1

Contents
Basics of Geometrical shapes .......................................................................................................................... 4
Basic 2D shapes: ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Basic 3D shapes: ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Some important theorems and concepts to remember: ........................................................................... 7
Unit - I ......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Circular Measure ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Radians: ................................................................................................................................................... 14
Circle Sectors: .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Unit - II ........................................................................................................................................................ 20
Coordinate Geometry ................................................................................................................................ 20
Coordinates system: ................................................................................................................................ 20
Distance between two points: ................................................................................................................. 20
Midpoint of two points: ........................................................................................................................... 21
Straight lines: ........................................................................................................................................... 22
The Angle, a line makes with positive 𝒙 − axis: ....................................................................................... 22
Gradient of a line: .................................................................................................................................... 22
Condition for the lines to be parallel: ...................................................................................................... 23
Condition for the lines to be perpendicular: ............................................................................................ 23
The angle a line makes with the positive 𝒙 − axis: .................................................................................. 24
The angle between two lines: .................................................................................................................. 24
Equation of a straight line: ...................................................................................................................... 25
Equation of 𝒙 − axis: ............................................................................................................................... 25
Equation of a line parallel to the 𝒙 − axis:............................................................................................... 25
Equation of 𝒚 − axis: ............................................................................................................................... 25
Equation of a line parallel to the 𝒚 − axis: .............................................................................................. 26
Equation of a line passing through a point (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and having gradient 𝒎: .......................................... 26
Equation of a line with gradient 𝒎 and 𝒚 −intercept as 𝒄: ..................................................................... 26
Point of intersection of two lines: ........................................................................................................... 27
Equation of Circles: .................................................................................................................................. 31
Expanded form of the equation of a circle: ............................................................................................. 32
Answers .................................................................................................................................................... 38
Module Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 40
Circular Measure ........................................................................................................................................ 40
Coordinate Geometry ................................................................................................................................ 40
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Basics of Geometrical shapes

Basic 2D shapes:
Triangle:
If the three sides of the triangle are known (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐),
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 + 𝒄
𝒂+𝒃+𝒄
𝑺𝒆𝒎𝒊 − 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓, 𝒔 =
𝟐
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = √𝒔(𝒔 − 𝒂)(𝒔 − 𝒃)(𝒔 − 𝒄)
(Herron’s Formula)
If the base 𝑏 and the height ℎ are known,
𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = ×𝒃×𝒉
𝟐
Square:
𝑺𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 = 𝒂
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟒 × 𝒂
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒂𝟐

Rectangle:
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝒍
𝑩𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝒃
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐 × (𝒍 + 𝒃)
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒍 × 𝒃
Parallelogram:
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 = 𝒃
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 = 𝒉
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝒃 × 𝒉

Rhombus:
𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒖𝒔 = 𝒅𝟏 , 𝒅𝟐
𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × 𝒅 𝟏 × 𝒅𝟐
𝟐
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Trapezium:
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔 = 𝒂, 𝒃
𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒉
𝟏
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × (𝒂 + 𝒃) × 𝒉
𝟐

Circles:
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝒓; 𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝒓
𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐
Where,
𝟐𝟐
𝝅= = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒𝟏
𝟕

Sector:
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝒓; 𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝜽
𝜽
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒄, 𝑳 = × 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
𝜽
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = × 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝟎°
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐𝒓 + 𝑳

Basic 3D shapes:
Cube:
𝑺𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝑪𝒖𝒃𝒆 = 𝒂
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟔𝒂𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒂𝟑
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 = 𝒂√𝟑

Cuboid:
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒅 = 𝒍, 𝒃, 𝒉
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟐 × (𝒍𝒃 + 𝒃𝒉 + 𝒉𝒍)
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒍𝒃𝒉
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 = √𝒍𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒉𝟐
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Right Circular Cylinder:

𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝒓, 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒉
When a rectangle is rotated about its length to make a cylinder,
𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 = 𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
When a rectangle is rotated about its breadth to make a cylinder,
𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 = 𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 = 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉 = 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 × 𝒉
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓(𝒉 + 𝒓)
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 = 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝒉
Right Circular Cone:
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝒓, 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒉; 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 = 𝒍
𝒍𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 + 𝒉𝟐 ; 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒍𝟐 − 𝒉𝟐 ; 𝒉𝟐 = 𝒍𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒓𝒍
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝝅𝒓(𝒍 + 𝒓)
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓 𝒉 = × 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝒉 = × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓
𝟑 𝟑 𝟑
Sphere:
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝒓
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝟒 𝟑
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓
𝟑

Hemisphere:
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 = 𝒓
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟑𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝝅𝒓
𝟑
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Some important theorems and concepts to remember:

Angles:
Acute - Angles less than 90°
Right - Angles that are equal to 90°
Obtuse - Angles greater than 90° and lesser than 180°
Straight - Angles that are equal to 180°
Reflex - Angles greater than 180°
Complementary - A pair of angles whose sum is equal to 90°
Supplementary - A pair of angles whose sum is equal to 180°
Lines:
Parallel lines - Lines that have no common points and do not meet.
Perpendicular lines - Lines that are at right angles to each other.
Linear pair of angles:
When a ray touches a line, the sum of the
two adjacent angles formed is 180°.

Vertically Opposite angles:

If two lines intersect each other,
the pairs of vertically opposite angles formed are equal.

Parallel lines and transversal:

A line which intersects two or more lines at distinct points is called a transversal.

When a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then angles in

(i) each pair of corresponding angles are equal
(ii) each pair of alternate angles are equal
(iii) each pair of interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary.
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Types of triangles:
On the basis of sides,
Equilateral triangle - All the three sides are equal
Isosceles triangle - Two sides and their opposite angles are equal
Scalene triangle - All the sides are of different lengths
On the basis of angles,
Acute angled triangle - All the three angles are acute
Obtuse angled triangle - Any one of the three angles is obtuse
Right angled triangle - Any one of the three angles is 90°
Angle Sum property of a triangle:
The sum of the three angles in a triangle is 180°.

Exterior angles of a triangle:

An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to
the sum of the two interior opposite angles.

Locus:
The locus of points that are equidistant from two given points
is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining the two points.

The locus of points equidistant from two intersecting lines

is the angle bisector of each angle that is formed between the two lines.

Quadrilaterals:
The sum of interior angles of a quadrilateral equals 360°.
 9

Types of quadrilaterals:

Baudhayan / Pythagoras Theorem:

In a right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is
equal to sum of the squares of the other two sides.
(or)
In a triangle, if the square of one side is equal to the sum
of the squares of the other two sides, the angle opposite
the first side is a right angle.
 10

Circles:
Some Definitions:
Radius : A line segment joining the centre of the circle to a point on the circle.
Chord : A line segment joining any two points of a circle.
Diameter : A chord passing through the centre of a circle.
(The diameter is the longest chord of a circle)
Arc : A part of a circle’s circumference.
Semicircle : Circular arc divided by the diameter.
Sector : The region bounded by an arc of a circle and two radii at its end points.
Segment : Circular parts divided by a chord.
Circumference : The length of the boundary of a circle.
Minor arc : Arc whose length is lesser than the semicircle.
Major arc : Arc whose length is greater than the semicircle.
Concentric circles : Circles that have the same centre.
Congruent circles : Circles that have the same radius.

