TEST CODE: 104

ESE - 2023 Mains Test Series

Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Test-4 on Analog and Digital Communication Systems +
Advanced Communication Topics
(Paper-II)
SOLUTIONS

01. (a)
Sol: Consider an SSB wave lower side band is transmitted,
A A
st   c mt  cos 2f c t  c m̂t sin 2f c t .
2 2

Where m( t ) is the Hilbert transform of message m(t)
The following observations w.r.t phase & quadrature components are made
1.The two components are uncorrected with each other. The power spectral densities are additive

2.The Hilbert transform m( t ) is obtained by passing m(t) through a linear filter with transfer
function –jsgn(f).
The squared magnitude of this transfer function is equal to one for all frequencies.

m(t) and m( t ) have the same average power
A A 
s(t )  c m(t ) cos 2f c t  c m( t ) sin 2f c t
2 2
The average power of the signal component s(t) is
2 2 2
A P A P A P
Si = c  c  c
8 8 4
W
No
The Input noise power N i   2
df
W
N i  WN 0 watts
The SNR at the detector input is
S  A 2p
(SNR) I   i   c
 N i SSB 4WN 0

The noise n(t)

   
= n I ( t ) cos 2 f c  t  n Q ( t ) sin 2 f c   t
 2  2
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The coherent detector output is

Ac m(t ) n I (t ) n Q (t)
y(t )   cos t  sin t
4 2 2
A m( t )
Signal in the receiver output is c
4
2
A P
Output signal power  c
16
Noise in the output is
1 1
n I (t ) cos t  n Q (t ) sin t
2 2
WN 0 WN 0 WN 0
The average power of the output noise is  
8 8 4
2
S Ac P
The (SNR) 0  0 
N 0 4WN 0
(SNR ) 0
FOM  1
(SNR ) I

01. (b)
Sol: ↑ s(t)
(i) h(t) = s(T0–t) ↑ h(t)
Tb = 4(sec) 4
h(t) = s(4–t) = s(–(E–4)) 4

–2 ↑0 2 →t 0 2 6 →t

(ii) y(t) = s(t)  h(t) y(t)

y(t) = s(t)  s(h–t)
64


(iii) y(t)max is 64 at t = 2 (sec) 0 4 8
→t
 
S
N max N

2E
0

N0 = 1 (W/z)
E   st  dt   16dt  64
2 2

2

S
    128
 N  max

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 3 E & T Engineering

01. (c)
Sol:
(i) s(t)DSB-SC = m(t) c(t) = 2cos(1000t) + cos [220103t]
s(t)DSB-SC = cos[220.5103t] + cos[219.5103t]
s(f)

1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2

f(kHz)
–20.5 –19.5 0 19.5 20.5
1
Pt = |S(f)|2 = 4 
4
= 1 (Watts)
Bandwidth = fH – fL = 1 (kHz)

(ii) S(t) = M1(t) Cos(2fct) + M2(t) Sin(2 fct)

Product
M1(t) Modulator M1(t) cos(2fct)

+

 cos(2fct) + s(t)

M2(t)
Product
Modulator M2(t) Sin(2fct)

 Sin(2fct)

01. (d)
Speed of Vehicle  180km / hr   180  mt / sec = 50(mts/sec)
5
Sol:
18
fc = 800 (MHz)
BW = 200 (Hz)
Vr f c 50  800  106 400
Doppler shift in frequency  f d     133.33 (Hz)
c 3  108 3
Lower cutoff Frequency = fL = fc – fd – 100 = 800 × 106 – 133.33 –100 (Hz)
Upper cutoff Frequency = fH = fc + fd + 100 = 800 ×106 + 133.33 + 100 (Hz)
 Bandwidth = fH – fL = 466.66 (Hz)

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01. (e)
Sol:
(i) RING Topology

Advantages:
 Easy to install.
 In this, data flows in one direction which reduces the chance of packet collisions.
 Equal access to the resources.
 Addition and removal of any node during a network is difficult.

Disadvantages:
 If a node goes down entire network goes down.
 Addition and removal of any node during a network is difficult.
 Unidirectional traffic.

(ii) STAR Topology

Advantages:
 Reliable.
 No data collisions.
 Easy fault detection.
 Less expensive than Mesh Topology.
 Addition and removal of any node during a network is easy.

Disadvantages:
 If the central hub/switch goes down, then, it leads to entire network goes down.
 Costlier than Bus & Ring topologies.

(iii) TREE Topology

Advantages:
• Combination of both Bus & Star topologies.
• High Scalability.
• Fault identification is easy.

Disadvantages:
• Installation and Maintenance is extremely difficult.
• Costlier than Star & Ring topologies.
• If the computer in first level is erroneous, next level computer will also go under problems.

