Strength of Materials (15CV 32)

Module 1 : Simple Stresses and Strains

Dr. H. Ananthan, Professor, VVIET,MYSURU
8/21/2017

Introduction, Definition and concept and of stress and strain. Hooke’s law, Stress-Strain

diagrams for ferrous and non-ferrous materials, factor of safety, Elongation of tapering bars

of circular and rectangular cross sections, Elongation due to self-weight. Saint Venant’s

principle, Compound bars, Temperature stresses, Compound section subjected to temperature

stresses, state of simple shear, Elastic constants and their relationship.

1.1 Introduction
In civil engineering structures, we frequently encounter structural elements such as tie members,
cables, beams, columns and struts subjected to external actions called forces or loads. These
elements have to be designed such that they have adequate strength, stiffness and stability.

The strength of a structural component is its ability to withstand applied forces without failure
and this depends upon the sectional dimensions and material characteristics. For instance a steel
rod can resist an applied tensile force more than an aluminium rod with similar diameter. Larger
the sectional dimensions or stronger is the material greater will be the force carrying capacity.

Stiffness influences the deformation as a consequence of stretching, shortening, bending, sliding,

buckling, twisting and warping due to applied forces as shown in the following figure. In a
deformable body, the distance between two points changes due to the action of some kind of
forces acting on it.
A weight suspended by two Inclined members undergo Bolt connecting the plates is subjected to
cables causes stretching of the shortening, and stretching will sliding along the failure plane. Shearing
cables. Cables are in axial be induced in the horizontal forces are induced.
tension. member. Inclined members
are in axial compression and
horizontal member is in axial
tension.

Cantilever beam subjected to Cantilever beam subjected to Buckling of long compression members
bending due to transverse loads twisting and warping due to due to axial load.
results in shortening in the torsional moments.
bottom half and stretching in
the top half of the beam.
Such deformations also depend upon sectional dimensions, length and material characteristics.
For instance a steel rod undergoes less of stretching than an aluminium rod with similar diameter
and subjected to same tensile force.

Stability refers to the ability to maintain its original configuration. This again depends upon
sectional dimensions, length and material characteristics. A steel rod with a larger length will
buckle under a compressive action, while the one with smaller length can remain stable even
though the sectional dimensions and material characteristics of both the rods are same.

The subject generally called Strength of Materials includes the study of the distribution of
internal forces, the stability and deformation of various elements. It is founded both on the
results of experiments and the application of the principles of mechanics and mathematics. The
results obtained in the subject of strength of materials form an important part of the basis of
scientific and engineering designs of different structural elements. Hence this is treated as subject
of fundamental importance in design engineering. The study of this subject in the context of
civil engineering refers to various methods of analyzing deformation behaviour of structural
elements such as plates, rods, beams, columns, shafts etc.,.

1.2 Concepts and definitions

A load applied to a structural member will induce internal forces within the member called stress
resultants and if computed based on unit cross sectional area then they are termed as intensity of
stress or simply stress in the member.
The stresses induced in the structural member will cause different types of deformation in the
member. If such deformations are computed based on unit dimensions then they are termed as
strain in the member.
The stresses and strains that develop within a structural member must be calculated in order to
assess its strength, deformations and stability. This requires a complete description of the
geometry, constraints, applied loads and the material properties of the member.
The calculated stresses may then be compared to some measure of the strength of the material
established through experiments. The calculated deformations in the member may be compared
with respect limiting criteria established based on experience. The calculated buckling load of
the member may be compared with the applied load and the safety of the member can be
assessed.
It is generally accepted that analytical methods coupled with experimental observations can
provide solutions to problems in engineering with a fair degree of accuracy. Design solutions are
worked out by a proper analysis of deformation of bodies subjected to surface and body forces
along with material properties established through experimental investigations.

1.3 Simple Stress

Consider the suspended bar of original length L0 and uniform cross sectional area A0 with a force
or load P applied to its end as shown in the following figure (a). Let us imagine that the bar is
cut in to two parts by a section x-x and study the equilibrium of the lower portion of the bar as
shown in figure (b). At the lower end, we have the applied force P

It can be noted that, the external force applied to a body in equilibrium is reacted by internal
forces set up within the material. If a bar is subjected to an axial tension or compression, P, then
the internal forces set up are distributed uniformly and the bar is said to be subjected to a uniform
direct or normal or simple stress. The stress being defined as
( )
( )
( )
Note
i. This is expressed as N/mm2 or MPa.
ii. Stress may thus be compressive or tensile depending on the nature of the load.
iii. In some cases the stress may vary across any given section, and in such cases the stress at any
point is given by the limiting value of P/A as A tends to zero.
1.4 Simple Strain

If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress, the bar will change in length. If the bar
has an original length L and changes in length by an amount L as shown below,

then the strain produced is defined as follows:

( )
( )
This strain is also termed as longitudinal strain as it is measured in the direction of application of
load.
Note:
i. Strain is thus a measure of the deformation of the member. It is simply a ratio of two quantities
with the same units. It is non-dimensional, i.e. it has no units.
ii. The deformations under load are very small. Hence the strains are also expressed as strain x 10 -6.
In such cases they are termed as microstrain ().
iii. Strain is also expressed as a percentage strain :  (%) = (L/L)100.

1.5 Elastic limit – Hooke’s law

A structural member is said to be within elastic limit, if it returns to its original dimensions when
load is removed. Within this load range, the deformations are proportional to the loads producing
them. Hooke's law states that, “the force needed to extend or compress a spring by some
distance is proportional to that distance”. This is indicated in the following figure.

Since loads are proportional to the stresses they produce and deformations are proportional to the
strains, the Hooke‟s law also implies that, “stress is proportional to strain within elastic limit”.
( ) ( ) or  / = constant
This law is valid within certain limits for most ferrous metals and alloys. It can even be assumed
to apply to other engineering materials such as concrete, timber and non-ferrous alloys with
reasonable accuracy.
The law is named after 17th-century British physicist Robert Hooke. He first stated the law in 1676 as
a Latin anagram. He published the solution of his anagram in 1678 as: “uttensio, sic vis” ("as the
extension, so the force" or "the extension is proportional to the force").

1.6 Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus

Within the elastic limits of materials, i.e. within the limits in which Hooke's law applies, it has
been found that stress/strain = constant. This is termed the modulus of elasticity or Young's
modulus. This is usually denoted by letter E and has the same units of stress. With  = P/A and 
= L/L, the following expression for E can be derived.

Young's modulus E is generally assumed to be the same in tension or compression and for most
engineering materials has a high numerical value. Typically, E = 200000 MPa for steel. This is
determined by conducting tension or compression test on specimens in the laboratory.

1.7 Tension test

In order to compare the strengths of various materials it is necessary to carry out some standard
form of test to establish their relative properties. One such test is the standard tensile test. In this
test a circular bar of uniform cross-section is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load until
failure occurs. Measurements of the change in length of a selected gauge length of the bar are
recorded throughout the loading operation by means of extensometers. A graph of load against
extension or stress against strain is produced.
1.8 Stress – Strain diagrams for ferrous metals

The typical graph for a test on a mild (low carbon) steel bar is shown in the figure below. Other
materials will exhibit different graphs but of a similar general form. Following salient points are
to be noted:
 i. In the initial stages of loading it can be observed that Hooke's law is obeyed, i.e. the material
behaves elastically and stress is proportional to strain. This is indicated by the straight-line
portion in the graph up to point A. Beyond this, some nonlinear nature of the graph can be
seen. Hence this point (A) is termed the limit of proportionality. This region is also called
linear elastic range of the material.
ii. For a small increment in loading beyond A, the material may still be elastic. Deformations
are completely recovered when load is removed but Hooke's law does not apply. The limiting
point B for this condition is termed the elastic limit. This region refers to nonlinear elastic
range. It is often assumed that points A and B are coincident.

iii. Beyond the elastic limit (A or B), plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally
recoverable. Some permanent deformation or permanent set will be there when the specimen
is unloaded. Points C, is termed as the upper yield point, and D, as the lower yield point. It is
often assumed that points C and D are coincident. Strength corresponding to this point is
termed as the yield strength of the material. Typically this strength corresponds to the load
carrying capacity.

iv. Beyond point (C or D), strain increases rapidly without proportionate increases in load or
stress. The graph covers a much greater portion along the strain axis than in the elastic range
of the material. The capacity of a material to allow these large plastic deformations is a
measure of ductility of the material.

v. Some increase in load is required to take the strain to point E on the graph. Between D and E
the material is said to be in the elastic-plastic state. Some of the section remaining elastic and
hence contributing to recovery of the original dimensions if load is removed, the remainder
being plastic.

vi. Beyond E, the cross-sectional area of the bar begins to reduce rapidly over a relatively small
length. This result in the formation of necking accompanied with reduction in load and
fracture (cup and cone) of the bar eventually occurs at point F.
vii. The nominal stress at failure, termed the maximum or ultimate tensile stress, is given by the
load at E divided by the original cross-sectional area of the bar. This is also known as the
ultimate tensile strength of the material.

viii. Owing to the large reduction in area produced by the necking process the actual stress at
fracture is often greater than the ultimate tensile strength. Since, however, designers are
interested in maximum loads which can be carried by the complete cross-section, the stress at
fracture is not of any practical importance.

1.9 Influence of Repeated loading and unloading on yield strength

If load is removed from the test specimen after the yield

point C has been passed, e.g. to some position S, as
shown in the adjoining figure the unloading line ST
can, for most practical purposes, be taken to be linear.
A second load cycle, commencing with the permanent
elongation associated with the strain OT, would then
follow the line TS and continue along the previous
curve to failure at F. It can be observed, that the repeated load cycle has the effect of increasing
the elastic range of the material, i.e. raising the effective yield point from C to S. However, it is
important to note that the tensile strength is unaltered. The procedure could be repeated along the
line PQ, etc., and the material is said to have been work hardened. Repeated loading and
unloading will produce a yield point approaching the ultimate stress value but the elongation or
strain to failure will be very much reduced.

1.10 Non Ferrous metals

Typical stress-strain curves resulting from tensile
tests on other engineering materials are shown in
the following figure.
For certain materials, for example, high carbon steels and non-ferrous metals, it is not possible to
detect any difference between the upper and lower yield points and in some cases yield point
may not exist at all. In such cases a proof stress is used to indicate the onset of plastic strain. The
0.1% proof stress, for example, is that stress which, when removed, produces a permanent strain
of 0.1% of the original gauge length as shown in the following figure.

The 0.1% proof stress can be determined from the tensile test curve as listed below.

i. Mark the point P on the strain axis which is

equivalent to 0.1% strain.
ii. From P draw a line parallel with the initial straight
line portion of the tensile test curve to cut the curve
in N.
iii. The stress corresponding to N is then the 0.1% proof
stress.
iv. A material is considered to satisfy its specification if
the permanent set is no more than 0.1% after the
proof stress has been applied for 15 seconds and
removed.

1.11 Allowable working stress-factor of safety

The most suitable strength criterion for any structural element under service conditions is that
some maximum stress must not be exceeded such that plastic deformations do not occur. This
value is generally known as the maximum allowable working stress. Because of uncertainties of
loading conditions, design procedures, production methods etc., it is a common practice to
introduce a factor of safety into structural designs. This is defined as follows:
( )

1.12 Ductile materials

The capacity of a material to allow large extensions, i.e. the ability to be drawn out plastically, is
termed its ductility. A quantitative value of the ductility is obtained by measurements of the
percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area as defined below.
Note:
A property closely related to ductility is malleability, which defines a material's ability to be hammered out into thin
sheets. Malleability thus represents the ability of a material to allow permanent extensions in all lateral directions
under compressive loadings.

1.13 Brittle materials

A brittle material is one which exhibits relatively small extensions
to fracture so that the partially plastic region of the tensile test
graph is much reduced. There is little or no necking at fracture for
brittle materials. Typical tensile test curve for a brittle material
could well look like the one shown in the adjoining figure.

1.14 Lateral strain and Poisson’s ratio

Till now we have focused on the longitudinal strain induced in the direction of application of the
load. It has been observed that deformations also take place in the lateral direction. Consider the
rectangular bar shown in the figure below and subjected to a tensile load.

Under the action of this load the bar will increase in length by an amount L giving a
longitudinal strain in the bar: L = L/L. The bar will also exhibit, however, a reduction in
dimensions laterally, i.e. its breadth and depth will both reduce. The associated lateral strains will
both be equal, and are of opposite sense to the longitudinal strain. These are computed as : lat =
b/b = d/d.
It has been observed that within the elastic range the ratio of the lateral and longitudinal strains
will always be constant. This ratio is termed Poisson's ratio ().

The above equation can also be written as :

For most of the engineering materials the value of  is found to be between 0.25 and 0.33.

Example 1
A bar of a rectangular section of 20 mm × 30 mm and a length of 500 mm is subjected to an axial
compressive load of 60 kN. If E = 102 kN/mm2 and v = 0.34, determine the changes in the
length and the sides of the bar.
 Since the bar is subjected to compression, there will be decrease in length, increase in
breadth and depth. These are computed as shown below
 L = 500 mm, b = 20 mm, d = 30 mm, P = 60 x1000 = 60000 N, E = 102000 N/mm2
 Cross-sectional area A = 20 × 30 = 600 mm2
 Compressive stress  = P/A = 60000/600 = 100 N/mm2
 Longitudinal strain L = /E = 100/102000 = 0.00098
 Lateral strain lat =  L = 0.34 x 0.00098 = 0.00033
 Decrease in length L = L L = 0.00098 x 500 = 0.49 mm
 Increase in breadth b = lat b = 0.00033 x 20 = 0.0066 mm
 Increase in depth d = lat d = 0.00033 x 30 = 0.0099 mm

Example 2
Determine the stress in each section of the bar shown in the following figure when subjected to
an axial tensile load of 20 kN. The central section is of square cross-section; the other portions
are of circular section. What will be the total extension of the bar? For the bar material E =
210000MPa.
The bar consists of three sections with change in diameter. Loads are applied only at the ends. The stress
and deformation in each section of the bar are computed separately. The total extension of the bar is then
obtained as the sum of extensions of all the three sections. These are illustrated in the following steps.

The bar is in equilibrium under the action of applied forces

Stress in each section of bar = P/A and P = 20000N
i. Area of Bar A =  x 202/4 = 314.16 mm2
ii. Stress in Bar A : A = 20000/ 314.16 = 63.66MPa
iii. Area of Bar B = 30 x30 = 900 mm2
iv. Stress in Bar B : B = 20000/ 900 = 22.22MPa
v. Area of Bar C =  x 152/4 = 176.715 mm2
vi. Stress in Bar C : C = 20000/ 176.715 = 113.18MPa
Extension of each section of bar = L/E and E = 210000 MPa
i. Extension of Bar A = 63.66 x 250 / 210000= 0.0758 mm
ii. Extension of Bar B = 22.22 x 100 / 210000= 0.0106 mm
iii. Extension of Bar C = 113.18 x 400 / 210000= 0.2155 mm
Total extension of the bar = 0. 302mm

Example 3

Determine the overall change in length of the bar shown in the figure below with following data:
E = 100000 N/mm2
The bar is with varying cross-sections and subjected to forces at ends as well as at other interior
locations. It is necessary to study the equilibrium of each portion separately and compute the change in
length in each portion. The total change in length of the bar is then obtained as the sum of extensions of
all the three sections as shown below.