Theorem:
The perpendicular drawn from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
(or)
The line joining the centre of a circle to the midpoint of a chord is
perpendicular to the chord.

Angles in a circle and cyclic quadrilateral:

Theorem:
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc is double the angle subtended by the arc on any point
on the rest of the circle.
The angle subtended by a semicircle
is a right angle.

Theorem:
Angles subtended in the same segment of a circle are equal.
11
 12

Cyclic Quadrilateral : A quadrilateral in which a circle passes through all its four vertices.
Theorem:
Sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to 180°.
(or)
If a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is supplementary,
then the quadrilateral is cyclic.

Secants, tangents and their properties:

Tangent : A line which touches a circle at exactly one point.
Point of Contact : The point where the tangent touches the circle.
Secant : A line which intersects the circle in two distinct points.

Theorem:
The radius of a circle is perpendicular to the tangent to the circle at the point
of contact of the tangent.

Tangents from a point outside the circle:

(i) From an external point, two tangents can be drawn to a circle.
(ii) The lengths of the tangents from the external point are equal.
(iii) The tangents drawn from an external point to the circle are
equally inclined to the line joining the external point to the
centre of the circle.
 13

Angles made by a tangent and a chord:

The angles formed by a chord in alternate segments through
the point of contact of a tangent to the circle is equal to the angle
between the chord and the tangent.

Sine rule:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
Cosine rule:
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴
 14

Unit - I
Circular Measure
Radians:
Radians are a measurement unit of angles. It is based on the circular measurement of angles.
We can explain this concept using a unit circle.
We know that a unit circle has its radius as 1 unit. Hence, the circumference of the unit circle is 2𝜋.
We can divide a circle into 360 sectors such that each sector forms a 1° angle.
Then, the circumference also gets divided into 360 arcs and each arc has its length as
2𝜋 𝜋
=
360 180
Hence, we can conclude that,
𝜋
1° = radians
180
We can also make a simpler statement which is 180° = 𝜋 radians.
The following figure shows the radian measures of a few acute angles.

TO DO:
(i) Find the degree values of the angles labelled in radians in the above figure.
(ii) Mark the other angles in the figures in both degrees and radians.

Note:
𝝅
(i) To convert angles in degrees into radians, multiply it by .
𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝟏𝟖𝟎
(ii) To convert angles in radians into degrees, multiply it by .
𝝅
 15

Exercise I - 1
I. Convert the following angles in degrees into radians in an exact form:
1. 15° 2. 45° 3. 225° 4. 300° 5. 540°
II. Convert the following angles in degrees into radians, giving your answers in 𝟑 significant figures:
1. 56° 2. 175° 3. 415° 4. 340° 5. 265°
III. Convert the following angles in radians into degrees, giving the exact answer:
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6𝜋
5 9 4 8
IV. Convert the following angles in radians into degrees, giving your answers in 𝟏 decimal place:
1. 0.346 2. 1.253 3. 0.721 4. 2.50 5. 3.141

Circle Sectors:
You are already familiar with arc sectors and the lengths of sector arcs and the areas of sectors.
Now, let us derive the formulae which can be used when angles are given in radians.
In the following figure, the arc sector 𝑂𝐴𝐶𝐵 has its radius as 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑟 and the centre angle ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 = 𝜃.
Length of arc formula is
𝜃
̂=
𝑙 = 𝐴𝐶𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟
360°
Now, applying 360° = 2𝜋 radians, we get
𝜃
𝑙= × 2𝜋𝑟
2𝜋
𝒍 = 𝒓𝜽
Sector area formula is
𝜃
𝐴= × 𝜋𝑟 2
360°
Now, applying 360° = 2𝜋 radians, we get
𝜃
𝐴= × 𝜋𝑟 2
2𝜋
𝟏 𝟐
𝑨= 𝒓 𝜽
𝟐
Area of triangle ∆𝑶𝑨𝑩 is given by the formula
1 1
Area of triangle = ab sin C = × 𝑟 × 𝑟 × sin 𝜃
2 2
𝟏 𝟐
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟐
Hence, the shaded area of the figure is given by the formula,
= Sector area − Triangle area
𝟏 𝟐
= 𝒓 (𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)
𝟐
 16

Note: All the above formulae should be used and the angles should be in radians only.
TODO:
Derive a formula to find the length of the chord AB using cosine formula and other trigonometric
formulae.

Note: Always set your calculator to radians mode while solving problems from this topic.
Using the formulae derived above and the theorems we recapped at the start of this module, solve the
problems in the following exercise.

Exercise I – 2
1. In the following figure, 𝑃𝑇 is the tangent to the circle. Find the perimeter and area of the shaded part.

2. In the figure given below, two tangents were drawn to the circle from the point 𝑇 and they touch the
circle at the points 𝑃 and 𝑄. Find the shaded area.

3. In the figure shown in the right, the circle is divided into two
regions 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 . It is given that, the perimeter of the region
𝑅1 is equal to the length of the major arc in the region 𝑅2 .
(i) Find the exact value of angle 𝜃.
(ii) Find the exact area of region 𝑅2 when the area of 𝑅1 is 30 cm2 .
 17

4. In the following figure, 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a semi circle. 𝐵𝐷 is an arc of a circle whose centre is 𝐴.
(i) Find the exact length of the arc 𝐵𝐷.
(ii) Find the exact shaded area.

5. In the figure shown in the right, the two chords 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐷𝐸 are equal.
(i) Find the angle ∠𝐷𝑂𝐸 to 3 significant figures.
(ii) Find the non-shaded area.
(iii) Find the perimeter of the non-shaded area.

6. In the figure shown below, 𝐴𝐵 is the arc with centre at 𝑂. Point 𝐴 is the midpoint of the side 𝑂𝑋.
BX is the tangent to the circle with centre 𝑂 at the point B.
(i) Find the shaded area.
(ii) Find the perimeter of the shaded area.

7. In the figure shown in the right, 𝑅𝑆 is the common tangent

to both of the circles 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 .
𝑃 and 𝑄 are the centres of the both circles.
(i) Find the length of 𝑅𝑆.
(ii) Find the shaded area.
 18

8. In the figure given in the right,

(i) Find the angle ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 in 4 significant figures.
(ii) Find the shaded area.

9. The following figure shows a rhombus with side 5 cm

and ∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 = 1.2 radians. Arc 𝐵𝑄𝐷 is drawn with 𝐴 as
centre and 𝐴𝐵 as radius. Arc 𝐵𝑃𝐷 is drawn with 𝐶 as centre
and 𝐵𝐶 as radius.
(i) Find the shaded area.
(ii) Find the length 𝑃𝑄.