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 5 E & T Engineering

02. (a)
Sol: ↑ |H(f)|2
(i)
4

–11 –10 –9 ↑0 9 10 11
→f(kHz)

Sy(f) = Sx(f) |H(f)|2

Sy(f) = 20×10–3×4, 9 ×103 ≤ |f| ≤11×103
Sy(f) = 80×10–3, 9 × 103 ≤ |f| ≤ 11 × 103 (W/Hz)
1110 3
P0   Sy f df  2   80  10
3
df =160×10–3 × 2 × 103 = 320 (Watts)
910 3

(ii)
S.N TDM FDM
1. It is a technique for transmitting several In this technique to transmit several
messages on one channel by messages on one channel, message
dividing time domain slots. One signals are distributed in frequency
slot for each message spectrum such that they do not
overlap.
2. It requires commutator at the transmitting FDM requires modulator, filters and
end and a distributor, working in demodulators.
perfect synchronization with
commutator at the receiving end
3 Perfect synchronization between Synchronization between transmitter and
transmitter and receiver is receiver is not required.
required.
4. Crosstalk problem is not severe in TDM. FDM suffers from crosstalk problem due
to in perfect band pass filter.
5. It is usually preferred for digital signal It is usually preferred for analog signal
transmission transmission.
6. It does not require very complex circuitry. It requires complex circuitry at transmitter
and receiver.

02. (b)
Sol: (i) LTI System
(1) x(t)
Rxx(  ) y(t) Rxx(  )
Ideal
E[x(t)]=2
Differentiator

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yt   xt 
d
dt
 ht   t   t 
d
dt
y(f) = J2nf x(f)  H(f) = J2πf.
E[y(t)] = E[x(t)] H(f)|at f =0 = 2 × 0 = 0

(2) Ryy(↑) = Rxx(  ) h(  )  h(–  )

h(  ) = (  )
h(–  ) = (–  ) = –  
2
   R yy ()  R xx () (  )    R xx () 
 2

(ii) (1) s(t) = 8 cos[2106t + 22103  2 cos(4000 t )  4 cos(8000 t )dt ]
s(t) = 8 cos[2106t + 2sin(4000t) + 2sin(8000t]
(2) fMAX = MAX[fi(t)]
1 d
fi (t )  [2 sin (4000t) + 2sin(8000t)] = 4000cos(4000t) + 8000cos(8000t)
2 dt
 fMAX = 12 (kHz)
f MAX 12 103
(3)    =3
f MAX 4 103

(4) BW = 2[ + 1]fMAX

BW = 2[3+1] 4  103 = 32 (kHz)

02. (c)
Sol:
(i)
Parameter ISO/OSI Reference TCP/IP Reference Model
Model
1. Stands for Open System Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Interconnection Protocol
2. Owner ISO DARPA
3. No of layers 7 4
4. Protocol Independent Dependent
5. Approach Vertical Horizontal
6. SL & Pr L Presented Not Presented
7. Reference Yes No
8. Flexibility Yes No
9. Usage Low High
10. Standardization Yes No
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(ii) ICMP
(i) Since there is no built-in method for transmitting error and control messages in IP, the
provision of error control relies on the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
(ii) Error reporting and management inquiries use it.
(iii) It is a supporting protocol that is used by network devices like routers to convey error
messages and operational information, such as the fact that a host or router could not be
contacted or that the requested service is not accessible.

ARP
(i) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a procedure for mapping a dynamic IP address to a
permanent physical machine address in a local area network (LAN). The physical machine
address is also known as a media access control (MAC) address.
(ii) The job of ARP is essentially to translate 32-bit addresses to 48-bit addresses and vice
versa. This is necessary because IP addresses in IP version 4 (IPv4) are 32 bits, but MAC
addresses are 48 bits.
(iii) ARP works between Layers 2 and 3 of the OSI model. The MAC address exists on Layer 2
of the OSI model, the data link layer. The IP address exists on Layer 3, the network layer.
(iv) ARP can also be used for IP over other LAN technologies, such as token ring, fiber
distributed data interface (FDDI) and IP over ATM.

RARP
(i) It is used to map the MAC address to IP address.
(ii) It is a static host configuration protocol
(iii) During the conversion of MAC address to IP address, RARP uses the following two
messages.
They are (i) RARP request (ii) RARP response.
(iv) It is quite reverse to ARP.
(v) In general, RARP request message gets broadcasted and RARP response message gets
unicasted.

