. It includes values, beliefs,
rules of conduct, and patterns of social, political and economic organisation. These are passed
on from one generation to the next by formal as well as informal processes. Culture consists
of the ways in which we think and act as members of a society. Thus, all the achievements of
group life are collectively called culture. In popular parlance, the material aspects of culture,
such as scientific and technological achievements are seen as distinct from culture which is
left with the non- material, higher achievements of group life (art, music, literature,
philosophy, religion and science).

Culture is the product of such an organization and expresses itself through language and art,
philosophy and religion. It also expresses itself through social habits, customs, economic
organisations and political institutions.

Caste system

Caste systems are closed stratification systems where people can do little or nothing to
change the social standing of their birth. The caste system determines all aspects of an
individual’s life: occupations, marriage partners, and housing. Individual talents, interests, or
potential do not provide opportunities to improve a person's social position.

In the Hindu caste tradition, people expect to work in an occupation and to enter into a
marriage based on their caste. Accepting this social standing is considered a moral duty and
people are socialized to accept their social standing. Cultural values reinforced the system.
Caste systems promote beliefs in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher power, rather than
promoting individual freedom as a value. This belief system is an ideology. Every culture has
an ideology that supports its system of stratification.

The caste system in India has been officially dismantled, but is still deeply embedded in
Indian society, particularly in rural areas. In India’s larger cities, people now have more
opportunities to choose their own career paths and marriage partners. As a global center of
employment, corporations have introduced merit-based hiring and employment to the nation
shifting the cultural expectations of the caste system.

Class System

A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. A class consists of
a set of people who share similar status based on factors like wealth, income, education,
family background, and occupation. Unlike caste systems, class systems are open. People
may move to a different level (vertical movement) of education or employment status than
their parents. Though family and other societal models help guide a person toward a career,
personal choice and opportunity play a role.
They can also socialize with and marry members of other classes. People have the option to
form an exogamous marriage, a union of spouses from different social categories.
Exogamous marriages often focus on values such as love and compatibility. Though social
conformities still exist that encourage people to choose partners within their own class, called
an endogamous marriage, people are not as pressured to choose marriage partners based
solely on their social location.

Indian history & periodization; evolution of urbanization process: first, second &third
phase of urbanization;
 PERIODISATION
Historians often classify the Indian history past by dividing it into different periods. The
Periodisation of Indian history has been made as Pre-history, Proto-history, Early history,
Medieval history and Modern history. The dividing lines may vary, but ancient period
stretching roughly from earliest times to 6th century C. E. , the early-medieval from the 6th to
13th centuries C. E, the medieval from 13th to 18th centuries C. E, and Modern from 18th
century to the present. The ancient history of the human past can be further divided into
prehistory and Proto history.

Defining periods in history is important. But it is equally important to determine the cause
of change, a question some time referred to as that of the transition from one period to other.
The nature of transition is therefore becomes a significant aspect of periodisation. The
distinction between different periods is determined by the characteristics of polity, economy,
technology, society and religion that were prevalent at the time, as well as some reference to
the makers of events wherever available.

 The earliest traces of human existence in India, so far discovered, go back to the
period between 3, 00, 000 and 2, 00, 000 BCE. A large number of primitive stone
tools found in the Soan Valley and South India suggests this fact. The modern man
being ( Homo Sepiens ) first appeared around 36, 000 BCE.
 Primitive man in the Paleolithic Age, ( Old Stone Age ) which lasted till 8000 BCE
prepared tools of rough stone and used them for hunting the animals. Initially he was
a food gatherer and depended on nature for his food. This Age covered the long
period from the time the first ancestors started living in the rock shelters.
 The Archaeologists divided it into three phases –the Lower or Early, the Middle and
Upper Palaeolithic Ages- according to the nature of the stone tools used by the
people. He learnt to control fire, which helped him to improve his way of living.
During the Early Stone Age’, the principal tools were the handaxes, and cleavers, core
tools made in a manner similar to handaxes, chopping tools of various types and
flakes. Derived from those of Early Stone Age industries included flake tools, cores,
and various kinds of scrapers.
 From 8000 BCE, the Mesolithic Age began and continued up to 4000 BCE. It is the
intermediate or transitional stage between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. The
tools of this Age are called microliths (Small stone tools). During this time sharp and
pointed tools were made for killing fast moving animals. Chotanagpur plateau,
Central India and South of the river Krishna are some of the various Mesolithic sites.
 Third in the sequence is the Neolithic Age or New Stone Age that covered the period
roughly from 4000 BCE to 1800 BCE and was marked by the use of polished stone
tools. The man began to domesticate the animals and cultivate plants, settling down in
villages to form farming communities. Wheel was an important discovery by him.
 Towards the end of the Neolithic period metals like, copper and bronze began to be
used and this period was known as Chalcolithic Age and covered the period from
1800 to 1000 BCE. This period is marked by the use of copper as well as stone.
 Although the general chronological sequence of the evolution of early man’s culture
in India was in the order of Early Stone Age to Late Stone Age through Middle Stone
Age, it is important to remember that there has always been a considerable cultural
overlap in this subcontinent. This means that the chronology of a culture in one region
might not be the same chronology in another region. Besides, even in the Stone Age
past cultures displayed regional variations. Some general characteristics of Indian
prehistoric cultures have, however, been recognized. The territorial spread of such
cultures, differing from one another in time and regional characteristics, covered the
entire subcontinent from Kashmir to Karnataka Tamil nadu and Andhra. In these
regional cultures lay the roots of the future formation of Indian village communities
because their total cultural assemblage was certainly extremely significant in the
context of the early historical settlements of the Iron Age. In the history of the use of
metal, iron followed the copper and bronze. In India the advent of iron marked not
only a technological change, but a cultural change as well, particularly in certain
contexts where, for environmental reasons, a more advanced technology than copper-
bronze was a precondition for the full realization of cultural potentialities. Throughout
the subcontinent iron led slowly but perceptibly to the transition from the pre and
proto- historical to the historical culture. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, some
of these settlements had reached the proportion of urban centres. This suggests that
for the first time, since the decline of Harappan civilization, a substantial agricultural
surplus, which could sustain such urban centres, had emerged. The use of silver and
copper punch marked coins in large numbers, during this period implies considerable
trade and commerce.