10. In the figure shown in the right,

𝐶1 is the circle with centre at 𝐴 and radius 6 cm.
𝐶2 is the circle with centre at 𝐵 and radius 10 cm.
Both circles touch at the point 𝑋.
(i) Find the angle 𝜃.
(ii) Find the perimeter of the shaded part.

11. The figure shown in the right,

Arc 𝐴𝐵 is drawn with centre at 𝑂 and radius 𝑟 and
arc 𝐴𝐷 is drawn with centre at 𝐶 and radius 𝐴𝐶.
(i) Find 𝐴𝐶 in terms of 𝑟 and 𝜃.
𝜋
(ii) Find the perimeter of the shaded region for 𝜃 =
3

and 𝑟 = 4, giving your answer as an exact value.

 19

12. In the following figure both arcs 𝑃𝑄 and 𝑅𝑆 are drawn with centre at 𝑂 but with radius 𝑂𝑃 and
𝑂𝑅 resectively. It is given that the area of the shaded region is equal to the area of the circle 𝐶.
(i) Find the angle 𝑃𝑂𝑄.
(ii) Find the perimeter of the shaded region.
 20

Unit - II
Coordinate Geometry
Coordinates system:
You were already introduced to the 2D coordinates system.
The coordinates system mainly deals with the 2D plane, which is also called the 𝑋𝑌 plane, that consists of
both 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes.
Coordinate geometry deals with the geometrical application and calculation involving both 𝑥 and
𝑦 coordinates. It is also known as Analytical geometry or Cartesian geometry. The 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates
are also known as Cartesian coordinates.
Coordinate geometry is the base for lots of other mathematical fields such as 3D geometry, Vector calculus,
Differentiation, Integration, etc.
Distance between two points:
Consider two points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
in the Cartesian plane as shown in the figure.
To find the distance 𝐴𝐵, draw the following
constructions.
➢ Draw 𝐴𝑀 ⊥ 𝑥 −axis.
➢ Draw 𝐵𝑁 ⊥ 𝑥 −axis.
➢ Draw 𝐴𝐶 ⊥ 𝐵𝑁.
Now, points 𝑀 and 𝑁 are 𝑀(𝑥1 , 0) and 𝑁(𝑥2 , 0)
respectively. Hence, the distance 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 .
Also, 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 .
Similarly, we can get 𝐵𝐶 as 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 .
By using Pythagoras theorem in the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶,
𝐴𝐵2 = 𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 .
𝐴𝐵2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
Hence, the distance between two points in a Cartesian plane is given by the formula,

𝒅 = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐

TO THINK: Can the formula for distance be written as

𝑑 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2
TODO:
Derive a formula to find the distance from the origin for any point (𝒙, 𝒚).
 21

Exercise II – 1
1. Determine whether the points 𝐴(−3, −4), 𝐵(2,6) and 𝐶 (−6,10) are vertices of a right-angled triangle.
2. Show that the points (𝑎, 𝑎), (−𝑎, −𝑎) and (−𝑎√3, 𝑎√3) form an equilateral triangle.
3. Let 𝑃 be a point on the perpendicular bisector of the segment joining (2,3) and (6,5). If the
coordinates of the point 𝑃 are equal, find the coordinates of 𝑃.
4. Show that (4,3)is the centre of the circle which passes through the points (9,3), (7, −1) and (1, −1).
Find also its radius.
5. If the point (𝛼, 𝛽 ) is equidistant from (3, −4) and (8, −5), show that 5𝛼 − 𝛽 − 32 = 0.
6. If the distance between two points (𝑥, 7) and (1,15) is 10, find 𝑥.
7. If the length of the line segment with end points (2, −6) and (2, 𝑦) is 4, find 𝑦.
8. Find the perimeter of the triangle with vertices (0,8), (6,0) and origin.
9. Find the area of the rhombus 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 with vertices 𝐴(2,0), 𝐵(5, −5), 𝐶 (8,0) and 𝐷 (5,5).
10. The radius of the circle with centre at the origin is 10 units. Write the coordinates of the point where
the circle intersects the axes. Find the distance between any two of such points.
11. In what ratio does the point 𝑃(−2,3) divide the line segment joining the points 𝐴(−3,5) and
𝐵(4, −9) internally?
Midpoint of two points:
The midpoint of the two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is the point that lies exactly at an equal distance from
both of these points and lies on the same line connecting the two given points. Hence, the coordinates of the
midpoint are just the average of the coordinates of the two given points.
Hence, the midpoint is:
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
( , )
𝟐 𝟐
If midpoint is given and also one of the endpoints is also given, then to find the other endpoint we can use
the vector movement concept. The following examples illustrate this concept.
Example II – 1: If the midpoint of a line segment is (2, −3) and one of its endpoints is (−2, 7), find the
length of this line segment.
Say, 𝐴(−2, 7), 𝑀(2, −3) and the other end point is 𝐵.
4
From 𝐴 to 𝑀, the transition vector is ( ). Then, from 𝑀 to 𝐵, applying the same transition vector, we get
−10
point 𝐵 as
2 4 6
( )+( )=( )
−3 −10 −13
Hence, the point 𝐵 is (6, −13).
2
Length 𝐴𝐵 = √(6 − (−2)) + (−13 − 7)2 = 4√29

Exercise II – 2
1. If 𝐶 is the midpoint of the line segment joining 𝐴(4,0) and 𝐵(0,6) and if 𝑂 is the origin, show that
𝐶 is equidistant from all the vertices of ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵.
2. The centre of a circle is at (−6,4). If one end of a diameter of the circle is at the origin, then find the
other end.
 22

Straight lines:
In this topic, we will learn the features and parameters (gradient, intercepts) of a straight line in the Cartesian
plane.
The Angle, a line makes with positive 𝒙 − axis:
The basic parameter of defining a straight line in the Cartesian plane is the angle that the line makes with
positive 𝑥 − axis. Here, the terminology positive 𝑥 − axis means that the angle is measured from the
𝑥 − axis to the left of the line and in anti-clockwise direction.
In the figure shown here, two lines 𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝟏 and 𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝟐 are shown
and the angles those lines make with the positive 𝑥 − axis are also
shown as 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 .

Gradient of a line:
The gradient of a line is defined as the tangent ratio of the angle the line makes with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
The gradient is denoted as 𝑚.
The figure shows a line which makes the
angle 𝜃 with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
Considering two points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
on the line, let us try to find the formula to find
the gradient of the given line.
Constructing a right-angled triangle ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,
right-angled at 𝐶, we get 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ,
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 and ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 𝜃.