IP
(i) It is an unreliable connectionless protocol
(ii) It provides best effort delivery
(iii) It does not perform error checking and tracking
(iv) The PDUs of IP are called as “datagrams”

03. (a)
Sol:
(i) (1) Source Coding: Source encoding techniques assigns bits to the symbol either using uniform
length coding or non uniform length coding.
Non uniform length coding can be implemented using either Shannon fano coding algorithm
or Huffman coding algorithm.
The major disadvantage of Shannon fano coding technique is ambiguity in selecting the
intervals, so Huffman coding is preferred and also Huffman coding has relatively more
coding efficiency.
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0.35 1 0.35 1 0.35 1 0.35 1 0.35 1 0.65 0

0.3 01 0.3 01 0.3 01 0.3 01 0.35 00 0.35 1
0.2 000 0.2 000 0.2 000 0.2 000 0.3 01
0.1 0010 0.1 0010 0.1 0010 0.15 001
0.04 00110 0.04 00110 0.05 0011
0.005 001110 0.01 00111
0.005 001111

Probability Code No. of bits

0.35 1 1
0.3 01 2
0.2 000 3
0.1 0010 4
0.04 00110 5
0.005 001110 6
0.005 001111 6

Average binary digits per symbol (Average code word length) (L)
= 0.351 + 0.32 + 0.23 + 0.14 + 0.045 + 0.0056 + 0.005 6
= 2.21 bits/symbol
Entropy (average bits of information)
k
= H( x )   Pk log 2 Pk
i 1
= – (0.35 log20.35 + 0.3 log20.3 + 0.2log20.2 + 0.1log20.1 + 0.04log20.04 +
0.005log20.005 + 0.005log20.005)
= – (– 0.530 – 0.521 – 0.464 – 0.332 – 0.185 – 0.0382 – 0.0382)
= 2.1084 bits/symbol
H( x )
(2) % code efficiency =  100
L
2.1084
  100
2.21
 95.40%

f MAX 10 103
(ii) (1)    =10
f MAX 103
(2) Bandwidth = 2 [+1]fMAX = 2[10+1]103 = 22(kHz)
A c2
(3) Pt  = 0.5(Watts)
2

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03. (b)
Sol: (i) S1(t) = AC cos(2πfct), 0≤t≤Tb
S2(t) = –AC cos(2πfct), 0≤t≤Tb

t   cos2f c t , 0≤t≤Tb
2
These are ortho normal basis functions
Tb

t   sin 2f c t , 0≤t≤Tb
2

Tb ↑  (t)
A C2 2E b
E1  Tb  E b  AC 
2 Tb
S2 S1
A2  
E 2  C Tb  E b →  (t)
2 – Eb Eb
 S1 t   E b t , 0≤t≤Tb
S2 t    E b t , 0≤t≤Tb
(ii) From Constellation plot
E d  d 2min
d min  2 E b
 Ed = 4Eb = 2AC2 Tb
 Ed   A2 T 
Pe       C b

B  P SK  2 N 0   N 0 

(or)
 2E b 
 Pe   
B  PSK  N0 
A C2 Tb
Where E b  AverageBit Energy 
2
03. (c)
Sol:
(i) (1) Modal Birefringence:
Local absolute value of the difference between the propagation constants of both modes.
2 
   x   y  n x  n y  n
 c
C: speed of light
n : Refractive index difference (also called degree of birefringence)
(2) Beat length:
Length required for the polarization to rotate 360 degrees. It is inversely proportional to
birefringence
2 
LB  
 n
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Difference between propagation constant  x   y  250

  1.55 m
Spectral width = 0.8 nm
x  y 250
Modal Birefringence   F    61.67  10 6
2   2  1. 55 
2
Coherence length  L bc 
 F . 
 : Wavelength = 1.55µm
Modal Birefringence  F  61.67 10 6
 : line width = 0.8nm
1.55  1.55  10 12
Lbc   48.69m
61.67  10 6  0.8  10 9
 1.55  10 6
Beat Length  LB  
F 61.67  10  6
L B  0.025 = 25mm

(ii)
LNA

Noise Figure = 10(dB) = 10

T0 = 290°K
Te = (F–1)T0
Te = (10–1)290°K = 2610°K.

04. (a)
Sol:
(i) TCP/IP reference model originates from the grandparent of all computer networks, the
ARPANET and now is used in its successor, the worldwide Internet.
The following figure depicts the correlation of layers in ISO/OSI vs TCP/IP architectures

OSI TCP/IP
7 Application Application

6 Presentation Not present

Session in the model
5
4 Transport Transport

3 Network Network

2 Data link Data link

1 Physical Physical

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The Host-to-Network Layer

The Host-to-network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP reference model. It combines the
link layer and the physical layer of the ISO/OSI model. At this layer, data is transferred between
adjacent network nodes in a WAN or between nodes on the same LAN. The host-to-network
layer provides the methods to transfer data between network entities. It also provides error
detection and correction procedures, since the errors might come from the physical transfer. The
host-to-network layer is responsible for physically transmitting the bit stream and reconstructing
the “framed” data from a received bit stream for the higher layers.
The Internet layer
The Internet layer is the backbone of the whole architecture. It is a connectionless internet work
layer forming a base for a packet-switching network. Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets
into any network and have them travel independently to the destination. It works in analogy with
the mail system. A person can drop a sequence of international letters into a mail box in one
country. With a little luck, most of them will be delivered to the correct address in the destination
country.
The Internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol).
The job of the Internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. TCP/IP
Internet layer is very similar in functionality to the OSI network layer.
The Transport Layer
The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called transport layer. It is
designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, the
same as in the OSI transport layer. Two end-to-end protocols have been defined here:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): is a reliable connection oriented protocol that allows a
byte stream originating on the machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the
internet. It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one onto
the internet layer. At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received
messages into the output stream. TCP also handles flow control.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do
not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their own. It is also widely used
for one/shot, client/server type request/reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is
more important than accurate delivery.
The Application Layer
The application layer is on the top of the transport layer. It contains all the higher level protocols.
• Virtual terminal (TELNET) - allows a user on one machine to log into a distant machine and
work there.
• File transfer protocol (FTP) - provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to
another.
• Electronic mail (SMTP) - specialized protocol for electronic mail.
• Domain name service (DNS) - for mapping host names onto their network addresses.