Forces acting on each portion of the bar for equilibrium

Sectional Areas

Change in length in Portion I

Portion I of the bar is subjected to an axial compression of 30000N. This results in decrease in
length which can be computed as

Change in length in Portion II

Portion II of the bar is subjected to an axial compression of 50000N ( 30000 + 20000). This
results in decrease in length which can be computed as

Change in length in Portion III

Portion III of the bar is subjected to an axial compression of (50000 – 34000) = 16000N. This
results in decrease in length which can be computed as
Since each portion of the bar results in decrease in length, they can be added without any
algebraic signs.
Hence Total decrease in length = 0.096 + 0.455 + 0.306 = 0.857mm
Note:
For equilibrium, if some portion of the bar may be subjected to tension and some other portion
to compression resulting in increase or decrease in length in different portions of the bar. In
such cases, the total change in length is computed as the sum of change in length of each portion
of the bar with proper algebraic signs. Generally positive sign (+) is used for increase in length
and negative sign (-) for decrease in length.

1.15 Elongation of tapering bars of circular cross section

Consider a circular bar uniformly tapered from diameter d1 at one end and gradually increasing
to diameter d2 at the other end over an axial length L as shown in the figure below.

Since the diameter of the bar is continuously changing, the elongation is first computed over an
elementary length and then integrated over the entire length. Consider an elementary strip of
diameter d and length dx at a distance of x from end A.
Using the principle of similar triangles the following equation for d can be obtained

( )
Cross–sectional area of the bar at x :

Axial stress at x:
( )
Change in length over dx :
( )
 ( )
Total change in length: ∫ [ ]
( )

[ ]
( )

[ ]
( )
[ ]
( )

( )

[ ] [ ]

Substituting for in the above expression, following equation for elongation of

tapering bar of circular section can be obtained
Total change in length:

Example 4

A bar uniformly tapers from diameter 20 mm at one end to diameter 10 mm at the other end
over an axial length 300 mm. This is subjected to an axial compressive load of 7.5 kN. If E =
100 kN/mm2, determine the maximum and minimum axial stresses in bar and the total change
in length of the bar.

P = 7500 N, E = 100000 N/mm2 , d1 = 10mm, d2 = 20mm,L = 300mm

 Minimum compressive stress occurs at d2 = 20mm as the sectional area is maximum.
 Area at d2 =

 Maximum compressive stress occurs at d1 = 10mm as the sectional area is minimum.
 Area at d1 =

 Total decrease in length:
1.16 Elongation of tapering bars of rectangular cross section

Consider a bar of same thickness t throughout its length, tapering uniformly from a breadth B at
one end to a breadth b at the other end over an axial length L. The flat is subjected to an axial
force P as shown in the figure below.

Since the breadth of the bar is continuously changing, the elongation is first computed over an
elementary length and then integrated over the entire length. Consider an elementary strip of
breadth bx and length dx at a distance of x from left end.
Using the principle of similar triangles the following equation for bx can be obtained

Cross–sectional area of the bar at x : ( )

Axial stress at x:
( )
Change in length over dx :
( )
Total change in length: ∫ ( )
[ ( )]
[ ( ) ( )]

( )

[ ( ) ( )] ( ⁄ )

Substituting for in the above expression, following equation for elongation of tapering
bar of rectangular section can be obtained

( ⁄ )
( )
Example 5

An aluminium flat of a thickness of 8 mm and an axial length of 500 mm has a width of 15

mm tapering to 25 mm over the total length. It is subjected to an axial compressive force P, so
that the total change in the length of flat does not exceed 0.25 mm. What is the magnitude
of P, if E = 67,000 N/mm2 for aluminium?

t = 8mm, B = 25mm,b = 15mm, L = 500 mm, L = 0.25 mm, E = 67000MPa, P =?

( ) ( )
( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )

Note:

Instead of using the formula, this problem can be solved from first principles as indicated in
section 1.16.

1.17 Elongation in Bar Due to Self-Weight

Consider a bar of a cross-sectional area of A and a length L is

suspended vertically with its upper end rigidly fixed as shown in the
adjoining figure. Let the weight density of the bar is . Consider a
section y- y at a distance y from the lower end.
Weight of the portion of the bar below y-y =  A y
Stress at y-y : y =  A y /A =  y
Strain at y-y : y =  y / E
Change in length over dy: dy =  y dy / E

Total change in length : ∫ [ ]
( )
This can also be written as :
W =  A L represents the total weight of the bar

Note:
The stress in the bar gradually increases linearly from zero at bottom
to  L at top as shown below.
Example 6
A stepped steel bar is suspended vertically. The diameter in
the upper half portion is 10 mm, while the diameter in the
lower half portion is 6 mm. What are the stresses due to
self-weight in sections B and A as shown in the figure. E =
200 kN/mm2. Weight density,  = 0.7644x10-3 N/mm3.
What is the change in its length if E = 200000 MPa?

Stress at B will be due to weight of portion of the bar BC

Sectional area of BC: A2 =  x 62/4 = 28.27 mm2
Weight of portion BC: W2 =  A2 L2 = 0.7644x 10-3 x 28.27 x 1000 = 21.61N
Stress at B: B = W2/A2 = 21.61/28.27 = 0.764 MPa

Stress at A will be due to weight of portion of the bar BC + AB

Sectional area of AB: A1=  x 102/4 = 78.54 mm2
Weight of portion AB: W1 =  A1 L1 = 0.7644x 10-3 x 78.54 x 1000 = 60.04N
Stress at A: c = (W1+W2)/A1 = (60.04+ 21.61) / 78.54 = 1.04 MPa

Change in Length in portion BC

This is caused due to weight of BC and is computed as:
= 0.00191mm

Change in Length in portion AB

This is caused due to weight of AB and due to weight of BC acting as a concentrated load at B
and is computed as:

0.0033mm

Total change in length = 0.00191+ 0.0033 = 0.00521mm

1.18 Saint Venant’s principle
In 1855, the French Elasticity theorist Adhemar Jean Claude Barre de Saint-Venant stated that
the difference between the effects of two different but statically equivalent loads becomes very
small at sufficiently large distances from the load. The stresses and strains in a body at points
that are sufficiently remote from points of application of load depend only on the static resultant
of the loads and not on the distribution of loads.
Stress concentration is the increase in stress along the cross-section that maybe caused by a point
load or by any another discontinuity such as a hole which brings about an abrupt change in the
cross sectional area.

In St.Venant‟s Principle experiment, we fix two strain gages, one near the central portion of the
specimen and one near the grips of the Universal Testing Machine‟s (UTM) upper (stationary)
holding chuck.. The respective strain values obtained from both the gages are measured and then
plotted with respect to time. Since stress is proportional to strain, as per St.Venant‟s principle,
the stress will be concentrated near the point of application of load. Although the average stress
along the uniform cross section remains constant, at the point of application of load, the stress is
distributed as shown in figure below with stress being concentrated at the load point. The further
the distance from the point of application of load, the more uniform the stress is distributed
across the cross section.

1.19 Compound or composite bars

A composite bar can be made of two bars of different materials rigidly fixed together so that both
bars strain together under external load. As the strains in the two bars are same, the stresses in
the two bars will be different and depend on their respective modulus of elasticity. A stiffer bar
will share major part of external load.

In a composite system the two bars of different materials may act as suspenders to a third rigid
bar subjected to loading. As the change in length of both bars is the same, different stresses are
produced in two bars.
1.19.1 Stresses in a Composite Bar
Let us consider a composite bar consisting of a solid bar, of diameter d completely encased in a
hollow tube of outer diameter D and inner diameter d, subjected to a tensile force P as shown
in the following figure.

Let the extension of composite bar of length L be δL. Let ES and EH be the modulus of elasticity
of solid bar and hollow tube respectively. Let S and H be the stresses developed in the solid bar
and hollow tube respectively.
Since change in length of solid bar is equal to the change in length of hollow tube, we can
establish the relation between the stresses in solid bar and hollow tube as shown below :

or

( )
Area of cross section of the hollow tube :

Area of cross section of the solid bar :

Load carried by the hollow tube : and Load carried by the solid bar :

But P = PS + PH = S AS + H AH

With , the following equation can be written

( )

ES/EH is called modular ratio. Using the above equation stress in the hollow tube can be
calculated. Next, the stress in the solid bar can be calculated using the equation P = S AS + H
AH.
Example 7

A flat bar of steel of 24 mm wide and 6 mm thick is placed between two aluminium alloy flats 24
mm × 9 mm each. The three flats are fastened together at their ends. An axial tensile load of 20
kN is applied to the composite bar. What are the stresses developed in steel and aluminium
alloy? Assume ES = 210000 MPa and EA = 70000MPa.

Area of Steel flat: AS = 24 x 6 = 144 mm2

Area of Aluminium alloy flats: AA = 2 x 24 x 9 = 432 mm2

Since all the flats elongate by the same extent, we have the condition that .

The relationship between the stresses in steel and aluminum flats can be established as:

Since P = PS + PA = S AS + A AA . This can be written as

( )

From which stress in aluminium alloy flat can be computed as:

( ) ( )

Stress in steel flat can be computed as:

Example 8

A short post is made by welding steel plates into a

square section and then filling inside with concrete. The
side of square is 200 mm and the thickness t = 10 mm
as shown in the figure. The steel has an allowable stress
of 140 N/mm2 and the concrete has an allowable stress
of 12 N/mm2. Determine the allowable safe
compressive load on the post. EC = 20 GPa, Es = 200
GPa.

Since the composite post is subjected to compressive load, both concrete and steel tube will
shorten by the same extent. Using this condition following relation between stresses in concrete
and steel can be established.

or

Assume that load is such that s = 140 N/mm2. Using the above relationship, the stress in
concrete corresponding to this load can be calculated as follows:
> 12 N/mm2
Hence the assumed load is not a safe load.

Instead assume that load is such that c = 12 N/mm2. The stress in steel corresponding to this
load can be calculated as follows:
< 140 N/mm2

Hence the assumed load is a safe load which is calculated as shown below.

Area of concrete section Ac = 180 x180 = 32400mm2.

Area of steel tube As = 200 x 200 – 32400 = 7600 mm2.
 Example 9

A rigid bar is suspended from two wires, one of steel and other of copper, length of the wire is
1.2 m and diameter of each is 2.5 mm. A load of 500 N is suspended on the rigid bar such that
the rigid bar remains horizontal. If the distance between the wires is 150 mm, determine the
location of line of application of load. What are the stresses in each wire and by how much
distance the rigid bar comes down? Given Es = 3Ecu= 201000 N/mm2.

i. Area of copper wire (Acu) = Area of steel wire(As) =  x 2.52/4 = 4.91 mm2

ii. For the rigid bar to be horizontal, elongation of both the wires must be same. This condition
leads to the following relationship between stresses in steel and copper wires as:

iii. Using force equilibrium, the stress in copper and steel wire can be calculated as:
P = Ps + Pcu = s As + cu Acu = 3 cu As + cu Acu = cu (3As + Acu)

( ) ( )

iv. Downward movement of rigid bar = elongation of wires

v. Position of load on the rigid bar is computed by equating moments of forces carried by steel and
copper wires about the point of application of load on the rigid bar.

( )
( ) ( )( )

Note:
If the load is suspended at the centre of rigid bar, then both steel and copper wire carry the same
load. Hence the stress in the wires is also same. As the moduli of elasticity of wires are different,
strains in the wires will be different. This results in unequal elongation of wires causing the rigid
bar to rotate by some magnitude. This can be prevented by offsetting the load or with wires
having different length or with different diameter such that elongation of wires will be same.

Example 10

A load of 2MN is applied on a column 500mm x 500mm. The column is reinforced with four
steel bars of 12mm dia, one in each corner. Find the stresses in concrete and steel bar. Es = 2.1
x105 N/mm2 and Ec = 1.4 x 104 N/mm2.

i. Area of steel bars: As= 4 x ( x 122/4) = 452.4 mm2

ii. Area of concrete: Ac = 500 x500 – 452.4 = 249547.6 mm2

iii. Relation between stress in steel and concrete :

iv. P = Ps + Pc = s As + c Ac = 15 c As + c Ac = c (15As + Ac)

v. ( ) ( )

vi.
1.20 Temperature stresses in a single bar

If a bar is held between two unyielding (rigid) supports and its temperature is raised, then a
compressive stress is developed in the bar as its free thermal expansion is prevented by the rigid
supports. Similarly, if its temperature is reduced, then a tensile stress is developed in the bar as
its free thermal contraction is prevented by the rigid supports. Let us consider a bar of
diameter d and length L rigidly held between two supports as shown in the following figure. Let
α be the coefficient of linear expansion of the bar and its temperature is raised by ∆T (°C)

 Free thermal expansion in the bar = α ∆T L.

 Since the supports are rigid, the final length of the bar does not change. The fixed ends
exert compressive force on the bar so as to cause shortening of the bar by α ∆T L.
 Hence the compressive strain in the bar = α ∆T L / L = α ∆T
 Compressive stress = α ∆T E
 Hence the thermal stresses introduced in the bar = α ∆T E
Note:
The bar can buckle due to large compressive forces generated in the bar due to temperature
increase or may fracture due to large tensile forces generated due to temperature decrease.

Example 11

A rail line is laid at an ambient temperature of 30°C. The rails are 30 m long and there is a
clearance of 5 mm between the rails. If the temperature of the rail rises to 60°C, what is the stress
developed in the rails?. Assume α = 11.5 × 10−6/°C, E = 2,10,000 N/mm2
 −6
 L = 30,000 mm, α = 11.5 × 10 /°C, Temperature rise ∆T = 60-30 = 30oC
 Free expansion of rails = α ∆T L = 11.5 × 10−6 × 30 × 30000 = 10.35mm
 Thermal expansion prevented by rails = Free expansion – clearance = 10.35 – 5 = 5.35mm
 Strain in the rails  = 5.35/30000 = 0.000178
 Compressive stress in the rails =  x E = 0.000178 x 210000 =37.45N/mm2.

1.21 Temperature Stresses in a Composite Bar

A composite bar is made up of two bars of different materials perfectly joined together so that
during temperature change both the bars expand or contract by the same amount. Since the
coefficient of expansion of the two bars is different thermal stresses are developed in both the
bars. Consider a composite bar of different materials with coefficients of expansion and modulus
of elasticity, as α1, E1 and α2, E2, respectively, as shown in the following figure. Let the

temperature of the bar is raised by ∆T and α1 > α2

Free expansion in bar 1 = α1 ∆T L and Free expansion in bar 2 = α2 ∆T L. Since both the bars
expand by ∆L together we have the following conditions:
 Bar 1: ∆L < α1 ∆T L. The bar gets compressed resulting in compressive stress
 Bar 2: ∆L > α2∆T L. The bar gets stretched resulting in tensile stress.
Compressive strain in Bar 1 :

Tensile strain in Bar 2 :

( )

Let 1 and 2 be the temperature stresses in bars. The above equation can be written as:
 ( )

In the absence of external forces, for equilibrium, compressive force in Bar 1 = Tensile force in
Bar 2. This condition leads to the following relation

Using the above two equations, temperature stresses in both the bars can be computed. This is
illustrated in the following example.
Note:
If the temperature of the composite bar is reduced, then a tensile stress will be developed in bar
1 and a compressive stress will be developed in bar 2 , since α1 > α2.

Example 12

A steel flat of 20 mm × 10 mm is fixed with aluminium flat of 20 mm × 10 mm so as to make a

square section of 20 mm × 20 mm. The two bars are fastened together at their ends at a
temperature of 26°C. Now the temperature of whole assembly is raised to 55°C. Find the stress
in each bar. Es = 200 GPa, Ea = 70 GPa, αs = 11.6 × 10−6/°C, αa = 23.2 × 10−6/°C.

 Net temperature rise, ∆T = 55 − 26 = 29°C.