From the triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶,

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
tan 𝜃 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Hence, the gradient 𝑚 is given by,
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒎=
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
NOTE:
1. When 𝑚 = 0, the line is parallel to the 𝑥 − axis(𝜃 = 0°).
2. When 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 , the gradient is not defined. In this case, the line is perpendicular to the 𝑥 − axis
(𝜃 = 90°).
3. When 𝑚 > 0, the line makes an acute angle with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
4. When 𝑚 < 0, the line makes an obtuse angle with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
 23

Condition for the lines to be parallel:

When two lines are parallel, they make equal angles with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
Hence, the gradients of parallel lines are equal.
If two lines that have their gradients as 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 respectively
are parallel, then

𝒎 𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐

Condition for the lines to be perpendicular:

Figure shows two lines perpendicular to each other.
Both lines are meeting at the point (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ).
Line 1 is passing through the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and has its gradient as
𝑦3 − 𝑦1
𝑚1 =
𝑥3 − 𝑥1
Line 2 is passing through the point (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and has its gradient as
𝑦3 − 𝑦2
𝑚2 =
𝑥3 − 𝑥2
The three points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) form a right-angled triangle.
Hence, by applying Pythagoras theorem,
(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 = (𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑥2 − 𝑥3 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦3 )2
𝑥2 2 − 2𝑥2 𝑥1 + 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 2 − 2𝑦2 𝑦1 + 𝑦1 2
= 𝑥3 2 − 2𝑥3 𝑥1 + 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦3 2 − 2𝑦3 𝑦1 + 𝑦1 2 + 𝑥2 2 − 2𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 2 + 𝑦2 2 − 2𝑦2 𝑦3 + 𝑦3 2
Cancelling out the common terms both sides,
−2𝑥2 𝑥1 − 2𝑦2 𝑦1 = 𝑥3 2 − 2𝑥3 𝑥1 + 𝑦3 2 − 2𝑦3 𝑦1 − 2𝑥2 𝑥3 + 𝑥3 2 − 2𝑦2 𝑦3 + 𝑦3 2
−2𝑥2 𝑥1 − 2𝑦2 𝑦1 = 2𝑥3 2 − 2𝑥3 𝑥1 + 2𝑦3 2 − 2𝑦3 𝑦1 − 2𝑥2 𝑥3 − 2𝑦2 𝑦3
Dividing the entire equation by 2,
−𝑥2 𝑥1 − 𝑦2 𝑦1 = 𝑥3 2 − 𝑥3 𝑥1 + 𝑦3 2 − 𝑦3 𝑦1 − 𝑥2 𝑥3 − 𝑦2 𝑦3
Separating all the 𝑥 − terms and 𝑦 − terms to the either side,
−𝑥3 2 + 𝑥3 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑥3 = 𝑦3 2 − 𝑦3 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 𝑦3 + 𝑦2 𝑦1
−𝑥3 (𝑥3 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑥2 (𝑥3 − 𝑥1 ) = 𝑦3 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 ) − 𝑦2 (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 )
−(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) = (𝑦3 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦3 − 𝑦2 )
(𝑦3 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦3 − 𝑦2 ) = −(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 )
(𝑦3 − 𝑦1 )(𝑦3 − 𝑦2 )
= −1
(𝑥3 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥3 − 𝑥2 )

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏
 24

The angle a line makes with the positive 𝒙 − axis:

We know that the gradient of a line is the tangent ratio of the angle that the line makes with positive 𝑥 −
axis. Hence, if the gradient of a line is known, then it is easier to find the angle that the line makes with
positive 𝑥 − axis, using the following expression.
tan 𝜃 = 𝑚
where 𝑚 is the gradient of the line and 𝜃 is the angle the line makes with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
We know that when the gradient 𝑚 is positive, 𝜃 is an acute angle and if 𝑚 is negative, 𝜃 is an obtuse angle.
Hence, for gradient = 𝑚,

𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒎
and for gradient = −𝑚,

𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒎
The angle between two lines:
The angle between the two lines is the difference between the angles which both the lines make with the
positive 𝑥 − axis.
If 𝜃1 is the angle that line 1 makes with positive 𝑥 − axis and 𝜃2 is the angle that line 2 makes with positive
𝑥 − axis, then the angle between the two lines is

= |𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 |

Exercise II – 3
1. Find the gradient of the straight line which makes a 60° angle with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
2. Find the gradient of the straight line which makes a 90° angle with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
3. Find the gradient of the straight line which makes a 30° angle with the positive 𝑦 − axis.
4. Find the gradient of the straight line passing through the points (3, −2) and (7,2).
5. Find the gradient of the straight line passing through the points (1 + √3, 2) and (3 + √3, 4).

6. Find the angle that the line passing through (3, √3) and (0,0) makes with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
7. Find the angle that the line passing through (𝑎, 𝑏) and (−𝑎, −𝑏) makes with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
8. Find the gradient of the line which passes through the origin and the midpoint of the line segment
joining the points (0, −4) and (8,0).
9. The side 𝐴𝐵 of a square 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is parallel to the 𝑥 − axis. Find the
(i) gradient of 𝐴𝐵.
(ii) gradient of 𝐵𝐶.
(iii) gradient of the diagonal 𝐴𝐶.
10. The side 𝐵𝐶 of an equilateral triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is parallel to the 𝑥 − axis. Find the
(i) gradient of 𝐴𝐵
(ii) gradient of 𝐵𝐶.
1 1
11. If the points (𝑎, 1), (1,2) and (0, 𝑏 + 1) are co-linear, then show that + = 1.
𝑎 𝑏
 25

12. The line joining the points 𝐴(−2,3) and 𝐵(𝑎, 5) is parallel to the line joining the points 𝐶 (0,5) and
𝐷(−2,1). Find the value of 𝑎.
13. The line joining the points 𝐴(0,5) and 𝐵(4,2) is perpendicular to the line joining the points
𝐶 (−1, −2) and 𝐷(5, 𝑏). Find the value of 𝑏.
14. The vertices of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 are 𝐴(1,8), 𝐵(−2,4) and 𝐶 (8, −5). If 𝑀 and 𝑁 are the midpoints of 𝐴𝐵 and
𝐴𝐶 respectively, find the gradient of 𝑀𝑁 and hence verify that 𝑀𝑁 is parallel to 𝐵𝐶.
15. A triangle has its vertices at (6,7), (2, −9) and (−4,1). Find the three angles of this triangle.
16. A parallelogram has its vertices at (1,2), (−2,2), (−4, −3) and (−1, −3) taken in order. Find the four
angles of this parallelogram.