Types of address at each layer

Application layer: addresses are associated with DNS domain names.
Transport layer: addresses are TCP/UDP port numbers.
Internet layer: IP addresses (IPv4 or IPv6), known as logical addresses.
Host to network layer: On LAN, the addresses are MAC-IDs, known as physical addresses.
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(ii) BW of channel = 2000 (bps)

In one minute, 100 bits are transmitted
 In one second 100/60 bits can be transferred
In pure ALOHA , No of stations N = 0.184 × BW/ Bit rate of each station.
0.184  2000  60
N  220.8  220 Ter min als
100
04. (b)
Sol:
(i) rb  nf s
fs = 2fq = 4fmax = 40×103 (samples/sec)
n = 8 (Bits/sample)
 rb = 320 (kbps)

(ii)
↑f(x)

↑0
–2x 2x →x
S = E[X ] =   4
2 2
x

2
Nq 
12
Vmax  Vmin 4x 4  2 8 1
 n
 n  8  
2 2 2 256 32
2
1
Nq  
12 32   12
2

 4  12  32   49152  46.915dB 

S

2

Nq

(iii) Maximum usable frequency: (MUF)

The Maximum possible value of frequency for which reflection takes place for a given distance
of propagation.
Critical frequency:
The highest frequency that return from an ionosphere layer at a vertical incidence
Lowest usable frequency: (LUF):
The frequency below which the entire power gets absorbed is called LUF.

Optimum frequency
The frequency at which there is optimum return of wave energy
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04. (c)
Sol:
(i) Global Public Elements
q prime number
α α < q and α a primitive root of q
User A Key Generation
Select private XA XA < q
Calculate public YA YA = αx A mod q
User B Key Generation
Select private XB XB < q
Calculate public YB YB = α xB mod q
Calculation of Secret Key by User A
K = (YB)XA mod q
Calculation of Secret Key by User B
K = (YA)X mod q

Advantages of the Diffie Hellman Algorithm

• The sender and receiver don’t need any prior knowledge of each other.
• Once the keys are exchanged, the communication of data can be done through an insecure
channel.
• The sharing of the secret key is safe.
Disadvantages of the Diffie Hellman Algorithm
• The algorithm cannot be sued for any asymmetric key exchange.
• Similarly, it cannot be used for digital signatures.
• Since it doesn’t authenticate any party in the transmission, the Diffie Hellman key exchange
is susceptible to a man - in - middle attack.

C  i 
(ii)  I  deg radation  25 log   
 r
I = Initial Separation = 4°
r = Final Separation = 2°
C
   degradation = 25 log10(2) = 7.525
I

05. (a)
Sol:
(i) S = E[x2]
1
K= = f(x)
4
2
1 1 1 4
S= 
4 x 2
x 2dx    16  (Watts)
4 3 3
2
Nq 
12
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VMAX  Vmin 4 1
 n
 
2 256 64
1
 Nq 
64  64 12
4  64  64 12
S / Nq  =16  64  64 = 65,536 = 48.16 (dB)
3 1
(ii) rb = nf s
fs = fq = 2fmax = 20 (khz)
rb = 820103 = 160 (kbps)
r
BW  Using Nyquist pulses sampling = b = 80(kHz)
min 2
05. (b)
Sol: PACKET SWITCHING NETWORK
Characteristics:
1. Create Packets: Before transmission, a message is broken down into smaller segments
called packets of a particular size.
2. What is a Packet: Each packet contains a header which holds information about the order
in which packets should be assembled.
3. No resource allocation: In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet.
This means that there is no reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled
processing time for each packet. Resources are allocated on demand. The allocation is
done on a first-come, first-served basis.
4. Delay: When a switch receives a packet, the packet must wait if there are other packets
being processed. This can create a delay. A switch uses its routing table to decide the port
that is to be used.
1. Store-and-Forward: The packets are passed from node to node and the nodes may store
the data briefly before passing it to the next node.
2. Different Routes: The different packets of a message may follow different routes before
they reach the destination.
3. Variable Delay due to different Paths: Since the packets can follow different routes
there is a variable amount of delay and the packets may arrive out of order at the
destination. Some packets may also be lost.
4. Packet switching is done at the network layer.
5. The switches in a packet switching network are traditionally referred to as routers to be
used.
05. (c)
Sol:
(i) The phase deviation produced by the noise signal in FM is much smaller than the phase deviation
produced by the modulating signal, provided that noise is smaller than the carrier. Thus, in the
Low-noise case, the distortion produced by noise at the output of the FM detector is negligible in
comparison to the desired modulating signal. In other words, noise is almost suppressed by the
signal. The noise suppression characteristic of FM can also be applied to the common channel
interference. This phenomena known as capture effect, It is defined as follows:
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“When FM signals from two transmitters operated on the same or nearly same carrier frequency
reach the receiver simultaneously, the signal of a weak magnitude is suppressed by a strong
signal, and the FM receiver reproduces only the strong signal”.
This effect is similar to noise-suppressing action, with the weaker signal playing the role of the
noise. The weak signals due to common channel and adjacent channel interferences are
suppressed. This is a very useful feature of FM system.

