The z-Transform

(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
 The z-transform
Recall
 The response of LTI systems to complex exponentials 𝑧 𝑛
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝐻 𝑧 𝑧𝑛
+∞
𝐻 𝑧 =෍ ℎ 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞

Definition
+∞
𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 𝑋 𝑧 ≜෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞

1
 The z-transform
Z-transform vs Fourier transform

𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧
+∞
𝑋 𝑧 ≜෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔
𝑧 =1

+∞ +∞ −𝑛
𝑋 𝑧 ቚ =𝑋 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 =෍ 𝑥𝑛 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑋 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 =෍ 𝑥𝑛 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔
𝑧=𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
+∞
𝑋 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ෍ {𝑥 𝑛 𝑟 −𝑛 }𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
𝑛=−∞
𝑋 𝑧 ቚ = ℱ 𝑥𝑛
𝑧=𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑋 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ℱ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑟 −𝑛
2
 The z-transform
Examples
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 =?

Solution
+∞ ∞ 1 𝑧
𝑋 𝑧 =෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛 =෍ 𝑎𝑧 −1 𝑛 = −1
= , 𝑧 > 𝑎
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=0 1 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑧−𝑎
𝒵 𝑧
𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 𝑧 > 𝑎
𝑧−𝑎
⟹

𝑎=1
𝒵 1
𝑢𝑛 𝑧 >1
1 − 𝑧 −1
3
 The z-transform
Examples
𝑥 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 𝑋 𝑧 =?

Solution
+∞
𝑋 𝑧 = −෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
−1
= −෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
∞
= − ෍ 𝑎−𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
=1−෍ 𝑎−1 𝑧 𝑛
𝑛=0
1 1 𝑧
𝑋 𝑧 =1− −1
= −1
= , 𝑧 < 𝑎 4
1 − 𝑎 𝑧 1 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑧−𝑎
 The z-transform
Examples
𝑛 𝑛
1 1
𝑥 𝑛 =7 𝑢 𝑛 −6 𝑢𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 =?
3 2
Solution
𝑛
1 𝒵 1 1
𝑢𝑛 1 −1 𝑧 >
3 1− 𝑧 3
3
𝑛
1 𝒵 1 1
𝑢𝑛 1 𝑧 >
2 1 − 𝑧 −1 2
2
𝑛 𝑛
1 1 𝒵 7 6 1
7 𝑢 𝑛 −6 𝑢𝑛 − 𝑧 >
3 2 1 1 2
1 − 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1
3 2
5
 The z-transform
Examples
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 𝜋 1 1 𝑗𝜋/4 1 1 −𝑗𝜋/4
𝑥𝑛 = sin 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑢𝑛 − 𝑒 𝑢𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 =?
3 4 2𝑗 3 2𝑗 3
Solution 𝑛 𝑛
+∞ 1 1 𝑗𝜋/4 1 1 −𝑗𝜋/4
𝑋 𝑧 =෍ 𝑒 𝑢𝑛 − 𝑒 𝑢𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 2𝑗 3 2𝑗 3
+∞ 1 𝑛 +∞ 1 𝑛
1 1
= ෍ 𝑒 𝑗𝜋/4 𝑧 −𝑛 − ෍ 𝑒 −𝑗𝜋/4 𝑧 −𝑛
2𝑗 𝑛=0 3 2𝑗 𝑛=0 3
1 1 1 1
= −
2𝑗 1 − 1 𝑒 𝑗𝜋/4 𝑧 −1 2𝑗 1 − 1 𝑒 −𝑗𝜋/4 𝑧 −1
3 3
For convergence,
1 𝑗𝜋/4 −1 1 −𝑗𝜋/4 −1
𝑒 𝑧 <1 & 𝑒 𝑧 < 1 ⟹ 𝑧 > 1/3 6
3 3
 The z-Transform
(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Properties

 The ROC of 𝑋(𝑧) consists of a ring in the z-plane

centered about the origin.
ROC of 𝑋(𝑧): 𝑥 𝑛 𝑟 −𝑛 converges (absolutely summable)
+∞
෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑟 −𝑛 < ∞
𝑛=−∞

 The ROC does not contain any poles.