Equation of a straight line:

The linear equation which is satisfied by all the points on a straight line is called the equation of the line.
The general form of the equation of any straight line is

𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
where (𝑥, 𝑦) refers to any point on the line and is called as the reference point.
Equation of 𝒙 − axis:
All the points on the 𝑥 − axis are in the form (𝑥, 0). It clearly shows that the value of 𝑥 varies along the 𝑥 −
axis and the value of 𝑦 remains the same, that is 𝑦 = 0.
Hence, the equation of the 𝑥 − axis can be given as

𝒚=𝟎
Equation of a line parallel to the 𝒙 − axis:
Consider a line parallel to the 𝑥 − axis, at a distance 𝑐 from the origin,
as shown in the figure.
All the points on this line are in the form (𝑥, 𝑐). It clearly shows that the
value of 𝑥 varies along the 𝑥 − axis and the value of 𝑦 remains the
same, that is 𝑦 = 𝑐.
Hence, the equation of a line parallel to the 𝑥 − axis, at a distance 𝑐
from the origin can be given as

𝒚=𝒄
Equation of 𝒚 − axis:
All the points on the 𝑦 − axis are in the form (0, 𝑦). It clearly shows that value of 𝑦 varies along the 𝑦 −
axis and the value of 𝑥 remains the same, that is 𝑥 = 0.
Hence, the equation of the 𝑦 − axis can be given as

𝒙=𝟎
 26

Equation of a line parallel to the 𝒚 − axis:

Consider a line parallel to the 𝑦 − axis, at a distance 𝑘 from the origin,
as shown in the figure.
All the points on this line are in the form (𝑘, 𝑦). It clearly shows that the
value of 𝑦 varies along the 𝑦 − axis and the value of 𝑥 remains the
same, that is 𝑥 = 𝑘.
Hence, the equation of a line parallel to the 𝑦 − axis, at a distance 𝑘
from the origin can be given as

𝒙=𝒌
Equation of a line passing through a point (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) and having gradient 𝒎:
Consider a line with a gradient 𝑚 passing through the point 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ).
Let the reference point on the line be 𝑅 (𝑥, 𝑦). Now, the gradient of the line is
𝑦 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥 − 𝑥1
Hence, the equation of the line can be written as

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )

Equation of a line with gradient 𝒎 and 𝒚 −intercept as 𝒄:

𝑦 − intercept is the point where the line meets the 𝑦 −axis. Hence, the point has 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 𝑐.
Applying these in the equation
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 𝑐 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 0)
𝑦 − 𝑐 = 𝑚𝑥

𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
This can be used to find the equation of a line when the gradient and the 𝑦 − intercept is known.
This form of equation is also used to find the gradient of a line when its equation is given.
The following example illustrates this.
Note: For finding equations of straight lines, it is advised that you use 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) instead of
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, like you did in IGCSE. 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 should be used only when both 𝑚 and 𝑐 are known.
Example II – 2: Find the gradient of the line whose equation is given by 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟏.
Solution: Rearranging the equation into the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐:
2 1
3𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑦 = − 𝑥 +
3 3
Comparing this form with 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 form,
2
𝑚=−
3
 27

Exercise II – 4
1. Find the equations of straight lines which are parallel to the 𝑥 − axis and at a distance of 5 units from
the 𝑥 − axis.
2. Find the equations of straight lines which are parallel to the coordinate axes and pass through the point
(−3, −1).
3. Find the equation of a straight line which makes a 60° angle with the positive 𝑥 − axis and has its 𝑦 −
intercept as 3.
4. Find the equation of the line intersecting the 𝑦 − axis at a distance of 3 units from the origin and
tan 𝜃 = 1⁄2 , where 𝜃 is the angle the line makes with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
5. Find the gradient of the straight line 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0.
6. Find the gradient of the straight line 5𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 1 = 0.
7. Find the gradient of the line 3𝑥 = 4.
8. Find the equation of the straight line which passes through the midpoint of the line segment joining
(4,2) and (3,1) whose angle of inclination is 30°.
9. Find the equation of the straight line passing through the points (2,5) and (0,6).
10. (i) Show that the equation of a line whose 𝑥 −intercept is 𝑎 and 𝑦 − intercept is 𝑏 is
given by
𝑥 𝑦
+ =1
𝑎 𝑏
(ii) Using the equation derived in (i) find the equation of the straight line whose 𝑥 −
intercept is 2⁄5 and 𝑦 − intercept is − 3⁄4. Give your answer in the form
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
11. Find the points where the line 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 6 meets the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes.
12. The straight line whose equation is 4𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5 = 0 meets the coordinate axes at the points 𝐴 and
𝐵 respectively. Find the area of the triangle 𝑂𝐴𝐵.
𝑦
13. If the straight lines = 𝑥 − 𝑝 and 𝑎𝑥 + 5 = 3𝑦 are parallel, then find 𝑎.
2

14. Find the value of 𝑎 if the straight lines 5𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 9 = 0 and 𝑎𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 11 = 0 are perpendicular to
each other.
15. Find the values of 𝑝 for which the straight lines 8𝑝𝑥 + (2 − 3𝑝)𝑦 + 1 = 0 and 𝑝𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 7 = 0 are
perpendicular to each other.
16. If the straight line passing through the points (ℎ, 3) and (4,1) intersects the line 7𝑥 − 9𝑦 − 19 = 0 at
right angle, then find the value of ℎ.
17. Find the equation of the straight line parallel to the line 3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 7 = 0 and passing through the point
(1, −2).
18. Find the equation of the straight line perpendicular to the straight line 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 = 0 and passing
through the point (1, −2).

Point of intersection of two lines:

To find the point of intersection of two straight lines, solve the equations of those lines to find the point
(𝑥, 𝑦) that satisfies both equations.
 28

Exercise II – 5
1. In the following figure, the points 𝐴 and 𝐶 lies on the 𝑥 − axis and 𝑦 − axis respectively. The equation
of line 𝐴𝐶 is 2𝑦 + 𝑥 = 16. Line 𝐵𝑋 is perpendicular to line 𝐴𝐶.

(i) Find the coordinates of 𝑋.

The point 𝐷 is such that the quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 has 𝐴𝐶 as a line of symmetry.
(ii) Find the coordinates of 𝐷.
(iii) Find the perimeter of 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.
2. In the following figure, equation of line 𝐴𝐶 is 2𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4. 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐶 is perpendicular to 𝐵𝐷.

Find the coordinates of 𝐵 and 𝐶.

3. In an isosceles triangle 𝑃𝑄𝑅, 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝑅. The base 𝑄𝑅 lies on the 𝑥 − axis, 𝑃 lies on the 𝑦 − axis and
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 9 = 0 is the equation of 𝑃𝑄. Find the equation of the straight line along 𝑃𝑅.
4. If 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7 and 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 8 are the equations of the lines of two diameters of a circle, find the
radius of the circle if the point (0, −2) lies on the circle.
 29

5. The diagram shows a rectangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷. The diagonal 𝐵𝐷 is parallel to the 𝑥 − axis.

(i) Prove that the 𝑦 − coordinate of 𝐷 is 6.

(ii) Assuming the 𝑥 − coordinate of 𝐷 as ℎ, find the gradients of 𝐴𝐷 and 𝐶𝐷.
(iii) Find the points 𝐵 and 𝐷.
(iv) Find the area of the rectangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.
6. In the following triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶, gradients of 𝐴𝐵, 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶 are 2𝑚, −2𝑚 and 𝑚 respectively, where
𝑚 is a positive constant.