(ii) Disadvantage of FM over AM:

1. A much wider channel is required by FM, up to 10 times as large as that needed by AM.
This is the most significant disadvantage of FM
2. FM transmitting and receiving equipment tends to be more complex, particularly for
modulation and demodulation. So Circuit is more complex than AM.
Threshold effect is more in FM than AM.

05. (d)
Sol: N = 10
fs = fq = 2fmax = 8×103 (Samples/sec)
n=8
 Bit rate of multiplexed signal Bit rate = Nnfs = 10×8×8×103 = 640 (kbps)

05. (e)
Sol:
(i) Routers
• It connects LANs and WANs in the Internet.
• It has a routing table that is used for making decisions about packet forwarding
• It works till Layer – 3 (Network Layer) of OSI Reference Model.
• Breaks both Collision Domain & Broadcast Domain.
• It is associated with IP address.

(ii) Brouter
 It is also known as the bridging router.
 It is a device that combines features of both bridge and router.
 It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer.
 Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks, and working as the bridge,
it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.

(iii) Gateway
 It operates in all layers of OSI & TCP/IP Reference Models.
 It provides Security.
 It is also called as “Protocol Converter”, as it provides compatibility between the different
protocols used in the two different networks.
 It is located at the boundary of a network and manages all data that inflows or outflows from that
network.

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05. (f)
Sol: L = 10(kms)
Pt = 10(mW)
 = 1 (dB/kms)
LSFIL  2dB
LFOL = 2(dB)
All losses = (1 × 10) + 2 + 2 = 14(dB)
Pt = 10log10(10×10–3) = –20(dBW)
 Pr = Pt – All losses
Pr = –20–14 = –34[dBW]

06. (a)
Sol:
(i)
1) List the source symbols in the order of decreasing probability.
2) Partition the set into two sets, that are as close to equiprobable as possible, and assign ‘0’ to
the upper set and a ‘1’ to the lower set.
3) Continue this process, each time partitioning the sets with as nearly equal probabilities as
possible, until further partitioning is not possible.
Symbol Probability P(xi) Code word No. of bits

X1 1/2 0 1
X2 1/8 100 3
X3 1/8 101 3
X4 1/16 1100 4
X5 1/16 1101 4
X6 1/16 1110 4
X7 1/32 11110 5
X8 1/32 11111 5

8
1
(ii) Entropy H(x) =  Pi log 2 bits/symbol
i 1 Pi
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= log22+ log 2 8  log 2 8  log 2 16 + log 2 16  log 2 16  log 2 32  log 2 32
2 8 8 16 16 16 32 32
= 2.3125 bits/ symbol

Average length
 1 2
L = 1   3   4 
2 8
3
16
2
32
5
= 2.3125 bits/ symbol
H( X)
 Efficiency (  ) =  100 = 100%
L
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 17 E & T Engineering

06. (b)
Sol:
(i) Pulse-code modulation is know as a digital pulse modulation technique, it is quite complex
compared to the analog pulse modulation techniques. (i.e., PAM, PWM and PPM) in the sense
that the message signal is subjected to a great number of operations.

Analog Anti
Sampler PCM
message Aliasing Quantizer Encoder
signal
signal Filter

Distorted Regenerative Regenerative Regenerated

PCM repeater repeater PCM signal
signal

Regeneration Reconstruction
Input Decoder Destination
circuit filter

Fig: The basic elements of PCM system

Elements of a PCM system: Figure shows the basic elements of a PCM system. It consists of
three main parts i.e., transmitter, transmission path and receiver. The essential operations in the
transmitter of a PCM system are sampling, quantizing and encoding. Before sampling an anti
aliasing filter which is nothing but a LPF with cut-off frequency  fs/2 is placed to make sure that
aliasing will not occur. Sampling is the operation in which an analog (i,e., continuous- time)
signal is sampled to discrete-time signal. The quantizing and encoding operations are usually
performed in the same circuit which is known as an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The
essential operations in the receiver are regeneration of impaired signals, decoding and
demodulation of the train of quantized samples. These operations are usually performed in the
same circuit which is known as a digital-to-analog converter (DAC)