 Area of Steel flat (As) = Area of Aluminium flat (Aa) = 20 x10 =200 mm2
 will be one of the conditions to be
satisfied by the composite assembly.
 ( ) ( )


 ( ) ( ) as αa > αs

Example 13
A flat steel bar of 20 mm × 8 mm is placed between two copper bars of 20 mm × 6 mm each so
as to form a composite bar of section of 20 mm × 20 mm. The three bars are fastened together at
their ends when the temperature of each is 30°C. Now the temperature of the whole assembly is
raised by 30°C. Determine the temperature stress in the steel and copper bars. Es = 2Ecu= 210
kN/mm2, αs = 11 × 10−6/°C, αcu = 18 × 10−6/°C.
 Net temperature rise, ∆T = 30°C.
 Area of Steel flat (As) = 20 x 8 = 160 mm2
 Area of Copper flats (Acu) = 2 x 20 x 6 =240 mm2
 will be one of the conditions to be
satisfied by the composite assembly.
 ( ) ( )

 cu = 12.6MPa (compressive) and s = 18.9MPa (tensile) as αcu > αs

1.22 Simple Shear stress and Shear Strain

Consider a rectangular block which is fixed at the bottom and a force F is applied on the top
surface as shown in the figure (a) below.

Equal and opposite reaction F develops on the bottom plane and constitutes a couple, tending to
rotate the body in a clockwise direction. This type of shear force is a positive shear force and the
shear force per unit surface area on which it acts is called positive shear stress (). If force is
applied in the opposite direction as shown in Figure (b), then they are termed as negative shear
force and shear stress.
The Shear Strain () = AA‟/AD = tan. Since  is a very small quantity, tan  . Within the

elastic limit,    or  = G 
The constant of proportionality G is called rigidity modulus or shear modulus.
Note:
Normal stress is computed based on area perpendicular to the surface on which the force is
acting, while, the shear stress is computed based on the surface area on which the force is
acting. Hence shear stress is also called tangential stress.

1.23 Complementary Shear Stresses

Consider an element ABCD subjected to shear stress () as shown in figure (a). We cannot have
equilibrium with merely equal and opposite tangential forces on the faces AB and CD as these
forces constitute a couple and induce a turning moment. The statical equilibrium demands that
there must be tangential components (‟) along AD and CB such that that can balance the

turning moment. These tangential stresse (‟) is termed as complimentary shear stress.

Let t be the thickness of the block. Turning moment due to  will be ( x t x LAB ) LBC and

Turning moment due to ’ will be (‟ x t x LBC ) LAB. Since these moments have to be equal for
equilibrium we have:
( x t x LAB ) LBC = (‟ x t x LBC ) LAB.

From which it follows that  = ‟ , that is, intensities of shearing stresses across two mutually
perpendicular planes are equal.

1.24 Volumetric strain

This refers to the slight change in the volume of the body resulting from three mutually
perpendicular and equal direct stresses as in the case of a body immersed in a liquid under
pressure. This is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the original volume of the body.
Consider a cube of side „a‟ strained so that each side becomes „a  a’.
 Hence the linear strain = a/a.
 Change in volume = (a  a)3 –a3 =  3a2a. (ignoring small higher order terms)
 Volumetric strain v =  3a2 a/a3 =  3 a/a
 The volumetric strain is three times the linear strain

1.25 Bulk Modulus

This is defined as the ratio of the normal stresses (p) to the volumetric strain (v) and denoted by
‘K’. Hence K = p/v . This is also an elastic constant of the material in addition to E, G and .

1.26 Relation between elastic constants

1.26.1 Relation between E,G and 

Consider a cube of material of side „a' subjected to the action of the shear and complementary
shear stresses and producing the deformed shape as shown in the figure below.

 Since, within elastic limits, the strains are small and the angle ACB may be taken as 450.
 Since angle between OA and OB is very small hence OA  OB. BC, is the change in the
length of the diagonal OA
 Strain on the diagonal OA = Change in length / original length = BC/OA
= AC cos45/ (a/sin45) = AC/ 2a = a  / 2 a =  / 2
 It is found that strain along the diagonal is numerically half the amount of shear stain.
 But from definition of rigidity modulus we have, G =  /
 Hence, Strain on the diagonal OA =  / 2G
The shear stress system is equivalent or can be replaced by a system of direct stresses at 450 as
shown below. One set will be compressive, the other tensile, and both will be equal in value to
the applied shear stress.

Strain in diagonal OA due to direct stresses = ( )

Equating the strain in diagonal OA we have ( )

Relation between E,G and  can be expressed as : ( )

1.26.2 Relation between E,K and 

Consider a cube subjected to three equal stresses a shown in the figure below.

Strain in any one direction = ( )

Since the volumetric strain is three times the linear strain: ( )
From definition of bulk modulus :

( )

Relation between E,K and  can be expressed as : ( )

Note: Theoretically  < 0.5 as E cannot be zero

1.26.3 Relation between E, G and K

We have E = 2G(1+) from which  = (E - 2G) / 2G

We have E = 3K(1-2) from which  = (3K -E) / 6K

(E - 2G) / 2G = (3K -E) / 6K or (6EK - 12GK) = (6GK - 2EG) or 6EK+2EG = (6GK +12GK)

Relation between E,G and K can be expressed as:

( )

1.27 Exercise problems

1. A steel bar of a diameter of 20 mm and a length of 400 mm is subjected to a tensile force of

40 kN. Determine (a) the tensile stress and (b) the axial strain developed in the bar if the
Young‟s modulus of steel E = 200 kN/mm2
Answer: (a) Tensile stress = 127.23MPa, (b) Axial strain = 0.00064

2. A 100 mm long bar is subjected to a compressive force such that the stress developed in the
bar is 50 MPa. (a) If the diameter of the bar is 15 mm, what is the axial compressive force?
(b) If E for bar is 105 kN/mm2, what is the axial strain in the bar?
Answer: (a) Compressive force = 8.835 kN, (b) Axial strain = 0.00048

3. A steel bar of square section 30 × 30 mm and a length of 600 mm is subjected to an axial

tensile force of 135 kN. Determine the changes in dimensions of the bar. E = 200
kN/mm2, v = 0.3.
Answer: Increase in length δl = 0.45 mm, Decrease in breadth δb = 6.75 × 10−3 mm,

4. A stepped circular steel bar of a length of 150 mm with diameters 20, 15 and 10 mm along
lengths 40, 50 and 65 mm, respectively, subjected to various forces is shown in figure below.
If E = 200 kN/mm2, determine the total change in its length.

Answer : Total decrease in length = 0.022mm

5. A stepped bar is subjected to axial loads as shown in the figure below. If E = 200 GPa,
calculate the stresses in each portion AB, BC and CD. What is the total change in length of
the bar?

Answer: Total increase in length = 0.35mm

6. A 400-mm-long aluminium bar uniformly tapers from a diameter of 25 mm to a diameter of
15 mm. It is subjected to an axial tensile load such that stress at middle section is 60 MPa.
What is the load applied and what is the total change in the length of the bar if E = 67,000
MPa? (Hint: At the middle diameter = (25+15)/2 = 20 mm).
Answer: Load = 18.85kN, Increase in length = 0.382 mm

7. A short concrete column of 250 mm × 250 mm in section strengthened by four steel bars near
the corners of the cross-section. The diameter of each steel bar is 30 mm. The column is
subjected to an axial compressive load of 250 kN. Find the stresses in the steel and the
concrete. Es = 15 Ec = 210 GPa. If the stress in the concrete is not to exceed 2.1 N/mm2,
what area of the steel bar is required in order that the column may support a load of 350 kN?
Answer: Stress in concrete = 2.45N/mm2, Stress in steel = 36.75N/mm2, Area of steel = 7440 mm2

8. Two aluminium strips are rigidly fixed to a steel strip of section 25 mm × 8 mm and 1 m
long. The aluminium strips are 0.5 m long each with section 25 mm × 5 mm. The composite
bar is subjected to a tensile force of 10 kN as shown in the figure below. Determine the
deformation of point B. Es = 3EA = 210 kN/mm2. Answer: 0.203mm
(Hint: Portion CB is a single bar, Portion AC is a composite bar. Compute elongation
separately for both the portions and add)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Cylinders are pressure vessels such as pipes, steam boilers, storage tanks, etc., which carry gas or
1
fluid under pressure. A cylinder is said to be thin if the thickness internal diameter and
10
1
thick if the thickness > internal diameter.
10

3.2 TYPES OF STRESSES IN CYLINDERS

The walls of the cylinders are
generally subjected to three types of normal stresses which are discussed below. The enlarged
view of a portion of the wall on which the three stresses are acting is shown in Fig.1.

r
3.2.1 Circumferential Stress c c
l
It is the normal stress which acts along the circumference
of the cylinder (Fig.1). It is also called as hoop stress or l
c
girth stress. It is denoted as c.

3.2.2 Longitudinal Stress l

t
L
It is the normal stress which acts along the length of the d
t
cylinder (Fig.1). It is denoted as l.
Fig. 1 Wall of thin cylinder subjected
3.2.3 Radial Stress r to three stresses c l an r.
It is the normal stress which acts along the radial direction (Fig.1). It is denoted as r.

3.3 THIN CYLINDER THEORY

3.3.1 Assumptions
The assumptions made in the thin cylinder theory are;
The magnitude of radial stress being very small is neglected.
The distribution of circumferential stress across the cross-section is assumed to be uniform
since the thickness of the cylinder wall is very small.

3.3.2 Circumferential and Longitudinal Stresses in Thin Cylinders

subjected to an
as shown in Fig. 2.
Circumferential Stress ( c)
Consider the longitudinal section A A through the cylinder as shown in Fig.2. The free body
diagram of the lower-half portion of the cylinder is shown in Fig. 3.

t d t

P F1 P
l

A p

t d t
Fig. 2 Thin cylinder of internal diameter Fig. 3 Free body diagram of the
d t l lower-half portion of the cylinder
p

It is apparent that the total burst 1

cutting plane A - A, is resisted by equal forces P acting on each cut surface of the cylinder wall.
Applying the equilibrium condition,
V=0 + ve]
F1 + 2P = 0 (1)
But F1 = (p) (d l) and P = ( c t l)
Substituting in eq. (1) pdl+2[ c t l] = 0
pd
c = (2)
2t

Longitudinal Stress l

Consider Take a
transverse section B-B as shown in Fig. 4. The free body diagram of cut portion of the thin
cylinder to the right of transverse section B-B is also shown in Fig. 4. It is apparent that the total
2 l developed on the
cylinder wall at the cut surface B-B.
 Fig. 4 Closed thin cylinder showing bursting force F2 and Free body diagram of
the cylinder towards right of B-B

Applying the equilibrium condition,

H=0[ + ve]
F2 - l (A) = 0 (3)

But F2 = p d2
4
For thin cylinders, the cross sectional area can be approximated as
A = Perimeter x thickness = ( d) t
Substituting in (3)

p d2 - l ( dt)=0
4

pd
Hence l = (4)
4t

Comparing (2) and (4) c l (5)

Circumferential stress = 2 x Longitudinal stress

3.3.3 s max)

c and the
longitudinal stress l, which are normal stresses (Fig. 5). Since the element is free of shear stress,
the above stresses are themselves the principal stresses.
 Fig. 5 Normal stresses
on the wall of thin

n1 n2
Therefore, s max = (6)
2
where n1 = maximum principal stress
n2 = minimum principal stress
pd pd
Here, n1 c = and n2 = l = (7)
2t 4t

Substituting eq. (7) in eq. (6), and simplifying

pd
s max = (8)
8t

Note: On any plane, if shear stress is absent, normal stress acting on the plane is called principal
stress.

3.3.4 Expressions for Changes in Diameter, Length and Volume

The two principal stresses which are acting at any point in the wall of a thin cylinder shell are,
n1 = c = circumferential stress and n2 l = longitudinal stress. Let c, l, E and represent the

Change in diameter ( d)
The circumferential strain c c and

c l
l as c = - (9)
E E
pd pd
Substituting c = and l = in eq. (9), and simplifying
2t 4t

Pd
c = 1 (10)
2t E 2
Since the circumference is directly proportional to the diameter, the strain in eq. (10) can be
d
equated to diametral strain, ie,
d
d
Thus, c =
d
Therefore, change in diameter d= c .d (11)
where th c is given in eq. (10).
Change in length ( l)
l l and circumferential

l c
c as l = - (12)
E E
pd pd
c = l = in eq. (12), and simplifying
2t 4t

pd 1
l = (13)
2t E 2
l
Further l =
l
Hence, change in length l= l .l (14)
l is given in eq. (13).
Change in volume ( V)

Hence, V= d2 l
4

Taking logarithms log V = log + 2 log d + log l

4
V d l
Taking differentials =2 (15)
V d l
V d l
Substituting v , c and l in eq. (15)
V d l
v =2 c + l (16)
Substituting for c l from eqs. (10) and (13) in eq. (16)
 pd 5
v = 2 (17)
2t E 2
V
Since, v
V
Change in volume v .V ( 18)
v is given in eq. (17).

3.3.5 Efficiency of Joints

Cylinders are normally made of number of sheets which are riveted or welded together. The
joints between the sheets can be along the longitudinal direction and/or along the circumferential
direction. The longitudinal and circumferential joints in a thin cylinder are shown in Fig. 6.

Parent Parent
material material

Longitudinal
Circumferential
joint
joint
Fig. 6 Longitudinal and circumferential joints in thin cylinder
Joints are generally weaker than parent material. The ratio of strength of joint to strength of

l c respectively. A longitudinal joint resists

c and circumferential joi l .
1 c, then the longitudinal joint becomes critical and hence the following expression
governs the design
pd
c 1= (19)
2t

where c is equated to the safe or permissible stress of the material.

1 c, then the circumferential joint becomes critical and hence the following
expression governs the design
pd
l c = (20)
4t

where l is equated to the safe or permissible stress of the material.

Example 1
What pressure may be allowed in a cylindrical boiler 2.5 m internal diameter with plates 20 mm
thick, if the safe intensity of tensile stress is 65 MPa.
Given : d 2500mm t 20 mm

C l, the safe intensity of stress should be equate C

Hence C safe = 65 MPa

pd
We have C =
2t

2 t
c
Hence, p 1.04 MPa
d
Thus the safe allowable internal pressure in the cylinder is 1.04 MPa.
Example 2
Determine the minimum thickness of the plate required for boilers of internal diameter 1.5 m and
internal pressure of 1 MPa if the efficiency of riveted joints is 60 %. The permissible stress in
steel plate is 150 MPa.
Given : l C 0.6 .

This satisfies the condition l 2 C

Hence the following expression (eq. 19) governs the design for the given data
pd
c l where C safe = 150 MPa
2t

pd 1
Hence, t x 8.33 mm
2 c l

Thus the minimum thickness of the plate is 8.33 mm

Example 3
A thin cylinder of internal diameter 1m and thickness 15 mm is made of number of sheets which
are riveted together. If the efficiency the longitudinal joint is 90% and that of the circumference
joint is 40%, determine the safe allowable internal pressure. Assume the allowable tensile stress
as 50 MPa.
Given : l 0.9 and C 0.4 .