𝑋(𝑧) is infinite at a pole

8
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Properties
 If 𝑥 𝑛 is of finite duration (𝑥 𝑛 ≠ 0 for 𝑁1 < 𝑛 < 𝑁2 ), then the ROC is
the entire z-plane, except possibly 𝑧 = 0 and/or 𝑧 = ∞
If 𝑁1 < 0 and 𝑁2 > 0
ROC does not include 𝑧 = 0 or 𝑧 = ∞

If 𝑁1 ≥ 0,
ROC includes 𝑧 = ∞, not 𝑧 = 0

If 𝑁2 ≤ 0,
ROC includes 𝑧 = 0, not 𝑧 = ∞

9
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Examples
𝒵 +∞
𝛿𝑛 ෍ 𝛿 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛 = 1 ROC = the entire z-plane
𝑛=−∞

𝒵 +∞
𝛿 𝑛−1 ෍ 𝛿 𝑛 − 1 𝑧 −𝑛 = 𝑧 −1 ROC = the entire z-plane except 𝑧 = 0
𝑛=−∞

𝒵 +∞
𝛿 𝑛+1 ෍ 𝛿 𝑛 + 1 𝑧 −𝑛 = 𝑧 ROC = the entire finite z-plane
𝑛=−∞ (except 𝑧 = ∞)

10
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Properties
 If 𝑥 𝑛 is a right-sided sequence, and if the circle 𝑧 = 𝑟0 is in the ROC, then
all finite values of 𝑧 for which 𝑧 > 𝑟0 will also be in the ROC.

Right-sided signal

 If 𝑥 𝑛 is a left-sided sequence, and if the circle 𝑧 = 𝑟0 is in the ROC, then all

finite values of 𝑧 for which 0 < 𝑧 < 𝑟0 will also be in the ROC. 11
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Properties
 If 𝑥 𝑛 is a two-sided sequence, and if the circle 𝑧 = 𝑟0 is in the ROC, then
the ROC will consist of a ring in the z-plane that includes the circle 𝑧 = 𝑟0 .
ROC for right-
sided signal ROC for two-sided signal

⟹
ROC for left-
sided signal

12
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Examples
𝑎𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑁 − 1, 𝑎 > 0
𝑥 𝑛 =ቊ 𝑋 𝑧 =?
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
Solution
𝑁−1 𝑁−1
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1 𝑁 1 𝑧 𝑁 − 𝑎𝑁
𝑋 𝑧 =෍ 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛 =෍ 𝑎𝑧 −1 𝑛
= = 𝑁−1
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1 𝑧 𝑧−𝑎
The N roots of the numerator polynomial:
2𝜋𝑘
𝑗
𝑧𝑘 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑁 , 𝑘 = 0, 1, ⋯ , 𝑁 − 1
When 𝑘 = 0, the zero cancels the pole at 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑁 = 16
0<𝑎<1
2𝜋𝑘
𝑗
𝑧𝑘 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑁 , 𝑘 = 1, ⋯ , 𝑁 − 1
13
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Examples
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 ,𝑏 > 0 𝑋 𝑧 =?

Solution
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 + 𝑏 −𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1
𝒵 1
𝑏𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 −1
𝑧 >𝑏
1 − 𝑏𝑧
𝒵 −1 1
𝑏 −𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 −1 −1 𝑧 <
1−𝑏 𝑧 𝑏
For convergence, 𝑏 < 1
1 1 1
𝑋 𝑧 = −1
− 𝑏< 𝑧 <
1 − 𝑏𝑧 1 − 𝑏 −1 𝑧 −1 𝑏 14
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Properties
 If the z-transform 𝑋(𝑧) of 𝑥 𝑛 is rational, then its ROC is bounded by poles
or extends to infinity.