(ii) Qe = Xs – Xq
of uniform Quantizer takes the form of uniform
Random variable varying uniformly in the
 
Interval
2
to
2 ↑ f Q  
1

e

 
 Nq  E Qe2   Qe2f Qe dQe  ↑0  → Qe
2 2

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
1 2 2 2
Watts
 
Nq  Q e dQ e 
12
2
06. (c)
Sol:

(i) 20-65,536 bytes

20-60
bytes
Header Data

VER HLEN Service Total length

4 bits 4 bits 8 bits 16 bits
Identification Flags Fragmentation
16 bits 3bits offset
Time to live Protocol 13checksum
Header bits
8 bits 8 bits 16 bits
Source IP
address
Destination IP
address

32 bits

A brief description of each of the fields are given below:

 VER (4 bits): Version of the IP protocol in use (typically 4).
 HLEN (4 bits): Length of the header, expressed as the number of 32-bit words.
 Minimum size is 5, and maximum 15.
 Total Length (16 bits): Length in bytes of the datagram, including headers.
Maximum datagram size is (216) 65536 bytes.
 Service Type (8 bits): Allows packet to be assigned a priority. Router can use this field to
route packets. Not universally used.
 Time to Live (8 bits): Prevents a packet from travelling forever in a loop. Senders sets a
value, that is decremented at each hop. If it reaches zero, packet is discarded.
 Protocol: Defines the higher level protocol that uses the service of the IP layer
 Source IP address (32 bits): Internet address of the sender.
 Destination IP address (32 bits): Internet address of the destination.
 Identification, Flags, Fragment Offset: Used for handling fragmentation.
 Options (variable width): Can be used to provide more functionality to the IP datagram
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 19 E & T Engineering

 Header Checksum (16 bits):

Covers only the IP header.

Steps:
o Header treated as a sequence of 16-bit integers
o The integers are all added using ones complement arithmetic
o Ones complement of the final sum is taken as the checksum
o Datagram is discarded in case of mismatch in checksum values
Identification: A16-bit field identifies a datagram originating from the source host.
Flags: There are 3 bits, the first bit is reserved, the second bit is do not fragment bit, and the last
bit is more fragment bit.
Fragmentation offset: This 13-bit field shows the relative position of the segment with respect
to the complete datagram measured in units of 8 bytes.

(ii) Asymmetric Key Encryption

 Two different cryptographic keys (asymmetric keys), called the public and the private keys, are
used for encryption and decryption.
 It’s a much more complicated process than symmetric key encryption, and the process is slower.
 The length of the keys is much larger, e.g., the recommended RSA key size is 2048 bits or
higher.
 It’s used in smaller transactions, primarily to authenticate and establish a secure communication
channel prior to the actual data transfer.
 The private key is not shared, and the overall process is more secure as compared to symmetric
encryption.
 Examples include RSA, Diffie-Hellman, ECC, etc.

Different Keys

    
Plaintext Encryption Ciphertext Decryption Plaintext

07. (a)
Sol:
(i) FTP
 FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol
 It is used for exchanging files over the internet.
 It uses TCP as a transport Protocol
 It uses TCP Port no 20 (Data Transfer) & Port No 21 (Connection Control)
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 FTP uses persistent TCP connections (for control connection) & non-persistent connections for
data connection.
 FTP is a stateful protocol
 FTP is an out band protocol as it uses different connections for data and control information
transmission.
 FTP uses multiple TCP connections

HTTP
 HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.
 HTTP Connections are two types: They are (i) Non Persistent (ii) Persistent
 It uses TCP as a transport Protocol
 It uses TCP Port no 80
 It is a stateless protocol
 It uses multiple TCP connections.
 It is an in-band protocol.
 It is used for checking the given URL address is existed in web server database or not

DNS
 DNS stands for Domain Name System
 It uses UDP as a transport Protocol
 It uses UDP Port no 53
 It is a stateless protocol
 It is an in-band protocol.
 It is used for converting the URL Address into IP Address
 It uses Non Persistent Connections.

(ii) Features of SMTP

 SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
 It uses Persistent Connections
 It uses TCP as a transport Protocol
 It uses TCP Port no 25
 It is a stateless protocol
 It is an in-band protocol.
 It is usezd for sending emails from mail client to mail server over the Internet.
 It is a PUSH Protocol.

Features of POP
 POP stands for Post Office Protocol
 It is a PULL Protocol
 It uses TCP as a transport Protocol
 It uses TCP Port no 110
 It is a stateful protocol
 It is an in-band protocol.
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 21 E & T Engineering

 It is used for downloading the emails from their remote mail server.
 It uses Persistent TCP Connections.