This satisfies the condition l 2 C

 Hence the following expression (eq. 20) governs the design for the given data
pd
c c where l allowable = 150 MPa
4t

fl 4 t C
Hence, p 1.2 MPa
d
Thus the safe allowable internal pressure = 1.2 MPa.
Example 4
A thin cylindrical shell 1m in diameter and 3m long has a metal thickness of 10 mm. It is
subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 3 MPa. Determine the changes in length, diameter and
volume. Also find the maximum shear stress in the shell. Assume E S = 210 GPa and = 0.3.
Given: d = 1000mm, l = 3000 mm, t = 10 mm, p = 3MPa, E = 210 GPa and = 0.3
a) Change in length
The longitudinal strain is given by (eq. 13)
pd 1
l
2t E 2

Substituting the data l 1.43 x10 4

l
Since l
l
Change in length, l l l 0.43 mm

b) Change in diameter
The circumferential strain (or diametral strain) is given by (eq. 10)
pd
C 1
2 tE 2
4
Substituting the data C 6.1 x 10

d
Since c
d
Change in diameter, d C d 0.61mm

c) Change in volume
The internal volume V of the cylinder is given by

v x d 2 (l ) 2.356 x 109 mm 3
4
 The volumetric strain is given by (eq. 16)

v 2 C l

Substituting C 6.1 x 10 4 and l 1.43 x10 4

4
Volumetric strain, v 13 .63 x 10

v
Since v
v
Change in volume, v v V 3211493.09mm3
d) Max Shear Stress
The maximum shear stress is given by (eq. 8)
pd
s max 37.5 MPa
8t

3.4 THICK CYLINDER THEORY

In thin cylinders, the average circumferential stress (or hoop stress) is nearly equal to the
maximum circumferential stress and hence the distribution of this stress over the cylinder wall is
considered to be uniform. But in thick cylinders, the distribution of circumferential stress is
considered to be non-uniform, as the average circumferential stress is much smaller than the
maximum circumferential stress. Moreover, the variation of circumferential stress in thick
cylinder is observed to be non-linear. Further, the radial stress which is neglected in thin
cylinders is accounted in thick cylinders since its magnitude is considerable.

3.4.1 Assumptions
The problem of determining the circumferential stress c and radial stress r at any point on a
thick walled cylinder in terms of the applied pressures and dimensions was first solved by the
French elastician, Gabriel Lame in 1833. The following assumptions were made during the
analysis.
1. The material is homogeneous, isotropic and elastic.
2. The stresses are within the proportionality limit.
3. The longitudinal strain remains constant for all fibres.
4. The circumferential stress (or hoop stress) is considered to vary across the wall thickness. It
is maximum at the inner surface and minimum at the outer surface.
3.4.2 Expressions for Circumferential and Radial Stresses i
Equations]

i o Fig. 7. The thick cylinder

is assumed to be composed of a number of thin shells as shown.

r r dr r r

c c
r
dr
r
r r a
pi
c c
b
dr 2r dr po
Free body diagram
Thin Shell

Consider the free body diagram of the half-section of a typical thin shell, the radius of which is
, as shown in Fig 7. The circumferential stress in this shell is c. The radial
r and that on the oute r +d r d r is the
increment in r due to the variation of pressure across the cylinder body. The radial stresses are
assumed (incorrectly) to be tensile, so r r

be the
Considering the free body diagram of the half section, and applying the equilibrium equation
+ ve]
( r r) [2 (r + dr)] r (2r) 2 c (dr) = 0
Ignoring very small terms, the above equation reduces to
r .r+ r . dr + r . d r r .r c . dr = 0
d r
On rearranging, r. r c =0 (21)
dr
The element in the wall of a thick shell will be subjected to all the three stresses, namely,
circumferential s c , longitudinal s l and adial s r .U
triaxial state of stress l is given by
 l c r
l = - -
E E E

or l = [ l- ( c + r)]

In case of thick cylinders, longitudinal strain l is a constant and hence l is a constant.

Further, E and are also constants. Hence it implies that ( c r) should also be a constant.
Let c r =2A where A is a constant (22)
Adding eqs. (21) and (22)
d r
r. +2 r =2A
dr
d r
or r. = 2 (A r)
dr
Separating the variables
d r dr
=2.
(A r ) r

On integrating
loge (A r ) = 2 loge . r + C where C is a constant

loge [(A r ) . r2 ] = C

loge [(A r ) . r2] = loge B (23)

where loge B = C, and B is another constant.
From eq. (23) (A r) r2 = B
B
r A (24)
r2
Substituting eq. (24) in eq. (22)
B
c A 2A
r2
B
c A (25)
r2
Note 1: In equations (24) and (2
 c r

be determined.

Note 2: From equations (24) and (25), it can be observed that c is greater than r . Further
c

stress of the material is given it should be equated to circumferential stress at the internal surface.

Note 3: From equations (24) and (25), it can be seen that both c r depend on r2. Hence
the variation of these stresses is non-linear.

Example 5
A thick cylindrical pipe of external diameter 300 mm and thickness 50 mm is subjected to an
internal fluid pressure of 40 MPa and an external pressure of 2.5 MPa. Calculate the maximum
and minimum intensities of circumferential and radial stresses in the pipe section. Sketch the
variation of stresses across the pipe section.

Given: Thickness t = 50 mm
150 mm
100
External diameter = 300 mm.
Hence, external radius b = 150 mm
Internal radius a = b t = 100 mm 50

B
c A (26)
r2
B
and r A (27)
r2

Boundary condition 1:
The cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 40 MPa.
Hence @ r = 100 mm, r = 40 MPa (Compressive)
B
From (26) 40 = A (28)
(100) 2
Boundary condition 2:
The cylinder is subjected to an external pressure of 2.5 MPa.
Hence @ r = 150 mm, r = 2.5 MPa (Compressive)
B
From (26) 2.5 = A (29)
(150) 2
Solving eqs. (28) and (29); A = 27.5 and B = 675000
Hence eqs. (26) and (27) take the form
675000
c = 27.5 + (30)
r2
675000
r = 27.5 (31)
r2
From eq. (30) the distribution of hoop stress can be determined. Hence
@ r = 100 mm, c = 95 MPa (Tensile)
@ r = 150 mm, c = 57.5 MPa (Tensile)
From eq. (31) the distribution of radial stress can be determined. Hence
@ r = 100 mm, r = 40 MPa (given) (Compressive)
@ r = 150 mm, r = 2.5 MPa (given) (Compressive)

150 mm Thick
cylinder

100 mm
5.75 MPa 5.2 MPa

95 MPa 40 MPa
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS RADIAL STRESS
(TENSION) (COMPRESSION)

Variation of stresses across wall thickness

Example 6
A thick cylindrical pipe of internal radius 120 mm and external radius
160 mm is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 12 MPa.
160 mm
Determine the hoop stress in the cross section. What is the percentage
120 mm
error if the maximum hoop stress is found from the equation of thin pipes?

Given: Internal radius a = 120 mm, and External radius b = 160 mm

B
c A (32)
r2
B
and r A (33)
r2

Boundary condition 1:
The cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 12 MPa.
Hence @ r = 120 mm, r = 12 MPa (Compressive)
B
From (33) 12 = A (34)
(120) 2
Boundary condition 2:
The cylinder is not subjected to any external pressure.
Hence @ r = 160 mm, r =0
B
From (33) 0=A (35)
(160) 2

Solving eqs. (34) and (35); A = 15.43 and B = 394971.43

Hence eqs. (32) and (33) take the form
394971.43
c = 15.43 + (36)
r2
394971.43
r = 15.43 (37)
r2
From eq. (36) the distribution of hoop stress can be determined. Hence
@ r = 120 mm, c = 42.86 MPa (Tensile)
@ r = 160 mm, c = 30.86 MPa (Tensile)
From eq. (37) the distribution of radial stress can be determined. Hence
@ r = 120 mm, r = 12 MPa (given) (Compressive)
@ r = 160 mm, r = 0 (given) (Compressive)
T
 c = 42.86 MPa
Using thin cylinder theory, the circumferential stress is obtained as
pd (12) ( 240)
c 36.0 MPa
2t 2 ( 40)

42.86 36.00
Therefore, percentage error = x 100 = 16 %
42.86

Example 7
A thick cylinder of internal diameter 200 mm is subjected to an internal fluid pres sure of 40
MPa. If the allowable stress in tension for the material is 120 MPa find the thickness of the
cylinder.
Given: Internal diameter = 200 mm. Hence, internal radius a = 100 mm

B
c A (38)
r2
B
and r A (39)
r2

Boundary condition 1:
The cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 40 MPa.
Hence @ r = 100 mm, r = 40 MPa (Compressive)
B
From (39) 40 = A (40)
(100) 2

Boundary condition 2:
It is known that c is always more than r. Further c is maximum at inner surface. Hence equate
the given allowable stress to c at inner surface.
Hence @ r = 100 mm, c = 120 MPa (tensile)
B
From (38) 120 = A + (41)
(100) 2
Solving eqs. (40) and (41); A = 40 and B = 800000

To find thickness, apply the third boundary condition.

Boundary condition 3:
The cylinder is subjected to zero external pressure.
Hence @ r = (100 + t) mm, r =0
800000
From (39) 0 = 40 (42)
(100 t ) 2
From eq. (42), thickness of cylinder is
t = 141.42 mm
BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCES
INTRODUCTIO N

Beam is a structural member which has negligible cross - section compared to its
length. It carries load perpendicular to the axis in the plane of the beam. Due to the
loading on the beam, the beam deforms and is called as deflection in the direction
of loading. This deflection is due to bending moment and shear force generated as
resistance to the bending. Bending Moment is defined as the internal resistance
moment to counteract the external moment due to the loads and mathematically it is
equal to algebraic sum of moments of the loads acting on one side of the section. It
can also be defined as the unbalanced moment on the beam at that sect ion.
Shear force is the internal resistance developed to counteract the shearing action
due to external load and mathematically it is equal to algebraic sum of vertical
loads on one side of the section and this act tangential to cross section. These two
are shown in Fig 3.01 (a).

/unit length

b
x
Span=
Longitudinal
l section Cross-section

Member before
bending/unit length

Member after bending

x V

Unbalanced Moment = Bending Moment

(M) & Unbalanced Force = Shear Force
(V) Fig. 3.01 (a)
For shear force Left side Upward force to the section is Positive (LUP) and Right
side Upward force to the section is Negative (RUN) as shown in Fig. 3.01 (b).
For Bending Moment, Moment producing sagging action to the beam or clockwise
moment to the left of the section and anti- clockwise moment to the right of the
section is treated as positive and Moment producing hogging action to the beam or
anti- clockwise moment to the left of the section and clockwise moment to the right
of the section is treated as Negative as shown in Fig. 3.0 1(b).

Sign Convention

+ve
LUP-Leftside Upward -ve
RUN-Rightside
Positive Upward Negative
Shear Force

+ve -ve
Sagging Hogging
Bending Moment
Fig. 3.01 (b)
Elastic Curve
Generally the beam is represented by a line and the beam bends after the loading. The
depiction of the bent portion of the beam is known as elastic curve.
The shape of the elastic curve is the best way to find the sign of the Bending Moment as
shown in the Fig. 3.02

Overhang Overhang

Hogging Elastic curve Sagging Hogging

Fig. 3.02 Elastic Curve

Support Re actions :
The various structural members are connected to the surroundings by various types
of supports .The structural members exert forces on supports known as action.
Similarly supports exert forces on structural members known as reaction.
A beam is a horizontal member, which is generally placed on supports.
The beam is subjected to the vertical forces known as action. Supports exe rt forces
on beam known as reaction.
Type s of s upports :
1) Simple supports
2) Roller supports
3) Hinged or pinned supports
4) Fixed supports
1) Simple s upports :

Fig. 3.03
Simple supports are those supports, which exert reactions perpendicular to
the plane of support. It restricts the translation of body in one direction only, but
not rotation.
2) Rolle r s upports :

Fig. 3.04
Roller supports are the supports consisting of rollers which exert reactions
perpendicular to the plane of the support. They restrict translation along one
direction and no rotation.
3) Hinge d or Pinne d s upports :

Fig. 3.05
Hinged supports are the supports which exert reactions in any direction but
for our convenient point of view it is resolved in to two components. Therefore
hinged supports restrict translation in both directions. But rotation is possible.
4) Fixe d s upports :
Fixed supports are those supports which restricts both translation and rotation of
the body. Fixed supports develop an internal moment known as restraint moment to
prevent the rotation of the body.
 Fig. 3.06
Type s of Be ams :-
1) Simply s upporte d Be am:

Fig. 3.07
It is a beam which consists of simple supports. Such a beam can resist forces
normal to the axis of the beam.
2) Continuous Be am:

Fig. 3.08
It is a beam which consists of three or more supports.

3) Cantile ve r be am:

Fig. 3.09
It is a beam whose one end is fixed and the other end is free.
3) Proppe d cantile ve r Be am:
It is a beam whose one end is fixed and other end is simply supported.

Fig. 3.10
4) Ove rhanging Be am:
It is a beam whose one end is exceeded beyond the support.

Fig.3.11
Type s of loads :
1) Conce ntrate d load: A load which is concentrated at a point in a beam is known
as concentrated load.

Fig. 3.12
2) Uniformly Dis tribute d load: A load which is distributed uniformly along the
entire length of the beam is known as Uniformly Distributed Load.

Fig. 3.13
Convert the U.D.L. into point load which is acting at the centre of particular span
Magnitude of point load=20KN/mx3m=60kN

3) Uniformly Varying load: A load which varies with the length of the beam is
known as Uniformly Varying load

Fig. 3.14
Magnitude of point load=Area of triangle and which is acting at the C.G. of
triangle.
Proble ms on Equilibrium of coplanar non concurre nt force s ys te m.
Tips to find the s upport re actions :
1) In coplanar concurrent force system, three conditions of equilibrium can be
applied namely

 Fx =0,  Fy =0 and ΣM=0

2) Draw the free body diagram of the given beam by showing all the forces and
reactions acting on the beam
3) Apply the three conditions of equilibrium to calculate the unknown reactions at
the supports. De te rminate s tructure s are those which can be solved with the
fundamental equations of equilibrium. i.e. the 3 unknown reactions can be solved
with the three equations of equilibrium.
Relationship between Uniformly distributed load (udl), Shear force and Bending
Moment.
Consider a simply supported beam subjected to distributed load  which is a function of x
as shown in Fig. 3.15(a). Consider section  at a distance x from left support and another
section  at a small distance dx from section . The free body diagram of the element is
as shown in Fig. 3.15(b). To the left of the section  the internal force V and the moment
M acts in the +ve direction. To the right of the section  the internal force and the
moment are assumed to increase by a small amount and are respectively V+dV and M+dM
acting in the +ve direction.

For the equilibrium of the system, the algebraic sum of all the vertical forces must be zero.
  ve V  0;

V   dx  V  dV   0

 dx  dV  0
dV
  ...(01)
dx
Eq. 01 the udl at any section is given by the negative slope of shear force with respect to
distance x or negative udl is given by the rate of change of shear force with respect to
distance x.
Within a limit of distributed force 1 and 2 over a distance of a, shear force is written as

V   2  dx
1

For the equilibrium of the system, the algebraic sum Moments of all the forces must be
zero. Taking moment about section 
 M  0;
 dx 
M  Vdx  ( dx )     M  dM   0
 2 

Ignoring the higher order derivatives, we get

Vdx  dM  0
dM
or V  02
dx

Eq. 02 shows the shear force at any section is given by rate of change in bending moment
with respect to distance x.
Within a limit of distributed force 1 and 2 and shear force V1 and V2 over a distance of
a, we can write bending moment as
V
M  V 2 Vdx
1
Point of contra fle xure or point of infle ction.
These are the points where the sign of the bending moment changes, either from positive
to negative or from negative to positive. The bending moment at these points will be zero.

Overhang Overhang

Hogging Sagging Hogging


x' x'

Points of Contra flexure

Fig. 3.16 Bending Moment Diagram

Proce dure to draw She ar Force and Be nding M ome nt Dia gram
 Determine the reactions including reactive moments if any using the conditions of
equilibrium viz. H = 0; V = 0; M = 0
She ar Force Diagram (SFD)
 Draw a horizontal line to represent the beam equal to the length of the beam to some
scale as zero shear line.
 The shear line is vertical under vertical load, inclined under the portion of uniformly
distributed load and parabolic under the portion of uniformly varying load. The shear
line will be horizontal under no load portion. Remember that the shear force diagram is
only concerned with vertical loads only and not with horizontal force or moments.
 Start from the left extreme edge of the horizontal line (For a cantilever from the fixed
end), draw the shear line as per the above described
method. Continue until all the loads are completed and
the check is that the shear line should terminate at the Uniformly Varying Load

horizontal line. Loading Diagram

 The portion above the horizontal line is positive shear
force and below the line is negative shear force.
 To join the shear line under the portion of uniformly
varying load, which is a parabola, it is to be Fig. 3.17 Shear Force Diagram
remembered that the parabola should be tangential to the horizontal if the
 corresponding load at the loading diagram is lesser and will be tangential to vertical if
the corresponding load at the loading diagram is greater.