(i) Find the value of 𝑚.

(ii) Find the coordinates of 𝐶.
The perpendicular bisector of 𝐴𝐵 meets 𝐵𝐶 at 𝐷.
(iii) Find the coordinates of 𝐷.
7. The point 𝑅 is the reflection of the point (−1,3) in the line 3𝑦 + 2𝑥 = 33. Find by calculation the
coordinates of 𝑅.
𝑥 𝑦
8. The line + = 1, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are positive constants, meets the 𝑥 − axis at 𝑃 and the 𝑦 −axis at 𝑄.
𝑎 𝑏
1
Given that 𝑃𝑄 = √45 and that the gradient of the line 𝑃𝑄 is − , find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
2
 30

9. In the following figure, line 𝐿1 is parallel to line 𝑂𝐵 and line 𝐿2 is perpendicular to 𝐴𝐵.
Find the coordinates of point 𝐶.

10. In the following figure, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a rhombus.

(i) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of 𝐴𝐶.
(ii) Find the coordinates of 𝐵 and 𝐷.
(iii) Find the area of the rhombus 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷.

11. In the quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷, find

(i) Find the coordinates of 𝑀 and 𝐷.
(ii) Find the ratio 𝐴𝑀: 𝑀𝐶.
 31

12. In the figure shown,

(i) Find the coordinates of 𝑋.
(ii) Find the ratio 𝐴𝑋: 𝑋𝐵.

13. Find the coordinates of 𝐶 in the figure shown.

Equation of Circles:
We have learned to find the equations of straight lines.
In this topic, we will learn how to find the equation of a circle.
Consider the circle shown below, whose centre is at (𝑎, 𝑏) and has a radius of 𝑟 units.

Consider a point (𝑥, 𝑦) which lies on the circle. Now, the distance between the point (𝑥, 𝑦) and the centre
(𝑎, 𝑏) is the radius. Hence,

√(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
All the points on the circle whose centre is at (𝑎, 𝑏) and has a radius of 𝑟 satisfies this equation.
 32

Hence, the equation of a circle whose centre is at (𝑎, 𝑏) with a radius 𝑟 is given by

(𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐
If the centre is at the origin,

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐
This is the standard form of circle equations.
Example II – 3: Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at (−𝟓, 𝟒) and the radius is 𝟕 .
(𝑥 + 5)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 49
Example II – 4: Find the equation of the circle described on the line joining the points (𝟑, 𝟒) and
(𝟐, −𝟕) as diameter.
We have the endpoints of the diameter as (3,4) and (2, −7). The midpoint of these endpoints is the centre of
the circle. Hence, the centre of the circle is
3+2 4−7 5 3
( , ) = ( ,− )
2 2 2 2
The radius is half the length of the diameter. The length of the diameter is

√(3 − 2)2 + (4 + 7)2 = √12 + 112 = √122

The equation of the circle is
2
5 2 3 2 √122
(𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 + ) = ( )
2 2 2
(2𝑥 − 5)2 + (2𝑦 + 3)2 = 122
Expanded form of the equation of a circle:
We know that the equation of a circle whose centre is at (𝑎, 𝑏) with a radius 𝑟 is given by
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
Expanding the equation,
𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑟 2
By rearranging,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑟 2 = 0
Assigning −2𝑎 = 2𝑔, −2𝑏 = 2𝑓 and 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑟 2 = 𝑐, the equation gets reduced as

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
This is the expanded form of the circle equation.
Since −2𝑎 = 2𝑔 ⇒ 𝑎 = −𝑔, −2𝑏 = 2𝑓 ⇒ 𝑏 = −𝑓, the center of the circle is
(−𝒈, −𝒇)
Similarly,
𝑐 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑟 2 ⇒ 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑐
Applying 𝑎 = −𝑔 and 𝑏 = −𝑓, the radius of the circle is

𝒓 = √𝒈𝟐 + 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒄
 33

Example II – 5: Find the centre and radius of the circle 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝟐 = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚 + 𝟕
Rearranging the equation into the standard form,
3 5 7
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑥 + 𝑦 − = 0
2 2 2
Method 1: (Using “completing the square” method)

2
3 3 2 9
𝑥 − 𝑥 ⇒ (𝑥 − ) −
2 4 16

2
5 5 2 25
𝑦 + 𝑦 ⇒ (𝑦 + ) −
2 4 16
Replacing in the circle equation,
3 2 9 5 2 25 7
(𝑥 − ) − + (𝑦 + ) − − =0
4 16 4 16 2
3 2 5 2 45
(𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 + ) =
4 4 8
3 2 5 2 3 2
(𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 + ) = ( √10)
4 4 4
Comparing the above equation with the standard equation of the circle (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 ,
3 5 3
The centre of the circle is ( , − ) and the radius is √10.
4 4 4

Method 2: (Using formulae)

3 5 7
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑦 − = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0,
2 2 2
3 3
2𝑔 = − ⇒ 𝑔 = −
2 4
5 5
2𝑓 = ⇒ 𝑓 =
2 4
7
𝑐=−
2
3 5
Centre is (−𝑔, −𝑓) = ( , − )
4 4

3 2 5 2 7 3
Radius is √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 = √(− ) + ( ) − (− ) = √10
4 4 2 4

Example II – 6: Find the points where the circle 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟏𝟑𝒚 − 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟎 meets the coordinate
axes.
To find the point where the circle meets the 𝑥 −axis, apply 𝑦 = 0.
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 7, −2
Hence, the circle meets the 𝑥 −axis at (7,0) and (−2,0).
To find the point where the circle meets the 𝑦 −axis, apply 𝑥 = 0.
𝑦 2 − 13𝑦 − 14 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 14, −1
Hence, the circle meets the 𝑦 −axis at (0,14) and (0, −1).
 34

Example II – 7: Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points (𝟏, 𝟏), (𝟎, −𝟏) and
(−𝟐, 𝟎).
Let the centre of the circle be 𝐶 (𝑎, 𝑏) and the points be 𝑃(1,1), 𝑄 (0, −1) and 𝑅 (−2,0). The three given
points are equidistant from the centre. Hence,
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑄
√(𝑎 − 1)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2 = √(𝑎 − 0)2 + (𝑏 + 1)2
⇒ 2𝑎 + 4𝑏 = 1 ___(1)
Similarly, 𝐶𝑄 = 𝐶𝑅 gives 4𝑎 − 2𝑏 = −3 ___(2)
1 1
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get 𝑎 = − and 𝑏 = .
2 2

The radius is given by 𝐶𝑃. Hence,

2 2
1 1 √10
𝐶𝑃 = √(− − 1) + ( − 1) =
2 2 2
Hence, the equation of the circle is
1 2 1 2 10
(𝑥 + ) + (𝑦 − ) =
2 2 4
Example II – 8: Find the points in which the line 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 cuts the circle 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟐.
Substituting 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1 in the circle equation,
𝑥 2 + (2𝑥 + 1)2 = 2 ⇒ 5𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 1 = 0
1
(5𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = , −1
5
1 7
Substituting the 𝑥 −values in 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1, we get the points as ( , ) and (−1, −1).
5 5

Note: We might use the theorems and concepts related to circles given at the start of the module
(Page numbers 10 to 13).