07. (b)
Sol:
(i)
n2(cladding)

n1(core)

Fig: Schematic of Propagation of light in Optical fibre

In order to send the information from transmitter to receiver, it has two conditions
(1) The refractive index of the core (n1) should be greater than the refractive index of the
cladding (n2) (i.e) n1 > n2.
(2) The incident angle (i) at the core - cladding interface should be greater than the
critical angle (c) (i.e) i > c

We know that
n  n
Critical Angle c = sin 1  2   sin c  2
 n1  n1
2
n 
Numerical Aperture (NA) = n  n = n1
2
1
2
2 1   2  = n1 1  sin 2 c
 n1 
 4R   4  37500  103 
(ii) (1) Pathloss  20 log   20 log   = 179.48 (dB)
    0.5 
(2) Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr – (Pathloss)
Pr = 10log10(100) + 54 + 26 – 179.48
Pr = 20 + 54 + 26 – 179.48
Pr = –79.48 [dBW]
07. (c)
Sol:
(i) (1) rb  nf s
 8 × 2fmax = 64 × 106  Bandwidth of m(t) is 4 × 106 (Hz)
fmax = 4(MHz)

(2) Nq = 2/12
2   2 4 1
 8
 
2 256 64

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2 1
 Nq   = 2.03 ×10–5 (Watts)
12 64  64  12
(ii) To avoid SOD
 min  f s  mt 
d
dt
 min ×32×103 = 8 ×103
 min   0.25Volts 
1
4
08. (a)
Sol:
(i) Working Principle
Delta modulation transmits only one bit per sample. Here, the present sample value is compared
with the previous sample value and the result is transmitted whether the amplitude is increased or
decreased. Input signal x(t) is approximated to step signal by the delta modulator. This step size
is kept fixed. The difference between the input signal x(t) and staircase approximated signal is
confined to two levels, i.e., +  and -  . Now, if the difference is positive, then approximated
signal is increased by one step, i.e., ‘  ’. If the difference is negative, then approximated signal is
reduced by one step i.e.,‘  ’.
When the step is reduced, ‘0’ is transmitted and if the step is increased, ‘1’ is transmitted.
Hence, for each sample, only one binary bit is transmitted.
The principle of delta modulation can be explained with the help of few equations as under:
The error between the sampled value of x(t) and last approximated sample is given as,

e(nTs) = x(nTs) – x (nTs) ….. (1)
where x(t)
e(nTs) = error at present sample
x(nTs) = sampled signal of x(t) )
 u(t)
x (nTs) = last sample approximation of the staircase waveform.
)


 Ts 
Amplitude

e Sampling
g
period

Binary one 0 1 1 11 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
bit sequence

sequence
Fig . Delta modulation waveform.

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u(nTs) is the present sample approximation of staircase output, then,


u[(n-1)Ts] = x (nTs) ….. (2)
b(nTs) =  sgn [e(nTs)] ….. (3)
Depending on the sign of error e(nTs),the sign of step size  is decided.
 
  if x (nTs )  x (nTs )
b(nTs) =  
….. (4)
  if x (nTs )  x (nTs )
b(nTs) = +  then a binary ‘1’ is transmitted
= –  then a binary ‘0’ is transmitted.
Transmitter Part:

Sampled Error
input e(nTs) Output
+ One bit b(nTs)
 quantizer
x(nTs ) 
 x nTs 
[u(n-1)Ts]
+ Summer

+
Delay
Ts

u(nTs)

Accumulator

Fig. Delta modulation transmitter

The summer in the accumulator adds quantizer output (   ) with the previous sample
approximation. This gives present sample approximation. i.e.,
u(nTs) = u(nTs – Ts ) + [   ]
u(nTs) = u[(n–1) Ts] + b(nTs)
Depending on the sign of e(nTs), one bit quantizer generates an output of +  or –  .
The previous sample approximation u[(n-1)Ts] is restored by delaying one sample period Ts.

The sampled input signal x(nTs) and staircase approximated signal x (nTs) are subtracted to get
error signal e(nTs).
Receiver Part:
At the receiver end, shown in figure the accumulator and low –pass filter (LPF) are used. The
accumulator generates the staircase approximated signal output and is delayed by one sampling
period Ts. It is then added to the input signal. If input is binary ‘1’ then it adds +  step to the
previous output (which is delayed). If input is binary ‘0’ then one step ‘  ’ is subtracted from the
delayed signal. Also, the low – pass filter has the cutoff frequency equal to highest frequency in
x(t). This low- pass filter smoothens the staircase signal to reconstruct original message signal
x(t).
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Accumulator
Input + Low pass
 filter
(LPF)
Output
+
(demodulated
Delay Signal)
Ts

Fig. Delta modulation receiver

(ii) Evaluation of maximum output Signal to Noise ratio:

We know that the condition to avoid the slope overload distortion is expressed as
   fs 
A     (i)
 m Ts 2  f m 
Therefore, the maximum value of the output signal power is expressed as
2
 A  A2  2 f s2
Pmax      2 2  (ii)
 2 2 8 f m
Now, we require to obtain the expression for quantization noise power. The quantization error in
delta modulation is  
This error can be assumed to be uniformly distributed as shown in figure
Thus, the PDF is an uniform distribution function which is defined as under:
1
 for    f    
f    2
0 otherwise
f()