/unit

Shear Force
Smaller
Larger

+ Shear Force +
- Larger

BM line joins Shear Force

normal to axis
BM line starts

llel to axis BM line joins

+ llel to axis
-
BM line joins
normal to axis BM line starts
normal to axis
Fig. 3.18 SFD, BMD and Loading Diagrams
Be nding M ome nt Diagram (BM D)
 Draw a horizontal line to represent the beam equal to the length of zero shear line
under the SFD.
 The Bending Moment line is vertical under the applied moment, inclined or horizontal
under the no load portion, parabolic under the portion of uniformly distributed load
and cubic parabola under the portion of uniformly varying load.
 Compute the Bending Moment values as per the procedure at the salient points.
 Bending Moment should be computed just to the left and just to the right under section
where applied moment is acting. i.e. MAL and MAR. Once the applied moment is to be
ignored and next the moment is to be considered as per the sign convention.
 Draw these values as vertical ordinates above or below the horizontal line
corresponding to positive or negative values.
 Start the Bending Moment line from the left extreme edge of the horizontal line, draw
as per the above described method under prescribed loading conditions. Continue until
the end of the beam and the check is that the line should terminate at the horizontal
line.
 The portion above the horizontal line is positive Bending Moment and below the line
is negative Bending Moment.
 Locate the point of Maximum Bending Moment. It occurs at the section where Shear
Force is zero.
 Locate the Point of Contra flexure where the Bending Moment line crosses the
horizontal line. i.e. the sign of Bending Moment line changes its sign.

W
/unit

Loading Diagram

SFD

BMD

Fig. 3.19 Cantilever

To join the Bending Moment line under the portion of uniformly distributed load which is
a parabola, it is to be remembered that the parabola should be tangential to the horizontal
if the corresponding shear force value at the loading diagram is lesser and will be
tangential to vertical if the corresponding shear force line at the shear force diagram is
greater as shown in Fig. 3.17.
In case of the beam being a Cantilever, start the Shear force from the fixed end. i.e.
arrange the cantilever such that the fixed end is towards left end.
Probl ems W
S TANDARD PROB LEMS a
Eccentric Concentrated Load A C B

Consider a simply supported beam of span l with RA l RB

an eccentric point load W acting at a distance a
RA
from support as shown in Fig. 3.20 W
The reactions can be obtained from the equations RB
of equilibrium SFD
(Write the Upward acting forces on one side and
a
W l  a 
downward acting forces on the other side of the l
equation to avoid confusion among sign BM
convention). D Point load
Fig. 3.20 SS with
VA = 0; RA + RB = W (01)
Taking moments about A,
MA = 0;
(Write the clockwise moments on one side and anti-clockwise moments on the other side
of the equation to avoid confusion among sign convention).
(RB)(l) = (W)(a)
Wa
RB 
l

Similarly Taking moments about B,

MB = 0;
(RA)(l) = (W)(l—a)
W l  a 
RA 
l

Check
To check the computations, substitute in Eq. 01, we have
Wa W  l  a  a l a
R A  RB   W    W and hence OK.
l l  l 

Shear Force Values

W l  a 
VA = 0 + R A 
l

W l  a 
VC =
l
 W l  a  Wa
VC = W  
l l

VB =  Wa
l
Wa Wa
VB =   0
l l

Bending Moment Values

Note: The Bending Moment will always will be zero at the end of the beam unless there is
an applied moment at the end.
MA = 0
MB = 0
W l  a  a
MC =  R A  a   a  W l  a  also
l l

 Wa  a
MC =  RB  l  a       l  a   W l  a 
 l  l
/unit
Uniformly Distributed Load length
A C B
Consider a simply supported beam of span l with
RA l RB
an uniformly distributed load /m acting over the
entire span as shown in Fig. 3.35 RA
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions
of equilibrium. RB
SFD
As the loading is symmetrical
RA = RB and hence l 2
8
 V A = 0 ; R A + R B = 2 R A = 2 R B =  xl (01)
BM
l
R A  RB  Fig. 3.21 SS D
with UDL
2
Shear Force Values
l
VA = RA 
2

l 
VB   l  
2 2
Shear Force at Midsection will be
l l
VC   0
2 2
Bending Moment Values
MA = 0
MB = 0
l   l  l 2
MC =  R A   
l

 2 
2 2    4

Uniformly Varying Load

Consider a simply supported beam of span l with an uniformly varying load /m acting
over the entire span as shown in Fig. 3.24

The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.

VA = 0;
l 
R A  RB    (01)
 2  /unit
lengthA x
Taking moments about A, C B

MA = 0; RA l
x
  l  l   l
2
RB  l  
RA
   6
 2  3 
l RB
RB 
6 SFD
Taking moments about B, l2 
 
MB = 0;  9 3 
BMD
  l   2l   l
2
RA l      Fig. 3.22 SS with UVL
 2  3  3
l
RA 
3

Check
To check the computations, substitute in Eq. 01, we have
l  l  l
R A  RB    
 6   3  2

Hence O.K.
Shear Force Values
l
VA = R A 
3

l l l l l
VB    and V B    0
3 2 6 6 6

Location of Zero Shear Force

Consider a section at a distance x from left support and load intensity at that
  x
section x is given by  x   
l 

and Shear Force at that section is given by

1  x 2    l  l
Vx   x  x  RB     0 or x 
2  2l   6 
  3

Bending Moment Values

MA = 0
MB = 0
Bending Moment will be maximum at Zero Shear Force and

1   x   l   x3 
M c   RB  x     x  x       x   
2  3   6   6 l 
3
 l   l     l 
     
 6   3   6l   3 

 l 2   1    l 2 
  1     
 6 3   3   9 3 

Cantilever with Point Load

The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of
equilibrium.
VA = 0; R A  W

Taking moments about A,

M A  W  l  a 

Shear Force Values

VB = 0
VC = 0
VC = 0 W = W
VA = W
VA = W + W = 0
Bending Moment Values
MB = 0
MC = 0
M A  W  l  a 

Cantilever with Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; R A   l /m
A B
MA
Taking moments about A, l
VA
l l 2
M A   l     
2 2
l
Shear Force Values
VB = 0 SFD
l 2

VA = —l 2 BMD
V A = —  l + l = 0
Fig. 3.34 Cantilever with UDL
Bending Moment Values
MB = 0
l l 2
M A   l     
2 2

Cantilever with Uniformly Varying Load (UVL)

Case (i)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions
of equilibrium. /m
l x
VA = 0; R A  MA B
2 A
l
Taking moments about A, VA x
l
l   l  l2
M A        2
 2  3 6
SFD
Shear Force Values
l 2

VB = 0 6 BMD
l
VA  Fig. 3.35 Cantilever with UVL
2
l l
VA   0
2 2
Bending Moment Values
MB = 0
l   l  l2
M A   
    
 2  3 6

Consider a section at a distance x from free end and load intensity at that section x is
given by
x
 x   
l
Shear Force at that section is given by

1  x2 
Vx   x  x   
2  2l 

Bending Moment at that section is given by

1  x   x3 
M x     x  x     
2  3   6l 
 

Case (ii)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
l
VA = 0; R A 
2
/m
Taking moments about A,
MA x
  l   2l   l
2
A B
MA     3 l
 2   3 VA
x
Shear Force Values l
VB = 0 2

l SFD
VA  l 2
2
6 BMD
l l
VA   0
2 2 Fig. 3.36 Cantilever with UVL
Bending Moment Values
MB = 0
  l   2l   l
2
MA     3
 2   3

Consider a section at a distance x from free end and load intensity at that section x is
given by
x
 x   
l

Shear Force at that section is given by

  l   x 
2
1
Vx  R A   x  x      
2  2   2 l 

Bending Moment at that section is given by

1  x  l   x3    l 2 
M x  R A  x    x  x    M A   x 
2  3 

 2   6l   3 
   

Cantilever with Partial Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; R A   b Taking moments about A,

 b
M A  b   a   /m
 2 MA A C D B
a b
Shear Force Values l
VB = 0
VD = 0
V C = — b SFD
l2
V A = — b 2 BMD
V A = —  b + b = 0
Fig. 3.37 Cantilever with Partial
Bending Moment Values UDL
MB = 0
MD = 0
b b 2
M C   b     
 
2 2

 b
M A   b   a  
 2

3.01. Draw the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram for a Cantilever beam
subjected to concentrated loads as shown in Fig. 3.38.
From the conditions of equilibrium
V = 0; RA = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60 kN ()
M = 10 x 6 + 20 x 3 + 30 x 2 = 180 kN-m.
Shear Force Values at Salient Points
VD = 0 – 10 = -10 kN
VC = -10 – 20 = -30 kN
VB = -30 – 30 = -60 kN
VA = -60 + 60 = 0kN
Bending Moment Values at Salient Points
MD = 0 kN-m
MC = -10 x 3 = -30 kN-m
MB = -10 x 4 – 20 x 1 = - 60 kN-m
MA = -10 x 6 – 20 x 3 – 30 x 2 = - 180 kN-m
 10kN 20kN 30kN
3m 2m
1m
D C B A MA
Loading Diagram RA

-10kN
-30kN


SFD -60kN

0kNm
-30kN-m
-60kN-m

BMD -180kN-m
Fig.3.38 Cantilever

3.02. A cantilever beam is subjected to loads as shown in Fig. 3.39. Draw SFD and BMD.
From the conditions of equilibrium
VA = 0; RA = 10 + 30 + 20 x 5 = 140 kN ()
5
MA = 30 x 2 + 10 x 3 + (20 x 5)   + 40 = 380 kN-m.
 
2

Shear Force Values at Salient Points

VD = 0 kN
VC = 0 – 20 x 2 = –40 kN
VC = –40 – 10 = –50 kN
VB = –50 – 20 x 1 = –70 kN
VB = –70 – 30 = –100 kN
VA = –100 – 20 x 2 = –140 kN
VA = –140 + 140 = 0kN
Bending Moment Values at Salient Points
As there is applied moment at section D, there will be two moments at that section and
hence
MDR = 0
MDL = 0 – 40 = –40kN-m
MC = –20 x 2 x 1 – 40 = –80 kN-m
MB = –20 x 3 x 1.5 – 10 x 1 – 40 = – 140 kN-m
MA = –20 x 5 x 2.5 – 10 x 3 – 20 x 2– 40 = – 360 kN-m

30kN 10kN
20kN/m 40kNm
MA
A B C D
2m 1m 2m
VA Loading Diagram
140kN

100kN

70kN
50kNm
40kN

Shear Force Diagram

-40kNm
-80kNm
-140kNm

-360kNm

Bending Moment Diagram

Fig. 3.39 BMD & SFD - Cantilever
3.03. Draw BMD and SFD for the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 3.40.
Locate the point of contra flexure if any,
20kN/m
30kN
100kN
MA
A B C D
2m 1m 2m
VA Loading Diagram

50kN

20kN 20kN

Shear Force Diagram

63.33kNm

-13.33kNm

-33.33kNm -33.33kNm
Bending Moment Diagram
Fig. 3.40 BMD & SFD - Cantilever
From the conditions of equilibrium
1
VA = 0; RA = 30 +   x 20 x 2 = 50 kN ()
2

1  2
MA = 30 x 2 +   (20 x 2)  3   – 100 = 33.33 kN-m.
2  3

Shear Force Values at Salient Points

VD = 0 kN
1
VC = 0 –   (20 x 2) = –20 kN
2

VB =–20 kN
VB = –20 – 30 = –50 kN
VA = –50 kN
VA = –50 + 50 = 0kN
Bending Moment Values at Salient Points
As there is applied moment at section B, there will be two moments at that section and
hence
MD = 0 kN
1 2
MC = –   (20 x 2)   = –13.33 kN-m
 
2 3  

1  2
MBR = –   (20 x 2)  1   = –33.33 kN-m
 
2 3 

MBL = –33.33 + 100 = + 66.67kN-m

1  2
MA = –   (20 x 2)  3   – 30 x 2 + 100 = –33.33 kN-m
 
2  3 

Points of contraflexure:
x

 2  x  or x  0.67m
33.33 66.67

It lies at 0.67m and 2m right of the left support.

Bracket Connections
There can be following types of bracket connections which can be converted to load

F F
a a Fxa
bracket
F
beam F F
F F
a
a F
L-bracket F Fxa
beam F
Fig.3.41 Bracket Connections
and moment.
The types of brackets are vertical and L bracket as shown in Fig. 3.41. Apply two
equal, opposite and collinear forces at the joint where the load gets transferred to the
beam. The two forces (F) acting equal and opposite separated by a distance will form a
couple equal to the product of Force and the distance between the forces along with the
remaining Force.
3.04. An overhanging beam ABC is loaded as shown in Fig. 3.42. Draw the shear
force and bending moment diagrams. Also locate point of contraflexure.
Determine maximum +ve and —ve bending moments. (Jan- 06)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; R A  RB  2  6  2  14kN

Taking moments about A,

6 48
M A  0; 4 R B   2  6     2  6 or R B   12kN
2 4

Similarly taking moments about B,

2 4 8
M B  0; 4 R B  2  2   2  2      2  4    or R A   2kN
2 2 4

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA + RB = 2 + 12 =14 kN (O.K.)
Zero Shear Force
Consider a section at a distance x where Shear Force is zero as shown in Fig.3,42,
From similar triangles, we have
2 6

x 4  x

x  1m

Bending Moment Values

MA = 0
2
M B  2  2  2  2     8kN (Negative because Sagging)
2

MC = 0
Bending Moment at zero Shear Force will be either Maximum or Minimum.
2 x2
M x  2x   2 x  x 2  1kNm
2
Maximum positive BM is 1kNm at 1 m to right of left support and negative BM is
8kNm at right support.
Point of Contraflexure: Bending Moment equation at section y is
2 y 2
M y  2y   2 y  y 2  0 or y  2m
2
 2 kN
2 kN/m
A B C

4m 2m 2 kN
2 kN/m
A B C

RA RB
4m 2m
6 kN
Loading Diagram
x

2 kN
Zero Shear Force 2 kN

—
SFD 6kN

1kNm

BFD
—
Fig. 3.42
8kNm

3.05. Draw the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram for the loaded beam shown in
Fig. 3.43. Find the Maximum bending moment.
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RA  RB  40  4  160kN (01)

Taking moment about A,

 4 480
M A  0;8R B   40  4  1   or R B   60kN
 2 8
 40kN/m
A C D B
4m 3m
RA 1m RB
x
100kN

—60kN —60kN
SFD
225kNm

100kNm 180kNm

BMD Fig. 3.43

The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RA  RB  40  4  160kN (01)
Taking moment about A,
 4 480
M A  0;8R B   40  4  1   or R B   60kN
 2 8

Similarly taking moment about B,

 4 800
M B  0; 8R A   40  4   3   or R A   100kN
 2  8

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA + RB = 100 + 60 =160 kN (O.K.)
Zero Shear Force
Consider a section at a distance x where Shear Force is zero as shown in Fig. 3.43
From similar triangles, we have
100 60
 or x  2.5m
x 4  x
Vo = 1 + 2.5 = 3.5m from right support.
 Bending Moment Values
MB = 0
M D  60  3  180kN

4
M C  60  7   40  4     100kN
2

MA = 0
Bending Moment at zero Shear Force will be either Maximum or Minimum.
40  x 2
M x  100  1  x    100  1  x   20  x 2  225kNm
2
3.06. Draw the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram for the loaded beam shown in
Fig. 3.44. Also locate the Point of Contraflexure. Find and locate the Maximum +ve
and —ve Bending Moments.
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RC  RD  40  20  60kN (01)
Taking moment about C,
40
M C  0;4R D  2  40  20  6 or R D   10kN
4
Similarly taking moments about D,
200
M D  0; 4RC  20  2  40  6 or RC   50kN
4
Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RC + RD = 50 + 10 = 60 kN (O.K.)
Zero Shear Force is at right support
Bending Moment Values
MB = 0
M D  20  2  40kN-m

M C  40  2  80kNm

MA = 0
Maximum Moments: Maximum negative BM is 80 kNm at the left support.
 40kN 20kN

A C D B
2m 4m 2m

20kN 20kN

10kN

—40kN —40kN
SFD

—
40kNm

—
BM
80kNm
Fig. 3.44
3.07. Draw BMD and SFD for the loaded beam shown in Fig. 3.45. Also locate the Point
of contraflexure and Maximum +ve and —ve Bending Moment
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
Taking moment about A,
VA = 0; RA  RB  3  5  2  6  20kN (01)

6 70
M A  0;6 R B  3  2   2  6     5  8 or R B   11.67kN
2 6

Similarly taking moment about B,

6 50
M B  0; 6 R A  5  2   2  6     3  8 or R A   8.33kN
2 6

Check: Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA + RB = 11.67 + 8.33 =20 kN (O.K.)