 If the z-transform 𝑋 𝑧 of 𝑥 𝑛 is rational, then if 𝑥 𝑛 is right-sided, the ROC

is the region in the z-plane outside the outer-most pole.
If 𝑥 𝑛 is causal, the ROC also includes 𝑧 = ∞.

 If the z-transform 𝑋 𝑧 of 𝑥 𝑛 is rational, then if 𝑥 𝑛 is left-sided, the ROC is

the region in the z-plane inside the inner-most nonzero pole.
If 𝑥 𝑛 is anti-causal, the ROC also includes 𝑧 = 0.

15
 The region of convergence for z-transforms
Examples
1
𝑋 𝑧 = ROC ?
1
1 − 𝑧 −1 (1 − 2𝑧 −1 )
3
Solution

Right-sided sequence Left-sided sequence Two-sided sequence

Has no FT Has no FT FT converges

16
 The z-Transform
(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
 The inverse z-transform

𝑋 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 = ℱ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑟 −𝑛

−𝑛 −1 𝑗𝜔
1
𝑥𝑛𝑟 =ℱ 𝑋 𝑟𝑒 = න 𝑋 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 2𝜋

1 𝑛 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔𝑛
1 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 =𝑟 න 𝑋 𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝜔 = න 𝑋 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔
1 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑗𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑑𝜔 = 𝑗𝑧𝑑𝜔
𝑥𝑛 = ර 𝑋 𝑧 𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑗

18
 The inverse z-transform
Examples
5
3 − 6 𝑧 −1 1
𝑋 𝑧 = , 𝑧 > 𝑥 𝑛 =?
1 −1 1 −1 3
1− 𝑧 1− 𝑧
4 3
Solution
1 2
𝑋 𝑧 = +
1 −1 1
1− 𝑧 1 − 𝑧 −1
4 3
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑥2 𝑛
𝒵 1 1
𝑥1 𝑛 𝑧 >
1 4 1
𝑛
1
𝑛
1 − 𝑧 −1
4 ⟹ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 +2 𝑢𝑛
𝒵 2 1 4 3
𝑥2 𝑛 𝑧 >
1 3
1 − 𝑧 −1 19
3
 The inverse z-transform
Examples
5
3 − 6 𝑧 −1 1 1
𝑋 𝑧 = , < 𝑧 < 𝑥 𝑛 =?
1 −1 1 −1 4 3
1− 𝑧 1− 𝑧
4 3
Solution
1 2
𝑋 𝑧 = +
1 −1 1
1− 𝑧 1 − 𝑧 −1
4 3
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑥2 𝑛
𝒵 1 1
𝑥1 𝑛 𝑧 >
1 4 1
𝑛
1
𝑛
1 − 𝑧 −1
4 ⟹ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 −2 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1
𝒵 2 1 4 3
𝑥2 𝑛 𝑧 <
1 3
1 − 𝑧 −1 20
3
 The inverse z-transform
Examples
5
3 − 6 𝑧 −1 1
𝑋 𝑧 = , 𝑧 < 𝑥 𝑛 =?
1 −1 1 −1 4
1− 𝑧 1− 𝑧
4 3
Solution
1 2
𝑋 𝑧 = +
1 −1 1
1− 𝑧 1 − 𝑧 −1
4 3
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑥2 𝑛
𝒵 1 1
𝑥1 𝑛 𝑧 <
1 4 𝑛 𝑛
1 − 𝑧 −1 1 1
4 ⟹𝑥 𝑛 =− 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 − 2 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1
𝒵 2 1 4 3
𝑥2 𝑛 𝑧 <
1 3
1 − 𝑧 −1 21
3
 The inverse z-transform
Examples
𝑋 𝑧 = 4𝑧 2 + 2 + 3𝑧 −1 , 0< 𝑧 <∞ 𝑥 𝑛 =?