1/2


 0 +
2
Fig: PDF of quantization error for
delta modulation

The mean square value or the variance of the quantization noise is given by,
  
1 3  1  3 3  1 23
    f d   
1
2 2
d 
2
      
 
2 2  3    2  3 3  2 3
2
Hence, we have 2  ----- (iii)
3
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 25 E & T Engineering

2 2
Therefore, normalized quantization noise power N q  
1 3
The delta modulated signal is passed through a reconstruction low pass filter (LPF) at the output
of a DM receiver. The bandwidth of this low pass filter (LPF) is fM such that,
f M  f m and f M  f s
The arrangement of filter has been shown in figure. Now, assuming that the quantization noise
power Nq is distributed uniformly over the frequency band upto fs, the output Quantization noise
power within the bandwidth fM is given by, Normalized noise power at the filter output.

Input Low pass Output

filter

LPF

f
0 fM

3 f M
N 'q  
3 fs
Here, substituting the values from equations (ii) and (iv), we obtain the expression for output
signal to quantization noise ratio as under:

 S  Pmax 2 f s2 3f
     2s
 N q  0 N q 8 f m  f M
1 2 2

 S  3f s3 3
   2 2 
 N q  0 8 f m f M 8 f M f m Ts
2 2 3

This is the desired expression for the output signal to quantization noise ratio
08. (b)
Sol:
(i) Different Losses in a fiber optic link:
1. Power Loss (Attenuation) in an optical fiber cable is probably the most importance
characteristics of the cable.
Attenuation has several adverse effects on performance including reducing the system BW,
information transmission rate, efficiency and overall system capacity.
The standard formula for expressing the total power loss in an optical fiber cable is
P 
A dB   10 log  in 
 Pout 
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In general multimode fibers tend to have more attenuation than single mode cable.
Attenuation reduces optical power available degrading the error probability.
Most system specifications allow a maximum error probability of 10–9
2. Material Absorption Losses:
Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material composition and the
fabrication process for the fiber, which results in the dissipation of some of the transmitted
optical power as heat in the waveguide absorption of light may be intrinsic or extrinsic

(ii) MESH Topology

Advantages:
• Reliable.
• No traffic problems.
• Provides high privacy and security.
• Fault identification is straight forward.
• Addition and removal of any node during a network is easy.
• Robust.

Disadvantages:
• Installation and Maintenance is extremely difficult.
• Costlier than remaining topologies.

(iii) Characteristics of Fast Ethernet

Upgrade the data rate of 100Mbps
Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet
Keep the same frame format
Keep the same 48-bit address
Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
Auto – negotiation
Auto – negotiation
 When Fast Ethernet was introduced by the IEEE, another feature was implemented called auto-
negotiation. Imagine a network where different parts implement different standards. For example
you may have a 100BASE-Tx network segment connected to a 10BASE-T segment, by a
1000BASE-T switch. Since the different parts operate at different speeds and some can operate
half-duplex while others can operate at full-duplex, there needs to be a mechanism whereby the
different parts can agree on common speed and duplex modes that will be suitable for
communication.
 Auto - negotiation is a mechanism whereby devices sharing a link segment can automatically
configure themselves to operate at the highest speed and duplex mode that they can both cope
with.
 Thus, the auto- negotiation standard allows devices based on different Ethernet standards, from
10BASE-T to 1000Base-T, to coexist in the network.

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Classification of Fast Ethernet

Characteristics 100base-TX 100Base-Fx 100Base-T4

Media STP Fiber UTP

Number of wires 2 2 4
Maximum length 100 m 100 m 100 m

08. (c)
Sol:
(i) Let S1 represent Binary 1
Let S2 represent Binary 0
P(S1) = P(S2) = ½
Using MAP Rule
S1
 S1    S2 
f  f 
 r S  r 
2

Considering AWGN with ZERO MEAN, the following is PDF of NOISE.

When S1 and S2 are at the input of receiver then r = S + n
The pdf’s of the received signals will shift by MEAN Values.
f(n)

0 n

 r   r 
f   f  
 S2   S1 

V2 = –1V Vopt V1 = 1V r=s+n

V1  V2  n 0 n[P(S 2 ) / P(S1 )]
2

 Vopt   = 0 (Volts)
2 V1  V2
Hence Vth = Vopt = 0 (Volts).
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 28 ESE - 2023 MAINS

 Ed 
(ii) Pe     S1(t)
 2N0  1V

Ed = E { S1(t) –S2(t)}
0 Tb t
S1(t) –S2(t)
S2(t)
2V
0 Tb t

0 t –1V
Tb
Tb

 E d   4dt  4Tb
0

 4Tb 
 Pe    
   2Tb (units )
 2 1 

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