Exercise III – 6
1. Find the equation of the circle whose centre is at (0, −4) and touches the 𝑥 −axis.
2. Find the equation of the circle which has (1,3) and (4,5) as opposite ends of its diameter. Find also the
equation of the perpendicular diameter.
3. A circle having its centre in the first quadrant touches the 𝑦 −axis at the point (0,2) and passes through
the point (1,0). Find the equation of the circle.
4. Find the centre and radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 1 = 0.
5. (i) Find the coordinates of the centre of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 3.
(ii) Given that the point 𝐴, outside the circle, has coordinates (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑎 and 𝑏 both are positive,
and that the tangents drawn from 𝐴 to the circle are parallel to the two axes respectively, find the
values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
6. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the points
(i) (0,0), (0,1) and (2,3) (ii) (7,5), (6, −2) and (−1, −1)
7. The circle 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 25 cuts the line 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 10 = 0 at 𝐴 and 𝐵. Calculate the coordinates of 𝐴
and 𝐵.
 35

8. Find the length of the chord 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5 of the circle whose equation is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9.

9. Find the equation of the circle which has its centre at 𝐶 (3,1) and touches the line 5𝑥 − 12𝑦 + 10 = 0.

Exercise II – 7
1.

The circle 𝐶, with centre (𝑎, 𝑏) and radius 5, touches the 𝑥 −axis at (4,0), as shown in the figure.
(a) Write down the value of 𝑎 and the value of 𝑏.
(b) Find a cartesian equation of 𝐶.
A tangent to the circle, drawn from the point 𝑃(8,17), touches the circle at 𝑇.
(c) Find, to 3 significant figures, the length of 𝑃𝑇.
2. A circle 𝐶1 has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 12𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 20 = 0. The circle 𝐶1 cuts the 𝑥 −axis at the points 𝐴
and 𝐵. Find an equation of the circle 𝐶2 with diameter 𝐴𝐵.
3. A circle 𝐶 has radius √5 and has its centre at the point with coordinates (4,3).
The line 𝑙, with equation 𝑦 = 2𝑥, is a tangent to the circle 𝐶.
Find the coordinates of the point where the line 𝑙 touches 𝐶.
4.

The above figure shows the circle 𝐶. The point 𝑇 lies on the circle and the tangent at 𝑇 passes throught
the point 𝑃(12,6). The line 𝑀𝑃 cuts the circle at 𝑄.
(a) Show that the angle 𝑇𝑀𝑄 is 1.0766 radians to 4 decimal places.
The shaded region 𝑇𝑃𝑄 is bounded by the straight lines 𝑇𝑃, 𝑄𝑃 and the arc 𝑇𝑄, as shown in the figure.
(b) Find the area of the shaded region 𝑇𝑃𝑄, giving your answer to 3 decimal places.
 36

5.

The points 𝑃(−3,2), 𝑄 (9,10) and 𝑅 (𝑎, 4) lie on the circle 𝐶, as shown in the above figure.
Given that 𝑃𝑅 is a diameter of 𝐶,
(a) Show that 𝑎 = 13,
(b) find an equation for 𝐶.
6.

The above figure shows a sketch of the circle 𝐶, with centre 𝑁 and equation
169
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 =
4
(i) Write down the coordinates of 𝑁.
(ii) Find the radius of 𝐶.
The chord 𝐴𝐵 of 𝐶 is parallel to the 𝑥 −axis, lies below the 𝑥 −axis and is of length 12 units as shown
in the above figure.
(iii) Find the coordinates of 𝐴 and the coordinates of 𝐵.
(iv) Show that angle 𝐴𝑁𝐵 = 134.8°, to the nearest 0.1 of a degree.
 37

The tangents to 𝐶 at the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 meet at the point 𝑃.

(v) Find the length 𝐴𝑃, giving your answer to 3 significant figures.
7. The points 𝐴 and 𝐵 have coordinates (−2,11) and (8,1) respectively.
Given that 𝐴𝐵 is a diameter of the circle 𝐶,
(i) Show that the centre of 𝐶 has coordinates (3,6),
(ii) Find an equation for 𝐶.
(iii) Verify that the point (10,7) lies on 𝐶.
(iv) Find an equation of the tangent to 𝐶 at the point (10,7), giving your answer in the form
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑚 and 𝑐 are constants.
8. Two circles 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 have equations
(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 and (𝑥 − 5)2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
respectively.
(i) For each of these circles state the radius and the coordinates of the centre.
(ii) Sketch the circles 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 on the same diagram.
(iii) Find the exact distance between the points of intersection of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 .
9. The circle 𝐶, with centre at the point 𝐴, has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 + 9 = 0.
7
Given that the line 𝑙 with gradient is a tangent to 𝐶, and that 𝑙 touches 𝐶 at the point 𝑇, find an
2
equation of the line which passes through 𝐴 and 𝑇.
 38

Answers
Unit I – Circular Measure
Exercise I – 1
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
I. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 3𝜋
12 4 4 3
II. 1. 0.977 2. 3.05 3. 7.24 4. 5.93 5. 4.63
III. 1. 36° 2. 40° 3. 135° 4. 112.5° 5. 1080°
IV. 1. 19.8° 2. 71.8° 3. 41.3° 4. 143.2° 5. 180°
Exercise I – 2
1. Perimeter = 25.9 cm; Area = 15.3 cm2 2. 9.0 cm2 3. (i) 𝜃 =𝜋−1
30(𝜋+1) 3𝜋√2
3. (ii) 4. (i) (ii) 9𝜋 − 18 5. (i) 1.287
𝜋−1 2
1 1
5. (ii) 281 or 282 cm2 (iii) 61.1 cm 6. (i) 𝐴 = 𝑟 2 √3 − 𝑟 2 𝜋
2 6
1
6. (ii) 𝑃 = 𝑟 + 𝑟𝜋 + 𝑟√3 7. (i) 𝑅𝑆 = 8 cm (ii) 5.90 cm2 8. (i) 1.683
3
3√3
8. (ii) 14.3 cm2 9. (i) 6.70 cm2 (ii) 𝑃𝑄 = 1.75 cm 10. (i) sin−1 ( )
10
7𝜋 𝜋
10. (ii) 16.2 cm 11. (i) 𝑟 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃 (ii) + 2√3 − 2 12. (i)
3 4