Solution 1 Solution 2
4, 𝑛 = −2
2, 𝑛 = 0 𝒵
𝑥𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 + 𝑛0 𝑧 𝑛0
3, 𝑛 = 1
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

𝑥 𝑛 = 4𝛿 𝑛 + 2 + 2𝛿 𝑛 + 3𝛿 𝑛 − 1 𝑥 𝑛 = 4𝛿 𝑛 + 2 + 2𝛿 𝑛 + 3𝛿 𝑛 − 1

22
 The inverse z-transform
Examples
1
𝑋 𝑧 = −1
, 𝑥 𝑛 =?
1 − 𝑎𝑧
Solution
If 𝑧 > 𝑎 ,
1 −1 + 𝑎 2 𝑧 −2 + ⋯
= 1 + 𝑎𝑧
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛

If 𝑧 < 𝑎 ,
1 −1 𝑧 − 𝑎 −2 𝑧 2 + ⋯
= −𝑎
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1
𝑥 𝑛 = −𝑎𝑛 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1
23
 The inverse z-transform
Examples
𝑋 𝑧 = log 1 + 𝑎𝑧 −1 , 𝑧 > 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 =?

Solution
∞ −1 𝑛+1 𝑣 𝑛
log 1 + 𝑣 = ෍ , 𝑣 <1
𝑛=1 𝑛
∞ −1 𝑛+1 𝑎 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑋 𝑧 =෍
𝑛=1 𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑎 𝑛 /𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 = ቊ −1 𝑛≥1
0 𝑛≤0
−𝑎 𝑛
=− 𝑢 𝑛−1
𝑛 24
 The z-Transform
(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
Geometry evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot

First-order systems
Consider ℎ 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛
1 𝑧
𝐻 𝑧 = −1
= , 𝑧 > 𝑎
1 − 𝑎𝑧 𝑧−𝑎
𝑗𝜔
1
𝐻 𝑒 =
1 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑗𝜔

|𝑎| < 1 26
 The z-Transform
(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
 Properties of the z-transform
Linearity
𝒵
𝑥1 𝑛 𝑋1 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅1
𝒵
⟹ 𝑎𝑥1 𝑛 +𝑏𝑥2 𝑛 𝑎𝑋1 𝑧 + 𝑏𝑋2 𝑧
𝒵
𝑥2 𝑛 𝑋2 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅2 with ROC containing 𝑅1 ⋂𝑅2

Time shifting
𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅
⟹

𝒵
𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 𝑧 −𝑛0 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅 except for the possible addition
or deletion of the origin or infinity
28
 Properties of the z-transform
Scaling in the z-domain

𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅
⟹

𝒵
𝑧0𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑋 𝑧/𝑧0 ROC = 𝑧0 𝑅

⟹
⟹

𝑧0 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0
𝒵
𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑋 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅

Multiplication by 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 ⟺ Rotation by 𝜔0 in the Z-plane

29
 Properties of the z-transform
Time reversal
𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅
⟹

𝒵 1 1
𝑥 −𝑛 𝑋 ROC =
𝑧 𝑅
Time expansion
𝑥[𝑛/𝑘] if 𝑛 is a multiple of 𝑘
𝑥 𝑘 𝑛 =ቊ
0 if 𝑛 is not a multiple of 𝑘
+∞

𝒵 𝑋 𝑧 =෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅 𝑛=−∞

⟹
⟹

𝒵 +∞
𝑥 𝑘 𝑛 𝑋 𝑧𝑘 ROC = 𝑅1/𝑘 𝑋 𝑧𝑘 = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑘𝑛 30
𝑛=−∞
 Properties of the z-transform
Conjugation
𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅
⟹