 3kN 5kN
2kN/m

C A B D
2m 6m 2m
5.33kN 5kN 5kN
20kN

—3kN —3kN

—
— SFD
1.11kNm

—6kNm

BM
Fig. 3.45 —
Check: Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA10kNm
+ RB = 11.67 + 8.33 =20 kN (O.K.)
Zero Shear Force
Consider a section at a distance x where Shear Force is zero as shown in Fig. 3.45.
From similar triangles, we have
5.33 6.67
 or x  2.67m
x 6  x
Bending Moment Values
MD = 0
M B  5  2  10kN

M A  3 2  6kN

MC = 0
Bending Moment at zero Shear Force will be either Maximum or Minimum.
2 x2 2 x2
M x  8.33  x  3  2  x    8.33  x  3  2  x    1.11kNm
2 2
 Points of Contraflexure:
Bending moment at section y from the left support is given by
2y2
M y  8.33 y  3   2  y   or y 2  5.33 y  6  0 and y  1.61m and 3.72m
2

Hence the points at 1.61m and 3.72m to right of left support.

3.08. Draw the BMD and SFD for the loaded beam shown in Fig. 3.46.
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RA  RB  20kN
Taking moment about A,
M A  0;3R B  20  4  10

90
RB   30kN
3

Similarly taking moments about B,

M B  0; 3R A  10   20 1  0

30
RA    10kN
3
Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA + RB = —10 + 30 = 20 kN (O.K.)
Bending Moment Values
MD = 0
M B  20 1  20kNm (Negative because Sagging)
M C R  20  2  30 1  10kNm

M C L  10  10  20kNm or (By considering right side forces)

M C L  10  2  20kNm (By considering left side forces)

MA = 0
 20kN
A 10kNm C B D

2m 1m 1m

20kN 20kN

—10kN —10kN

SFD

—10kNm

—20kNm
—20kNm
BM
Fig. 3.46
An overhang beam ABC is loaded as shown in Fig. 3.47. Draw BMD and SFD.
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RA  RB  4  3 12  24kN

Taking moment about A,

 3 162
M A  0;6 R B  12  9   4  3  3   or R B   27kN
 2  6

Similarly taking moments about B,

3 18
M B  0; 6 R A  12  3   4  3    or R A    3kN
2 6

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA + RB = —3 + 27 = 24 kN (O.K.)
Bending Moment Values
MD = 0
M B  12  3  36kNm (Negative because Sagging)
M C  3 3  6kNm

MA 0
 40kN
20kN/m 120kNm

A C D B
3m 1.5m 1.5m
45kN

-15kN

-55kN -55kN

SFD
82.5kNm

45kNm

-37.5kNm
BMD
Fig. 3.48
3.09. Draw SFD and BMD for the beam shown in Fig. 3.48. Determine the
maximum BM and its location. Locate the points of contraflexure. (July 02)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RA  RB  20  3  40  100kN
Taking moment about A,
3 330
M A  0;6 R B   20  3    40  3  120 or R B   55kN
 
2 6

Similarly taking moments about B,

 3 270
M B  0; 6 R A  40  3   20  3   3    120 or R A   45kN
 2 6

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA + RB =45 + 55 = 100 kN (O.K.)
 Bending Moment Values
MB = 0
M DR  55 1.5  82.5kNm

M DL  82.5  120  37.5kNm (By considering right side forces)

 3
M D L  45  4.5   20  3 1.5    40  1.5  37.5kNm (By left side forces)
 2

M C  55  3 120  45kNm (By considering right side forces)

3
M C  45  3   20  3    45kNm (By left side forces)
2

MA = 0
Points of Contraflexure
Consider a section at a distance x where BM is changing its sign as shown in Fig.
3.49. From similar triangles, we have
45 37.5

x 1.5  x 

x  0.818m

The Points of contraflexure are located at 3.818m and 4.5m from the left support.

3.10. A beam ABCDE is 12m long simply supported at points B and D. Spans
AB=DE=2m is overhanging. BC=CD=4m. The beam supports a udl of 10kN/m over
AB and 20kN/m over CD. In addition it also supports concentrated load of 10kN at
E and a clockwise moment of 16kNm at point C. Sketch BMD and SFD. (Aug 05)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RB  RD  10  2  20  4 10  110kN (01)

Taking moment about B,

2  4 576
M B  0;8 R D  10  2     10 10   20  4   4    16 or R D   72kN
2  2 8

Similarly taking moment about D,

 2 4 304
M D  0; 8 R B  10  2  16  10  2   8     20  4    or R B   38kN
 2 2 8

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RB + RD = 38 + 72 =110 kN (O.K.)
Zero Shear Force
Consider a section at a distance x where Shear Force is zero as shown in Fig. 3.50.
From similar triangles, we have
12 68
 or x  0.6m
x 4  x

Bending Moment Values

ME = 0
M D  10  2  20kN

4
M C R  72  4  10  6   20  4     68kNm
2

M C L  68  16  52kNm (From right side forces)

10kN
10kN/m 20kN/m
A B C D E
16kNm
2m 2m
4m 4m
12kN 12kN
10kN 10kN

—20kN
z y

—68kN
SFD
68kN 75.2kN

52kN

— —
BM
Fig. 3.49
 2
M C L  38  4  10  2   4    52kNm (From left side forces)
 2

2
M B   10  2     20kNm
2

MA = 0
Bending Moment at zero Shear Force will be either Maximum or Minimum.
 20   4  x 
2
M x  72   4  x   10  2  4  x  
2
 72   4  0.6   10  2  4  0.6   10  4  0.6   75.2kNm
2

Point of Contraflexures
Consider a section at a distance z where Bending Moment is zero as shown in Fig.
3.49. From similar triangles, we have
20 52
 and z  1.1m
z 4  z

Bending Moment at Section y from point D is zero and can be written as

20  y 2
M y  72  y  10  2  y   0
2
 72  y  10  2  y   10  y 2  62 y  10 y 2  20  0 and y  0.341m

3.11. Draw the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for the beam shown in Fig.
3.50. Locate the point of contraflexure if any. (Feb 04)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; R A  RD  10  5  80  80  16  2.5  250kN

Taking moment about A,

5  2.5 
M A  0;12.5R D  10  5     80  5  80  7.5  16  2.5  12.5 
2  2 
1675
RD   134kN
12.5

Similarly taking moments about B,

 2.5   5
M D  0;12.5R A  16  2.5     10  5   7.5  2   80  7.5  80  5 
 2   
1450
RA   116kN
12.5

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA + RB = 116 + 134 = 250 kN (O.K.)
Bending Moment Values
ME = 0
 2.5 
M D   16  2.5     50kNm
 2 
 2.5 
M C  134  5  16  2.5   5   425kNm
 2 
5
M B  116  5  10  5     455kNm
2
MA = 0
 90k

20k 20k
A B C 6


x
40kN —6.5
SFD
70kN
3m 8m 2m

40kN 20kN
A B C D

Load intensity diagram

264.75kNm
90-(-40)=130kN 20-(-70)=90kN

BMD —40 kNm

Fig. 3.50
—120 kNm
Point of Contraflexure
Consider a section at a distance y from the right support where Bending Moment is
zero as shown in Fig. From similar triangles, we have
50 425
 and z  0.526m
y 5  y 
3.12. From the given shear force diagram shown in the Fig. 3.50, develop the load
intensity diagram and draw the corresponding bending moment diagram indicating
the salient features. (Jan 08)
The vertical lines in Shear force diagram represent vertical load, horizontal lines
indicate generally no load portion, inclined line represents udl and parabola indicates
uniformly varying load.
To generate load intensity diagram, the computations are shown in Fig. 3.50. The
vertical line from the horizontal line below the line indicates negative value and vice
versa. To check whether the applied moments are there in the loading diagram, we
can take algebraic sum of moments of all the loads about any point and if there is a
residue from the equation it indicates the applied moment in the opposite rotation to
be applied anywhere on the beam.
Check
Taking Moments about B, we have
8
M B  0; 40  3  90  8  20  10   20  8     0
2

Note: Hence there is no applied moment or couple and if there is any residue from
the equation like +M kNm then there is an applied moment of M kNm clockwise and
vice versa.
Bending Moment Values
MD = 0
MC = -20 x 2 = -40 kNm (Negative due to hogging moment)
MB = -40 x 3 = -120 kNm (Negative due to hogging moment)
MA = 0
Maximum Bending Moment occurs at zero shear force which is located at a distance
x from the left support as shown in Fig. From similar triangles, we have
90 70
 or x  4.5m
x 8  x 

Maximum Bending Moment at the section x is

20 x 2
M x  130 x  40   3  x    130 x  40   3  x   x 2
2
 130  4.5  40   3  4.5   4.5 2  264.75kNm
3.13. A beam 6m long rests on two supports with equal overhangs on either side and
carries a uniformly distributed load of 30kN/m over the entire length of the beam as
shown in Fig. 3.51. Calculate the overhangs if the maximum positive and negative
bending moments are to be same. Draw the SFD and BMD and locate the salient
points. (Jan 07)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
As the loading is symmetrical RA = RB and hence
VA = 0; RB + RC = 2 RB = 2RC = 30 x (6+2a)
30  6
R B  RC   90kN
2
Bending Moment at any section x from the left end is given by
30 x 2
M x  90  x  a   or 90  x  a   15 x 2 01
2

From the given problem, maximum positive and negative bending moments are to
be same, which occurs at zero shear force sections. From the above loading diagram,
it can be seen that the zero shear force occurs at support and at centre (as the loading

30kN/m
A B C D

a a
6m

90k
63.64kN

-63.64kN
SFD -90kN

23.176kNm

-23.176kNm BMD -23.176kNm

Fig. 3.51
 is symmetrical). Hence substituting x = a and 3, we get maximum +ve and —ve
Bending Moment.
M B  15a 2

M E  90 3  a  153  90 3  a  135
2

Equating the absolute values of above two equations, we have

15a 2  90  3  a   135 or a 2  6a  9  0 and a  1.243m

Bending Moment Values

MD = 0
30 1.243 2
MC    23.176kNm
2

30 1.243 2
MB    23.176kNm
2
MA = 0
30 1.243 2
M E  90  3  1.243   23.176kNm
2
Points of Contraflexure:
M x  90  x  1.243  15 x 2  6  x  1.243  x 2  0 or x  1.76m and 4.24m

The points of contraflexure are at 1.76m and 4.24m from left end.
3.14. Draw the Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram for a simply supported beam
subjected to uniformly varying load shown in Fig. 3.52.
The trapezoidal load can be split into udl and uvl (triangular load) as shown in Fig.
3.43.
1
VA = 0; R A  R B  15  6     10  6   120kN 01
2

Taking moment about A,

6 1 2  390
M A  0;6 R B  15  6       10  6    6  or R D   65kN
2 2 3  6

Similarly taking moments about B,

6 1 6 330
M B  0;6 R A  15  6       10  6     80  7.5  80  5 or R A   55kN
   
2 2  
3 6

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RA + RB = 55 + 65 = 120 kN (O.K.)
 15kN/m 25kN/m
A B
6m

uvl 10kN/m
15kN/m udl 15kN/m
A B
6m

 (uvl)10kN/
(udl)15kN/
A B
6m
x
2m 3m
45kN

SFD -55kN
90.156kN

BM
Fig.
Shear Force Equation at any section
3.52 x from left support
Consider a section x at a distance x from the left support as shown.
The intensity of uvl at x is given by
 10  x 
x     1.67 x kN/m
 6 

1.67 x 2 5
V x  55  15 x   55  15 x  x 2 kN
2 6
5
At x = 2m, V2  55  15  2   2 2  21.67kN
6

5
At x = 3m, V3  55  15  3   3 2  2.5kN
6
5
At x = 5m, V5  55  15  5   5 2  40.83kN
6

5
Zero Shear Force = Vo  55  15  x   x 2  0solving we get, x  3.124m
6
 Bending Moment Values
Bending Moment Equation at any section x from left support
Consider a section x at a distance x from the left support as shown.