12. (ii) 12 + 3𝜋
Unit II – Coordinate Geometry
Exercise II – 1
1. 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a right triangle 3. 𝑃(4,4) 4. radius = 5 6. 𝑥 = 7, −5
7. 𝑦 = −10, −2 8. 24 units 9. 30 square units 10. (±10,0), (0, ±10), 20
11. 1: 6
Exercise II – 2
2. (−12, 8)
Exercise II – 3
1. √3 2. Undefined 3. √3 4. 1 5. 1 6. 30°
𝑏 1
7. tan−1 ( ) 8. − 9. (i) 0 (ii) undefined (iii) 1
𝑎 2
9
10. (i) √3 (ii) 0 12. 𝑎 = −1 13. 𝑏 = 6 14. −
10
15. 90°, 45°, 45° 16. 68.2°, 111.8°, 68.2°, 111.8°
Exercise II – 4
1. 𝑦 = ±5 2. 𝑥 = −3 and 𝑦 = −1 3. √3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0 4. 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 6 = 0
5
5. 2 6. 7. Undefined 8. 2𝑥 − 2√3𝑦 + 3√3 − 7 = 0
3

25
9. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 12 10. (ii) 15𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 6 = 0 11. (2,0), (0, −3) 12.
8
 39

22
13. 𝑎 = 6 14. 𝑎 = 5 15. 𝑝 = 1,2 16. ℎ =
9

17. 3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 5 = 0 18. 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0
Exercise II – 5
1. (i) 𝑋(4,6) (ii) 𝐷(6,10) (iii) 40.9 2. 𝐵(6,5), 𝐶 (12,8) 3. 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 9 = 0
8
4. 5 units 5. (i) 𝑦 same as the 𝑦 − coordinate of the mid-point of 𝐴𝐶 (ii) 𝑚𝐴𝐷 =
ℎ
8
𝑚𝐶𝐷 = (iii) 𝐵(−4,6), 𝐷(16,6) (iv) 160 6. (i) 𝑚=1 (ii) 𝐶 (−1,6)
12−ℎ
6. (iii) 𝐷(5,12) 7. 𝑅 (7,15) 8. 𝑎 = 6, 𝑏 = 3 9. 𝐶 (5,5)
10. (i) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 9 = 0 (ii) 𝐵(0,9), 𝐷 (4, −3) (iii) 40 11. (i) 𝑀(5,2), 𝐷(7, −2)
11. (ii) 3: 2 12. (i) 𝑋(11,8) (ii) 3: 1 13. 𝐶 (13,7)
Exercise II – 6
1. 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 16 2. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 19 = 0,6𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 31
3. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0 4. (−2,2); 3
5. (i) (2, −3) (ii) 𝑎 = 6, 𝑏 = 1 6. (i) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0
1 2 7
6. (ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 12 = 0 7. A(0,2 ), 𝐵 (2 , ) 8. 4
2 5 10

9. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 9 = 0
Exercise II – 7
1. (a) 𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = 5 (b) (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 25 (c) 11.6
2. (𝑥 − 6)2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 3. (2,4) 4. (b) 3.507
5. (b) (𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 65 6. (i) 𝑁(2, −1) (ii) 6.5
6. (iii) (−4, −3.5), (8, −3.5) (v) 15.6
7. (ii) (𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 6)2 = 50 (iv) 7𝑥 + 𝑦 = 77
8. (i) 𝑟 = 3 for both circles, centres (2,0), (5,0)
(ii) (iii) 3√3

9. 2𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 10
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Module Summary
Circular Measure
▶ Radians:
𝝅
▶ To convert angles in degrees into radians, multiply it by .
𝟏𝟖𝟎
𝟏𝟖𝟎
▶ To convert angles in radians into degrees, multiply it by .
𝝅
▶ Circle Sectors:
If 𝑟 is the radius of the sector and 𝜃 is the angle of the sector, then
Length of arc formula is
𝒍 = 𝒓𝜽
Sector area formula is
𝟏 𝟐
𝑨= 𝒓 𝜽
𝟐
Area of triangle ∆𝑶𝑨𝑩 is given by the formula
𝟏 𝟐
𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟐
Hence, the shaded area of the figure is given by the formula,
𝟏 𝟐
= 𝒓 (𝜽 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)
𝟐
Coordinate Geometry
▶ Distance between two points:
The distance between two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) in a Cartesian plane is given by the formula:

𝒅 = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐
The distance of any point (𝑥, 𝑦) from the origin is given by the formula:

𝒅 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐
▶ Midpoint of two points:
The midpoint of two points (𝑥1, 𝑦1) and (𝑥2, 𝑦2 ) is:
𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐
( , )
𝟐 𝟐
▶ Gradient of a line:
▶ The gradient of a line joining the points (𝑥1, 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2, 𝑦2 ) is:
𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒎=
𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏
▶ When 𝑚 = 0, the line is parallel to the 𝑥 − axis(𝜃 = 0°).
▶ When 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 , the gradient is not defined. In that case, the line is perpendicular to the 𝑥 − axis.
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▶ When 𝑚 > 0, the line makes an acute angle with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
▶ When 𝑚 < 0, the line makes an obtuse angle with the positive 𝑥 − axis.
▶ If two lines that have their gradients as 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 respectively are parallel, then

𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎 𝟐
▶ If two lines that have their gradients as 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 respectively are perpendicular to each other,
then

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏
▶ If the gradient (𝑚) of a line is positive, then the angle that the line makes with the positive
𝑥 − axis is given by:

𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒎
▶ If the gradient (𝑚) of a line is negative, then the angle that the line makes with positive 𝑥 − axis
is given by:

𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒎
▶ If 𝜃1 is the angle that Line 1 makes with the positive 𝑥 − axis and 𝜃2 is the angle that Line
2 makes with the positive 𝑥 − axis, then the angle between the two lines is

= |𝜽𝟏 − 𝜽𝟐 |
▶ Equation of a straight line:
▶ Equation of the 𝑥 − axis: 𝒚=𝟎
▶ Equation of a line parallel to the 𝑥 − axis at a distance 𝑐 from the origin: 𝒚 =𝒄
▶ Equation of the 𝑦 − axis: 𝒙=𝟎
▶ Equation of a line parallel to the 𝑦 − axis at a distance 𝑘 from the origin: 𝒙 =𝒌
▶ Equation of a line with a gradient 𝒎 passing through a point (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ):

𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒎(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )
▶ Equation of a line with a gradient 𝒎 and 𝒚 −intercept as 𝒄:

𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
▶ Point of intersection of two lines:
To find the point of intersection of two straight lines, solve the equations of those lines to find the
point (𝑥, 𝑦) that satisfies both equations.
▶ Equation of a Circle:
The equation of a circle whose centre is at (𝑎, 𝑏) with radius 𝑟 is given by

(𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐
If the centre is at the origin,

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐
This is the standard form of circle equations.
 42

▶ Expanded form of equation of a circle:

▶ The expanded form of the circle equation is

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
▶ The center of the circle is
(−𝒈, −𝒇)
▶ The radius of the circle is

𝒓 = √𝒈𝟐 + 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒄
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