𝒵
𝑥∗ 𝑛 𝑋∗ 𝑧∗ ROC = 𝑅

Convolution
𝒵
𝑥1 𝑛 𝑋1 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅1
𝒵
⟹ 𝑥1 𝑛 *𝑥2 𝑛 𝑋1 𝑧 𝑋2 𝑧
𝒵
𝑥2 𝑛 𝑋2 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅2 with ROC contains 𝑅1 ⋂𝑅2

31
 Properties of the z-transform
First-difference
𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅
𝒵 ROC = 𝑅, possible deletion of
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑥 𝑛−1 1 − 𝑧 −1 𝑋 𝑧
𝑧 = 0 and/or addition of 𝑧 = 1

Accumulation
𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅
𝑛 1
𝒵 ROC contains 𝑅 ⋂ 𝑧 > 1
𝑤 𝑛 =෍ 𝑥𝑘 −1
𝑋 𝑧
𝑘=−∞ 1−𝑧
32
 Properties of the z-transform
Differentiation in the z-domain

𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝑋 𝑧 ROC = 𝑅
⟹

𝒵 𝑑𝑋 𝑧
𝑛𝑥 𝑛 −z ROC = 𝑅
𝑑𝑧

33
 Properties of the z-transform
Examples
𝑋 𝑧 = log 1 + 𝑎𝑧 −1 𝑧 > 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 =?

Solution 𝑑𝑋 𝑧 𝑎𝑧 −1
−𝑧 = 𝑧 > 𝑎
𝑑𝑧 1 + 𝑎𝑧 −1
𝑛𝑢 𝒵 𝑎
𝑎 −𝑎 𝑛 𝑧 > 𝑎
1 + 𝑎𝑧 −1
𝑛−1 𝒵 𝑎𝑧 −1
𝑎 −𝑎 𝑢 𝑛−1 𝑧 > 𝑎
1 + 𝑎𝑧 −1
=

𝒵 𝑑𝑋 𝑧
𝑛𝑥 𝑛 −𝑧 𝑧 > 𝑎
𝑑𝑧
−𝑎 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 =− 𝑢 𝑛−1 34
𝑛
 Properties of the z-transform
Examples
𝑎𝑧 −1
𝑋 𝑧 = 𝑧 > 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 =?
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1 2

Solution
𝑎𝑧 −1 𝑑 1
= −𝑧 = 𝑧 > 𝑎
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1 2 𝑑𝑧 1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1

𝒵 1
𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 𝑧 > 𝑎
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1

𝒵 𝑎𝑧 −1
𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 𝑧 > 𝑎
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1 2
35
 Properties of the z-transform
The initial-value theorem
∞
If 𝑋 𝑧 =෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 = 0 for 𝑛 < 0, 𝑛=0
Then, For 𝑛 > 0, 𝑧 → ∞ ⟹ 𝑧 −𝑛 → 0
𝑥[0] = lim 𝑋 𝑧
𝑧→∞ For 𝑛 = 0, 𝑧 −𝑛 = 1

 Examples
𝑛 𝑛
1 1
𝑥 𝑛 =7 𝑢 𝑛 −6 𝑢𝑛
3 2 𝑥[0] = 1
7 6 ⟹
𝑋 𝑧 = − lim 𝑋 𝑧 = 1
1 −1 1 −1 𝑧→∞
1− 𝑧 1− 𝑧
3 2
36
 Properties of the z-transform
Summary

37
 The z-Transform
(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
Some z-transform pairs

39
 The z-Transform
(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

Causality
Causal ⟺ ROC of 𝐻 𝑧 is the exterior of a circle, including infinity

• ROC is the exterior of a circle outside the outermost pole;

A system with rational ⟺
• With 𝐻(𝑧) expressed as a ratio of polynomials in 𝑧, the
𝐻 𝑧 is causal
order of the numerator cannot be greater than the order
of the denominator.