15 x 2  1.67 x 2  x  5 3
M x  55 x       55 x  7.5 x  x kNm
2
2  2  3  18
 

5 3
M x  55  7.5 x 2  x
18

MB = 0
MA = 0
Maximum Bending Moment occurs at SF = 0, i.e. x = 3.124m
 5
M x  55  3.124  7.5  3.124 2     3.124 3  90.156kNm
 18 

3.15. A beam ABCD 20m long is loaded as shown in Fig. 3.53. The beam is supported at
B and C with a overhang of 2m to the left of B and a overhang of am to the right of
support C. Determine the value of a if the midpoint of the beam is point of inflexion
and for this alignment plot BM and SF diagrams indicating the important values.
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RB  RC  5    20  25 kN (01)
Taking moment about B,
   2 2      20  2  
2
M B  0; 18  a  RC   5   2     
 2   2 
   
150
18  a  RC  150 or RC 
18  a 
Similarly taking moment about C,
 a 2      20  a  2 
M C  0; 18  a  R B      5  20  a    
 2   2 
   
  300  25a 
18  a  R B  300  25a or R B 
18  a 
Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have
150   300  25a 
R B  RC    25 (O.K.)
18  a  18  a 
Point of contraflexure
Consider a section at a distance x from left support as shown in Fig. 3.53. Bending
moment at this section is given by

x2    300  25a   x2

M x  R B   x  2   5  x      x  2   5  x 
2  18  a   2

From the given data, this is zero at x = 10m. Hence

   300  25a   x 2
    x  2   5  x  0
 18  a   2

  300  25a   10 2
   8  5 10  0
 18  a   2

  300  25a  
   12.5
 18  a  

300  25a  225  12.5a or a  6m

  300  25a    300  25  6 
RB    12.5
18  a  18  6 
150 150
RC    12.5
18  a  18  6 
Zero Shear Force
Consider a section at a distance y where Shear Force is zero as shown in Fig. 3.53.
From similar triangles, we have
5.5 6.5
 or y  5.5m
y 12  y 
Bending Moment Values
MD = 0
62
M C     18
2

22
M B  5  2     12
2

MA = 0
  5.5  2 
2
M E  12.5  5.5  5   5.5  2    3.125
2

Another point of contraflexure is

   300  25  6   6 2
Mx      6  2   5  6 
 18  6   2
 5
/
/m
A B C D
x
2m
2 a
10m
10 10
10m
y
5.5


—
-5 SFD
—7
5

3.125

-12
BMD -18
Fig. 3.53
3.16 For the beam AC shown in Fig. 3.54, determine the magnitude of the load P acting
at C such that the reaction at supports A and B are equal and hence draw the Shear
force and Bending moment diagram. Locate points of contraflexure. (July 08)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RA  RB  45 4  P 01

From the given data, RA = RB and substituting in Eq. 01, 2R A  2RB  180  P
Taking moment about A,
4
M A  0;6 R B  7 P   45  4     30 or 6 R B  7 P  390
2
Substituting from Eq. 01,
3180  P   7 P  390 or P  37.5kN

Check
Similarly taking moments about B,
 4
M B  0;6 R A  P 1  30   45  4   2  
 2
6 R A  690  P
Substituting from Eq. 01, 3180  P   690  P or P  37.5kN
Hence O.K.
2RA = 2RB = 180 + 37.5 = 217.5kN
RA = RB = 108.75kN
Zero Shear Force
Consider a section at a distance x where Shear Force is zero as shown in Fig. 3.54.
From similar triangles, we have
108.75 71.25
 or x  2.417m
x 4  x
Bending Moment Values
MC = 0
M B  37.5 1  37.5kNm (Negative because Sagging)
M DR  108.75  2  37.5  3  105kNm
4
M D L  108.75  4   45  4     75kNm (From left side forces)
2
M DL  105  30  75kNm (From Right side forces)
MA = 0
Maximum Bending moment occurs at zero shear force. i.e. at x = 2.417
45  x 2 45  2.417 2
M x  108.75  x   108.75  2.417   131.41kNm
2 2

P=?
45kN/m 30kNm
A C
D B
1m
4m 3m
108.75kN

37.5kN 37.5kN

-71.25kN -71.25kN
131.41kN SFD
105kN

75kN

-37.5kNm
BMD
Fig. 3.54
3.16. Draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams for a prismatic simply
supported beam of length L, subjected to a clockwise moment M at the centre of the
beam and a uniformly distributed load of intensity q per unit length acting over the
entire span. (Jan 09)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RA  RB  q  L kN (01)

Taking moment about A,

q  L2
M A  0; R B  L  M 
2
q L M
RB  
2 L

Similarly taking moment about B,

q  L2
M B  0; R A  L  M
2
q L M
RA  
2 L

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have q/unit
A length B
q L M q L M M C
R A  RB      q L (O.K.)
2 L 2 L x
RA L RB
Zero Shear Force y

Consider a section at a distance x where Shear RA

Force is zero as shown in Fig. 3.55. From
similar triangles, we have RB
q L M  q L M 
SFD
 2  L  2  L
   or x   L  M 
 
x  L  x 2 qL  qL2 M M2 
   
 8 2 2 q L2 
qL2 M M2
  
8 2 2 q L2
BM
Bending Moment Values D UDL &
Fig. 3.55 SS with
MB = 0 Moment
MA = 0
Bending Moment at zero Shear Force will be either Maximum or Minimum.
2
q L M  q qL M  L M  q L M 
Mx     x   x2         
 2 L 2  2 L  2 qL 2 2 qL

qL2 M M2
M max   
8 2 2 q L2
3.17. For the loaded beam shown in Fig. 3.56, Draw the Shear Force and Bending
Moment Diagram. Find and locate the Maximum +ve and —ve Bending Moments.
Also locate the Point of Contraflexures. Detail the procedure to draw the SFD and
BMD. (July 09)
It can be seen the loading is symmetrical and the Reactions are equal. From the
conditions of equilibrium
VA = 0;
 1 
R A  R B  2 R A  2 R B  2   20   10  2    20  2 or R A  R B  50kN
 2 

Bending Moment Values

MF = MC = 0
M A  M B  20  2  40kNm

1  2  2 
M D L  M E R  50  2  20  4    10  2    6.67kNm
 2  3 

M DR  M E L  6.67  10  3.33kNm

Maximum Bending Moment and Points of Contraflexure

Maxumum Bending Moment
Bending Moment at any section x in the region DE is given by
 1  2   x  2
2
M x  50 x  20  x  2     10  2  x     20  10
 2  3  2

The Maximum bending moment occurs at zero shear force.

i.e. x = (5-2) = 3 m
 1  2  3  2 2
M x  50  3  20  3  2    10  2  3     20  10  6.67kNm
 2  3  2

Shear Force Diagram

1. Draw a horizontal line C1 F2 equal to the length of the beam 10m to some scale,
under the beam CF as shown.
2. Start the Shear force line from left extreme edge C 1 . Draw C 1 C2 under the
vertical load 20kN acting at C downward equal to some scale. To start with, the
shear force at C1 =0 and at C 2 , the Shear force = 0 – 20 (-ve as it is acting
downward) = -20 kN.
3. There is no load in the region CA and hence under this region, the shear force
line C2 A1 will be a horizontal line parallel to beam axis.
4. At A, there is a reaction RA which is treated as vertical load = 50kN and hence
the shear force line A1 A2 = 50kN to some scale and the shear force at A2 = -20 +
50 (+ as it is upward) = +30 kN.
5. There is a uvl in the region AD and the shear force line will be a parabola in this
region. The parabola will be tangential to vertical at A2 as there is relatively
higher load intensity at A and will be parallel to horizontal at D1 as the load
intensity is lesser at D. Hence the curve is sagging. The vertical distance from A2
to D1 is equal to the total load equivalent to uvl, i.e. ½ x 10 x 2 = 10kN and the
shear force at D1 = 30 - 10 (- as it is downward) = +20 kN.
6. There is an udl in the region DE and hence the shear force line is inclined from
D1 to E1 . The vertical distance from D1 to E1 is equal to the total load equivalent
to udl, i.e. 20 x 2 = 40kN and the shear force at E1 = 20 - 40 (- as it is downward)
= -20 kN.
7. There is a uvl in the region EB and the shear force line will be a parabola in this
region. The parabola will be tangential to horizontal at E1 as there is relatively
lower load intensity at E and will be parallel to vertical at B1 as the load intensity
is higher at B. Hence the curve is hogging. The vertical distance from E1 to B1 is

10kN/m 10kN/m
20kN 20kN
D 20kN/m
E
C A B F
10kNm G 10kNm
2m 2m 2m 2m 2m
x
30kN 20kN F1
A2 D1 20kN B2 20kN

C1 F2
C2 A1 E1
—20kN —20kN —20kN B1
—30kN
SFD
6.67kNm
6.67kNm G3 6.67kNm
D3 E4
C3 F3
D4 -3.370kNm E3

A3 BMD B3
—40kNm —40kNm
Fig. 3.56
 equal to the total load equivalent to uvl, i.e. ½ x 10 x 2 = 10kN and the shear
force at B1 = -20 - 10 (- as it is downward) = -30 kN.
8. At B, there is a reaction RB which is treated as vertical load = 50kN and hence
the shear force line B1 B2 = 50kN to same scale and the shear force at B2 = -30 +
50 (+ as it is upward) = +20 kN.
9. There is no load in the region BF and hence under this region, the shear force
line B2 F1 will be a horizontal line parallel to beam axis.
10. Draw F1 F2 under the vertical load 20kN acting at F downward equal to same
scale. The shear force at F2 = 20 – 20 = 0 (-ve as it is acting downward). Note
that for the Shear Force Diagram to be precise, the shear force line must finally
join the horizontal axis. If there is any shortage or surplus, the shear force
diagram must be redrawn.
11. The portion of the shear force diagram above the horizontal axis is +ve and the
one below the horizontal axis is –ve.
Bending Moment Diagram
1. The Bending Moment is zero at the extreme edges of the beam unless there is an
applied moment or couple acting at the edges, Hence the Moment at C = M C = 0
i.e. at C3 .
2. The Bending moment at A is -40 kNm and hence the bending moment line is
inclined under the no load portion CA (it can be either horizontal or inclined
depending on the moments at the corresponding ends of the portion in the
region).
3. The region AD has a uvl and hence the bending moment line will be a cubic
parabola (the index of BM is always one more than SF at any section and hence
bending moment line is inclined under horizontal shear force line, parabola
under inclined shear force line and cubic parabola under parabolic shear force
line). The parabola joins the bending moment values at A3 is -40kNm and at D3
is +6.67kNm (Bending moment to the left of D). The cubic parabola will be
parallel to vertical at A3 and parallel to horizontal at D3 as the absolute value of
shear force at A2 = 30kN (more) compared to that at D1 = 20kN.
4. The bending moment line is always a vertical line under the applied moment or
couple. There is an clockwise applied moment of 10kNm acting at D and hence
it is hogging. The vertical line D3 D4 is downward and equal to the applied
 moment to the same scale = 10kNm. The Bending moment value at D4 = -3.37
kNm
5. The region DG is acted upon by udl, the shear force line is inclined and the
bending moment line will be a parabola from D4 to G3 . The parabola is joining
Bending moment at D4 = -3.37 to that at G3 = 6.67kNm. The bending moment
line will be tangential to vertical at D4 and tangential to horizontal at G3 as the
shear force at D1 = 20kN which is relatively higher than at G which is 0.
6. The region GE is acted upon by udl, the shear force line is inclined and the
bending moment line will be a parabola from G3 to E3 . The parabola is joining
Bending moment at G3 = 6.67 to that at E3 = -3.37kNm. The bending moment
line will be tangential to horizontal at G3 and tangential to vertical at E3 as the
absolute shear force at G = 0kN which is relatively lesser than at E3 =3.37kNm.
7. There is an anti-clockwise applied moment of 10kNm acting at E and hence it is
sagging. The vertical line E3 E4 is upward and equal to the applied moment to the
same scale = 10kNm. The Bending moment value at E4 = 6.67 kNm
8. The region EB has a uvl and hence the bending moment line will be a cubic
parabola. The parabola joins the bending moment values at E4 is 6.67kNm
(Bending moment to the right of E) and at B3 is -40kNm. The cubic parabola will
be tangential to horizontal at E4 and parallel to vertical at B3 as the absolute value
of shear force at E1 = 20kN (less) compared to that at B1 = 30kN.
9. The Bending moment at B is -40 kNm and hence the bending moment line is
inclined under the no load portion BF to join the horizontal axis at F 3 where the
bending moment is zero.
Ques ti on paper probl ems of Mechanical Engineering 06ME34
3.19 Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for a overhanging beam shown
in Fig. 3.57. Find and locate the points of contraflexure. (July 09)

The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.

VA = 0; RB  RD  10  2  40  1  20  2  20  100kN (01)

2

Taking moment about B,

2 1  2 2 
M B  0; 4 R D  10  2     40  2    20  2   2   20  6
2 2  3 
246.67
RD   61.67kN
4

Similarly taking moment about D,

 2 1   2 1 
M D  0; 4 R B   20  2   10  2   4    40  2    20  2   
 2   2  3 
153.33
RB   38.33kN
4

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RB + RD = 38.33 + 61.67 =100 kN (O.K.)
Bending Moment Values
ME = 0
M D  20  2  40kN

1  2 2 
M C  61.67  2  20  4    20  2     16.67kNm
2  3 

2
M B   10  2     20kNm
2

MA = 0
Points of Contraflexures
Bending moment at any section x from the left support
For region CD
1  x  2   2 
2
M x  38.33x  10  2  x  1  40  x  2    20 
     x  2
2 2  3 
 

For Point of contraflexure, Mx = 0, solving, we get x = 2.713m

For region BC M x  38.33x  10  2  x  1
For Point of contraflexure, Mx = 0, solving, we get x = 1.09m
 From second method, consider the similar triangles between BC,
x 2 x
 or x  1.09m
20 16.67

20kN/
40kN 20kN
10kN/m
A
B C D E
2m 2m 2m 2m
x
20kN 20kN
18.33k 18.33k

-20kN -21.67kN
-41.67kN
SFD
16.67kNm
x y

-20kNm
BMD -40kNm
Fig. 3.57
3.20 For the beam shown in Fig.3.58, draw the shear force and bending moment diagram
and locate the Point of contraflexure if any. (Jan 09)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RB  RD  10  2  30  40  20  4  170kN (01)
Taking moment about B,
2  4 720
M B  0; 6 R D  10  2     30  2  40  4   20  4   4   or R D   120kN
 
2  2  6

Similarly taking moment about D,

 2 300
M D  0; 6 R B  10  2   4    30  4  40  2 or R B   50kN
 2 6

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RB + RD = 50 + 120 =170 kN (O.K.)
Bending Moment Values
ME = 0
2
M D    20  2     40kN
2
 4
M C  120  2   20  4     80kNm
2

2
M B  50  2  10  2     80kNm
2

MA = 0
Points of Contraflexures
Bending moment at any section x from the left support
For region CD
1  x  2 2   2  x  2
M x  38.33x  10  2  x  1  40  x  2     20   
2 2   3 
 

For Point of contraflexure, Mx = 0, solving, we get x = 2.713m

For region BC M x  38.33x  10  2  x  1
For Point of contraflexure, Mx = 0, solving, we get x = 1.09m
From second method, consider the similar triangles between BC,
x 2 x
 or x  1.09m
20 16.67

30kN 40kN
10kN/ 20kN/
A
B C D E
2m 2m 2m 2m
x
50k 40k
30k

-40kN
-80kN
SFD
80kNm

BMD —40kNm
Fig. 3.58
3.21 For the beam shown in Fig. 3.59, obtain SFD and BMD. Locate Points of
contraflexure, if any. (July 09)
The reactions can be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium.
VA = 0; RB  RD  5  8  50  90kN (01)

Taking moment about B,

8 800
M B  0;16 R D  120   5  8     50  12  160 or R D   50kN
2 16

Similarly taking moment about D,

 8 640
M D  0;16 R B  160   5  8  8    50  4  120 or R D   40kN
 2 16

Check
Substituting in Eq. 01, we have RB + RD = 40 + 50 =90 kN (O.K.)
Bending Moment Values
MDR = 0
M AL  160kNm

M C  50  4  160  40kNm

M B  50  8  50  4  160  40kNm

M AR  120kNm

MAL = 0

5kN/ 50k
120kN 160kN
B C
A D
x
8m 4 4
10
40k

-50kN -50kN
SFD y
40kNm 40kNm

-120kNm BMD -160kNm

Fig. 3.59
Points of Contraflexures
Bending moment at any section x from the left support
For region AB
 5x 2 
M x  40 x     120  0 or x  4m
 2
 
 Point of contraflexure is x = 4m from the left support.
For region CD M y  50 y  160  0 or y  3.2m

For Point of contraflexure is y = 3.2m from the right support.

From second method, consider the similar triangles between CD
y 4 y
 or y  3.2m
160 40

A beam ABCD, 8m long has supports at A and at C which is 6m from point A. The beam
carries a UDL of 10kN/m between A and C. At point B a 30kN concentrated load acts 2m
from the support A and a point load of 15kN acts at the free end D. Draw the SFD and
BMD giving salient values. Also locate the point of contra-flexure if any. (14)(July 2015)

30kN 15kN
10kN/m
A B C D
2m 4m 2m

From the conditions of equilibrium, we have algebraic sum of vertical forces to be zero.

 V  0; R A  RC  30  15  10 6  105 kN   

Algebraic sum of moments about any point is zero. Taking moments about A, we get

6
M A  0; 6 RC   30  2   15 8   10  6      360 kN
2
RC  60 kN   
Taking moments about C, we get

6
M C  0; 6 R A  15  2    30  4   10  6      270 kN
2
R A  45 kN  
Check: RA  RC  45  60  105 kN   
Shear Force Diagram can be directly drawn.
Bending Moment values:
Unless there are end moments of the beam, the Moments are zero at ends of the beam.