41
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

Examples
𝑧 3 − 2𝑧 2 + 𝑧
𝐻 𝑧 = Noncausal
1 1
𝑧2 + 𝑧 +
4 8
Examples 1 1
𝐻 𝑧 = + 𝑧 >2
1 −1 1 − 2𝑧 −1
1− 𝑧
2
Solution 1
𝑧 > 2: ROC is the exterior of a circle outside the outermost pole.
5 5 ⟹ Causal
2 − 𝑧 −1 2𝑧 2 − 𝑧
𝐻 𝑧 = 2 = 2
1 −1 −1 2 5
1− 𝑧 1 − 2𝑧 𝑧 − 𝑧+1
2 2
Solution 2
ℎ𝑛 = 1/2 𝑛 + 2𝑛 𝑢 𝑛 ℎ 𝑛 = 0 for 𝑛 < 0
⟹ ⟹ Causal
42
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

Stability
For an LTI system,
Stable ⟺ The ROC of 𝐻 𝑧 includes the unit circle, 𝑧 = 1

 Examples ROC Causal Stable

1 1
𝐻 𝑧 = + 𝑧 >2 Yes No
1 −1 1 − 2𝑧 −1
1− 𝑧
2
1/2 < 𝑧 < 2 No Yes

𝑧 < 1/2 No No

43
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

Stability
For a causal LTI system with rational system function 𝐻 𝑧 ,
Stable ⟺ All of the poles of 𝐻 𝑧 lie inside the unit circle. (magnitude smaller than 1)
 Examples (causal LTI)
1
𝐻 𝑧 = is stable ⟹ 𝑎 <1
1 − 𝑎𝑧 −1

 Examples (causal LTI)

1
𝐻 𝑧 = 𝑟<1 𝑟>1
1 − 2𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑧 −1 + 𝑟 2 𝑧 −2
Poles: 𝑧1 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝑧2 = 𝑟𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
Stable ⟹ 𝑟 < 1
44
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

LTI systems characterized by linear constant-coefficient difference equations

 Examples
1 1
𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑦 𝑛−1 =𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛−1
2 3
1 −1 1 −1
𝑌 𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑌 𝑧 =𝑋 𝑧 + 𝑧 𝑋 𝑧
2 3
1 −1
1 + 3𝑧
𝑌 𝑧 =𝑋 𝑧
1
1 − 𝑧 −1
2 𝑛 𝑛−1
1 1 1 1
1 −1 𝑧 > ℎ𝑛 = 𝑢𝑛 + 𝑢 𝑛−1
𝑌 𝑧 1 + 3𝑧 2 2 3 2
𝐻 𝑧 = = ⟹
𝑋 𝑧 1 𝑛 𝑛−1
1 − 𝑧 −1 1 1 1 1
2 𝑧 < ℎ 𝑛 =− 𝑢 −𝑛 − 1 − 𝑢 −𝑛
2 2 3 2
45
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

LTI systems characterized by linear constant-coefficient difference equations

 In general
𝑁 𝑀

෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑘 = ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
𝑁 𝑀

𝑌 𝑧 ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 = 𝑋 𝑠 ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
𝑁
Poles at the solution of ෍ 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 = 0
𝑌 𝑧 σ𝑀 𝑏
𝑘=0 𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘
𝑘=0
𝐻 𝑧 = = 𝑁 ⟹
𝑋 𝑧 σ𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑀
Zeros at the solution of ෍ 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 −𝑘 = 0
𝑘=0 46
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

Examples relating system behavior to the system function

Given the following information about an LTI system, 𝐻(𝑧) =? ℎ[𝑛] =?
𝑛 𝑢[𝑛], 1 𝑛 1 𝑛
• If 𝑥1 𝑛 = 1/6 then 𝑦1 𝑛 = 𝑎 + 10 𝑢𝑛
2 3
𝑛, 7 𝑛
• If 𝑥2 𝑛 = −1 then 𝑦2 𝑛 = −1
4
Solution
1 1
𝑋1 𝑧 = , 𝑧 >
1 −1 6
1− 𝑧
6 𝑎 −1
𝑎 10 𝑎 + 10 − 5 + 𝑧 1
𝑌1 𝑧 = + = 3 , 𝑧 >
1 1 1 1 2
1 − 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1
2 3 2 3
𝑎 −1 1 −1
𝑌1 𝑧 𝑎 + 10 − 5 + 𝑧 1− 𝑧
𝐻 𝑧 = = 3 6 ,
𝑋1 𝑧 1 1
1 − 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1 47
2 3
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

Examples relating system behavior to the system function

Solution continue
𝑎 7
7 𝑎 + 10 + 5 +
= 𝐻 −1 = 3 6 ⟹ 𝑎 = −9
4 3 4
2 3
1
1 − 2𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1
𝐻 𝑧 = 6
1 1
1 − 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1
2 3

1 1
ROC of 𝑋1 (𝑧): 𝑧 > ⟹ ROC of 𝐻(𝑧): 𝑧 >
6 2 48
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using the z-transform

Examples relating system behavior to the system function

Consider a stable and causal system with impulse response ℎ 𝑛 and rational system
function 𝐻 𝑧 , which contains a pole at 𝑧 = 1/2 and a zero somewhere on the unit
circle.
 ℱ 1/2 𝑛 ℎ[𝑛] converges. True
 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = 0 for some 𝜔 True
 ℎ 𝑛 has finite duration False
 ℎ 𝑛 is real Insufficient information
 𝑔 𝑛 = 𝑛 ℎ 𝑛 ∗ ℎ 𝑛 is the impulse response of a stable system True

49
 The z-Transform
(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
 System function algebra and block diagram representations

System functions for interconnections of LTI systems

𝑌 𝑧 𝐻1 𝑧
=𝐻 𝑧 =
𝑋 𝑧 1 + 𝐻1 𝑧 𝐻2 𝑧

51
 System function algebra and block diagram representations

Block diagram representations for causal LTI systems

1
𝐻 𝑧 =
1 −1
1− 𝑧
4
1
𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑦 𝑛−1 =𝑥 𝑛
4
𝑤 𝑛 =𝑦 𝑛−1 Or equivalently

52
 System function algebra and block diagram representations

Examples: block diagram representations for causal LTI systems

1 − 2𝑧 −1 1
𝐻 𝑧 = = 1 − 2𝑧 −1
1 −1 1 −1
1− 𝑧 1− 𝑧
4 4
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑣 𝑛 − 2𝑣 𝑛 − 1

𝑤 𝑛 =𝑠 𝑛 =𝑣 𝑛−1

Or equivalently

53
 System function algebra and block diagram representations

Examples: block diagram representations for causal LTI systems

1 1 1 2/3 1/3
𝐻 𝑧 = = = +
1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 −1
1 + 𝑧 −1 − 𝑧 −2 1 + 𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1 1 + 𝑧 1 − 𝑧
4 8 2 4 2 4
1 1
𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑦 𝑛−1 − 𝑦 𝑛−2 =𝑥 𝑛
4 8
1 1 Direct form
𝑦 𝑛 =− 𝑦 𝑛−1 + 𝑦 𝑛−2 +𝑥 𝑛 𝑓 𝑛 =𝑦 𝑛−1
4 8
𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑓 𝑛 − 1 = 𝑦[𝑛]
Parallel form

Cascade form

54
 System function algebra and block diagram representations

Examples: block diagram representations for causal LTI systems

7 1
1 − 𝑧 −1 − 𝑧 −2 1 7 −1 1 −2
𝐻 𝑧 = 4 2 = 1− 𝑧 − 𝑧
1 −1 1 −2 1 −1 1 −2 4 2
1+ 𝑧 − 𝑧 1+ 𝑧 − 𝑧
4 8 4 8

55
 The z-Transform
(ch.10)
 The z-transform
 The region of convergence for the z-transforms
 The inverse z-transform
 Geometric evaluation of the Fourier transform from the pole-zero plot
 Properties of the z-transform
 Some common z-transform pairs
 Analysis and characterization of LTI systems using z-transforms
 System function algebra and block diagram representations
 The unilateral z-transform
 The unilateral Laplace transform

𝒰𝒵
𝑥𝑛 𝒳 𝑧 = 𝒰𝔏 𝑥 𝑛
∞
𝒳 𝑧 ≜෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=0

Examples
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 = 0, for 𝑛 < 0
1
𝒳 𝑧 = −1
, 𝑧 > 𝑎
1 − 𝑎𝑧

57
 The unilateral Laplace transform

Examples
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑢 𝑛 + 1

𝑧
𝑋 𝑧 = −1
, 𝑧 > 𝑎
1 − 𝑎𝑧 Not equal
∞ 𝑎 (𝑥 −1 ≠ 0)
𝒳 𝑧 =෍ 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑧 −𝑛 = −1
, 𝑧 > 𝑎
𝑛=0 1 − 𝑎𝑧

58
 The unilateral Laplace transform

Examples
5
3 − 𝑧 −1
𝒳 𝑧 = 6 𝑥 𝑛 =?
1 −1 1 −1
1− 𝑧 1− 𝑧
4 3
Solution
1 2
𝒳 𝑧 = +
1 −1 1 −1
1− 𝑧 1− 𝑧
4 3
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑥2 𝑛
𝒵 1 1
𝑥1 𝑛 𝑧 >
1 −1 4 𝑛 𝑛
1− 𝑧 1 1
4 ⟹ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 +2 𝑢𝑛, 𝑛≥0
4 3
𝒵 2 1
𝑥2 𝑛 𝑧 >
1 3
1 − 𝑧 −1 59
3
 The unilateral Laplace transform

Properties of the unilateral Laplace transform

60
 The unilateral Laplace transform

Convolution Examples
A causal LTI system, initial rest condition
𝑦 𝑛 + 3𝑦 𝑛 − 1 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑢 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 =?

Solution
1
ℋ 𝑧 =
1 + 3𝑧 −1
𝛼 (3/4)𝛼 (1/4)𝛼
𝒴 𝑧 =ℋ 𝑧 𝒳 𝑧 = = +
1 + 3𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1 1 + 3𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1
1 3 𝑛
𝑦 𝑛 =𝛼 + −3 𝑢𝑛
4 4
61
 The unilateral Laplace transform

Shifting property
𝒰𝒵
𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑧𝒳 𝑧 − 𝑧𝑥 0
𝒰𝒵 𝒰𝒵
𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑧 −1
𝒳 𝑧 + 𝑥 −1 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑧 −2 𝒳 𝑧 + 𝑧 −1 𝑥 −1 + 𝑥 −2

Consider 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 :
∞
𝒴(𝑧) = ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=0
∞
= 𝑥 −1 + ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
= 𝑥 −1 + ෍ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑧− 𝑛+1
𝑛=0

= 𝑥 −1 + 𝑧 −1 𝒳 𝑧 62
 The unilateral Laplace transform

Solving differential equations using the unilateral z-transform

𝑦 𝑛 + 3𝑦 𝑛 − 1 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝛼𝑢 𝑛 𝑦 −1 = 𝛽
𝑦 𝑛 =?

Solution
𝛼
𝒴 𝑧 + 3𝛽 + 3𝑧 −1 𝒴
𝑧 =
1 − 𝑧 −1
3𝛽 𝛼
𝒴 𝑧 =− −1
+
1 + 3𝑧 1 + 3𝑧 −1 1 − 𝑧 −1
Zero-input Zero-state response
response

If 𝛼 = 8, 𝛽 = 1, 𝑦 𝑛 = 3 −3 𝑛 + 2 𝑢[𝑛], for 𝑛 ≥ 0
63