M A  0 and M D  0
2
M B   45  2   10  2      70kNm
2
M C   15  2   30kNm
To locate the point of contra-flexure where the bending moment changes its sign, consider
the section to be at a distance x towards left of the right support as shown. The bending
moment at the section is given by

x
M x  60 x  15  2  x   10  x     0
2
45 x  30  5 x 2  0
Solving, x  0.725m and 8.275m
Hence the point of contra-flexure is at 0.725m to left of right support.
30kN 15kN
10kN/m x
A B C D
2m 4m 2m
45kN 60kN
Loading Diagram

45kN
 25kN
15kN 15kN

5kN 
SFD
5kN


x
Point of contra-flexure 
BMD 30kNm

Draw the Shear force and bending moment diagrams for the Fig. shown (10) July 2016

40kN
15kN/m 10kN/m
A D E F B C
2m 4m 2m
1m 1m
From the conditions of equilibrium, we have algebraic sum of vertical forces to be zero.

 V  0; R A  RB  15 2  40  10 2  90 kN   

Algebraic sum of moments about any point is zero. Taking moments about A, we get

 2  2
M A  0; 8R B  15 2   1     40 1  2  1  10  2   8    400 kN
 2  2
R B  50 kN   
Taking moments about B, we get
 2  2
M B  0; 8R A  10  2      40  4   15  2   4  1    340 kN
2  2
R A  40 kN   
Check: R A  R B  40  50  90 kN   
Shear Force Diagram can be directly drawn.
Bending Moment values:
Unless there are end moments of the beam, the Moments are zero at ends of the beam.

M A  0 and M C  0
M D   40 1  40kNm
2
M E   40  3  15  2      90kNm
2
 2
M F   40  4   15  2   1    100kNm
 2
2
M B   10  2      20kNm
2

40kN
15kN/m 10kN/m
A D E F B C
2m 4m 2m
1m 1m
40kN 50kN
Loading Diagram
40kN
40kN 20kN
 10kN
10kN 
5kN 
kN kN
SFD
90kNm 100kN

40kNm


x
Point of contra-flexure 
BMD 20kNm

To locate the point of contra-flexure where the bending moment changes its sign, consider
the section to be at a distance x towards left of the right support as shown. Bending
moment inclined line is crossing zero line as a straight line forming two alternate triangles
which are similar. Hence using similar triangle properties

4  x 100

x 20
Solving, x  0.67m
Hence the point of contra-flexure is at 0.67m to left of right support.

40kN
15kN/m 10kN/m
A D E F B C
2m 4m 2m
1m 1m
40kN 50kN
Loading Diagram
40kN
40kN 20kN
10kN
 10kN 
5kN 
kN kN
SFD
90kNm 100kN

40kNm


x

Point of contra-flexure
BMD 20kNm

Draw Shear force and Bending moment Diagram for the beam shown in Fig.

80kN
20kN/m
A B
C D
4m 2m 2m

Fromthe conditions of equilibrium, we have algebraic sum of vertical forces to be zero.

  V  0; R A  R B   20  4   80  160 kN   
4
M A  0; 8 R B   20  4      80  4  2   640 kN
2
R B  80 kN   
Algebraic sum of moments about any point is zero. Taking moments about A, we get

4
M A  0; 8 R B   20  4      80  4  2   640 kN
2
R B  80 kN  
Taking moments about B, we get
 4
M B  0; 8 R A   20  4    4     80  2   640 kN
 2
R A  80 kN  
Check: R A  R B  80  80  160 kN   
Shear Force Diagram can be directly drawn.
Bending Moment values:
Unless there are end moments of the beam, the Moments are zero at ends of the beam.

M A  0 and M B  0
4
M C   80  4    20  4      160kNm
2
M D   80  2   160kNm
80kN
20kN/m
A B
C D
4m 2m 2m
80kN 80kN
Loading Diagram
80kN



kN
SFD kN
160kN 160kN


 

BMD
COLUMNS and STRUTS

Prof. S. K. Prasad
Department of Civil Engineering
Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering
JSS Science and Technology University
Mysuru – 570 006
 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Learning Outcome

The students are introduced to

• the concepts of Elastic Stability of Columns

and struts

• Euler’s Theory for critical load in long

columns for different cases

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Slender Column ?

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Typical failure of columns

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Structural members

Columns Compressive forces

and Lengths are large compared to lateral
Struts dimensions
Often subjected to axial forces
Although – loaded eccentrically

Columns are vertical compressive members

Struts are Inclined compressive members

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
Radius of Gyration
It is the distribution of the components of an object
around an axis. It is the perpendicular distance from
the axis of rotation to a point of mass that gives an
equivalent inertia to the original object.

It has the unit of length

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Effective Length of Column (le)

It is the length of an imaginary column with both ends

hinged and whose critical load is same as that of
actual column with given end conditions.

Note - Material and geometric properties same in

above columns

Effective length depends on its end conditions

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
SLENDERNESS RATIO (λ)

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Short Column
Essentially fails by bulging or crushing
and not by buckling

Short Compression
Member

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
Short Column
Essentially fails by bulging or crushing and not by buckling
P

P
Ductile Material

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
Short Column
Essentially fails by bulging or crushing and not by buckling

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
Long Column
Essentially fails by buckling and not by crushing
Stress at failure < yield stress

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
Long Column
Essentially fails by buckling and not by crushing
Stress at failure < yield stress

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Intermediate Column :
Fails by a combination of crushing and buckling

if

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
CRITICAL LOAD AND BUCKLING

Long column : P – Axial load F – a small test load – lateral direction

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
CRITICAL LOAD AND BUCKLING

Long column : P – Axial load F – a small test load – lateral direction

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
CRITICAL LOAD AND BUCKLING

Long column : P – Axial load F – a small test load – lateral direction

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
CRITICAL LOAD AND BUCKLING

Long column : P – Axial load F – a small test load – lateral direction

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
Effective Lengths for some standard cases

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
Buckling behaviour for different end conditions

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

EULER’S THEORY
Theoretical analysis to estimate critical load for
long columns
- Great Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler
(pronounced as Oiler),
- Developed in 1757

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

ASSUMPTIONS IN EULER’S THEORY

• The column is long and fails by buckling

• The column is axially loaded
• The column is perfectly straight and the cross
sections are uniform (prismatic)
• The column is initially free from stress
• The column is perfectly elastic, homogenous and
isotropic

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
EULERS CRITICAL LOAD FOR LONG COLUMNS

Case (1) Both ends hinged

Long column with both ends hinged
subjected to critical load P

Bending moment in terms of load P and deflection y is

M=–Py ---------(1)

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

For beams / columns the bending moment is proportional to the

curvature of the beam, which, for small deflection can be expressed as

or --------------(2)

Where E – Young’s modulus, I – Moment of Inertia

Substituting eq.(1) in eq.(2)

or

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Second order differential equation The general solution is of form

--------(3)

Where C1 and C2 are constants

Constants can be evaluated by applying the boundary conditions

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

--------(3)

Boundary condition (i)

y = 0 at x =0

From eq. (3)

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

--------(3)

Boundary condition (ii) y = 0 at x = L

From eq. (3)

Here either or

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Hence or Here, n =0,1,2,3….....

Taking least significant value of n, i.e. n=1, we have

or

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23
Euler’s Critical Load for Long Columns

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Summary
You were introduced to terminologies
• Columns & Struts
• Long, Intermediate & Short Columns
• Slenderness Ratio
• Effective Length of column
• Critical Load

We derived expression for critical load of column

with both ends hinged

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

Best of Luck
 Strength of Materials
Program No. 23

Built-up Section
It is a structural member made from individual plates
or tubes or angles riveted / welded / bolted together to
improve its strength and stiffness in steel construction
industry.

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

Module 5: Theories of Failure

Objectives:

The objectives/outcomes of this lecture on “Theories of Failure” is to enable

students for
1. Recognize loading on Structural Members/Machine elements and
allowable stresses.
2. Comprehend the Concept of yielding and fracture.
3. Comprehend Different theories of failure.
4. Draw yield surfaces for failure theories.
5. Apply concept of failure theories for simple designs

1. Introduction:

Failure indicate either fracture or permanent deformation beyond the

operational range due to yielding of a member. In the process of designing a
machine element or a structural member, precautions has to be taken to avoid
failure under service conditions.

When a member of a structure or a machine element is subjected to a system of

complex stress system, prediction of mode of failure is necessary to involve in
appropriate design methodology. Theories of failure or also known as failure
criteria are developed to aid design.

1.1 Stress-Strain relationships:

Following Figure-1 represents stress-strain relationship for different type of
materials.

Page 1 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

Ductile material e.g. low carbon steel Low ductility

Brittle material Elastic – perfectly plastic material

Figure-1: Stress-Strain Relationship

Bars of ductile materials subjected to tension show a linear range within which
the materials exhibit elastic behaviour whereas for brittle materials yield zone
cannot be identified. In general, various materials under similar test conditions
reveal different behaviour. The cause of failure of a ductile material need not be
same as that of the brittle material.

1.2 Types of Failure:

The two types of failure are,

Yielding - This is due to excessive inelastic deformation rendering the

structural member or machine part unsuitable to perform its function. This
mostly occurs in ductile materials.

Fracture - In this case, the member or component tears apart in two or more
parts. This mostly occurs in brittle materials.

1.3 Transformation of plane stress:

Page 2 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

For an element subjected to biaxial state of stress the normal stress on an

inclined plane is determined as,
- Eq-1

Similarly, on the same inclined plane the value of the shear stress is determined
as,
- Eq-2

The above equations (Eq-1 and Eq-2) are used to determine the condition when
the normal stress and shear stress values are maximum/minimum by
differentiating them with respect to θ and equating to zero. The substitution of
the results in these equations determines maximum and minimum normal stress
known as principal stresses and maximum shear stress as indicated by the
following expressions (Eq-3 and Eq-4).

√( ) - Eq.-3

√( ) - Eq-4

1.4 Use of factor of safety in design:

In designing a member to carry a given load without failure, usually a factor of
safety (FS or N) is used. The purpose is to design the member in such a way that
it can carry N times the actual working load without failure. Factor of safety is
defined as Factor of Safety (FS) = Ultimate Stress/Allowable Stress.

2. Theories of Failure:

a) Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine Theory)

b) Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venant’s theory)
c) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca theory)
d) Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami’s theory)

2.1 Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine theory)

According to this, if one of the principal stresses σ 1 (maximum principal stress),

σ2 (minimum principal stress) or σ3 exceeds the yield stress (σy ), yielding would

Page 3 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

occur. In a two dimensional loading situation for a ductile material where

tensile and compressive yield stress are nearly of same magnitude

σ1 = ± σy σ2 = ±σy

Yield surface for the situation is, as shown in Figure-2

Figure- 2: Yield surface corresponding

to maximum principal stress theory

Yielding occurs when the state of stress is at the boundary of the rectangle.
Consider, for example, the state of stress of a thin walled pressure vessel. Here
σ1= 2σ2, σ1 being the circumferential or hoop stress and σ2 the axial stress. As
the pressure in the vessel increases, the stress follows the dotted line. At a point
(say) a, the stresses are still within the elastic limit but at b, σ 1 reaches σy
although σ2 is still less than σy . Yielding will then begin at point b. This theory
of yielding has very poor agreement with experiment. However, this theory is
being used successfully for brittle materials.

2.2 Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venant’s Theory)

According to this theory, yielding will occur when the maximum principal
strain just exceeds the strain at the tensile yield point in either simple
tension or compression. If ε1 and ε2 are maximum and minimum
principal strains corresponding to σ1 and σ2, in the limiting case

ε1 = (1/E)(σ1- νσ2) |σ1| ≥ |σ2|

Page 4 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

ε2 = (1/E)(σ2- νσ1) |σ2| ≥ |σ1|

This results in,

E ε1 = σ1- νσ2 = ± σ0
E ε2 = σ2- νσ1 = ± σ0

The boundary of a yield surface in this case is shown in Figure – 3.

Figure-3: Yield surface corresponding to

maximum principal strain theory

2.3 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca theory)

According to this theory, yielding would occur when the maximum shear
stress just exceeds the shear stress at the tensile yield point. At the tensile
yield point σ2= σ3 = 0 and thus maximum shear stress is σy /2. This gives us
six conditions for a three-dimensional stress situation:

σ1- σ2 = ± σy
σ2- σ3 = ± σy
σ3- σ1 = ± σy

Page 5 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

Figure – 4: Yield surface corresponding

to maximum shear stress theory

In a biaxial stress situation (Figure - 4) case, σ3 = 0 and this gives

σ1 − σ2 = σ y if σ1 > 0, σ2 <0
σ1 − σ2 = −σy if σ1 < 0, σ2 >0
σ2 = σy if σ2 > σ1 >0
σ1 = −σy if σ1 < σ2 <0
σ1 = −σy if σ1 > σ2 >0
σ2 = −σy if σ2 < σ1 <0

This criterion agrees well with experiment.

In the case of pure shear, σ1 = - σ2 = k (say), σ3 = 0

and this gives σ1- σ2 = 2k= σy
This indicates that yield stress in pure shear is half the tensile yield stress and
this is also seen in the Mohr’s circle (Figure - 5) for pure shear.

Figure – 5: Mohr’s circle for

Page 6 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering
Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

pure shear

2.4 Maximum strain energy theory (Beltrami’s theory)

According to this theory failure would occur when the total strain energy
absorbed at a point per unit volume exceeds the strain energy absorbed per
unit volume at the tensile yield point. This may be expressed as,

(1/2)(σ1 ε1 + σ2 ε2 + σ3 ε3) = (1/2) σy εy

Substituting ε1, ε2, ε3 and εy in terms of the stresses we have

σ12 + σ22 + σ32 - 2 υ (σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3σ1) = σy 2

(σ1/ σy )2 + (σ2/ σy )2 - 2ν(σ1 σ2/ σy 2) = 1

The above equation represents an ellipse and the yield surface is shown in
F igure - 6

Figure – 6: Yield surface corresponding

to Maximum strain energy theory.

It has been shown earlier that only distortion energy can cause yielding but in
the above expression at sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ
(say), yielding may also occur. From the above we may write σ2(3 − 2ν) = σy 2
and if ν ~ 0.3, at stress level lower than yield stress, yielding would occur. This
is in contrast to the experimental as well as analytical conclusion and the
theory is not appropriate.

Page 7 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

2.5 Superposition of yield surfaces of different failure theories:

A comparison among the different failure theories can be made by superposing
the yield surfaces as shown in figure – 7. It is clear that an immediate
assessment of failure probability can be made just by plotting any experimental
in the combined yield surface. Failure of ductile materials is most accurately
governed by the distortion energy theory where as the maximum principal strain
theory is used for brittle materials.

Figure – 7: Comparison of different failure theories

Numerical-1: A shaft is loaded by a torque of 5 KN-m. The material

has a yield point of 350 MPa. Find the required diameter using Maximum
shear stress theory. Take a factor of safety of 2.5.

Torsional Shear Stress, τ= 16T/πd 3, where d represents diameter of the shaft

Maximum Shear Stress theory, √( )

Factor of Safety (FS) = Ultimate Stress/Allowable Stress

Since σx = σy = 0, τmax = 25.46 X 103/d3

Therefore 25.46 X 103/d3 = σy /(2*FS) = 350*106/(2*2.5)

Hence, d = 71.3 mm

Page 8 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

Numerical-2: The state of stress at a point for a material is shown in

the following figure Find the factor of safety using (a) Maximum shear
stress theory Take the tensile yield strength of the material as 400 MPa.

From the Mohr’s circle shown below we determine,

σ1 = 42.38MPa and
σ2 = -127.38MPa

from Maximum Shear Stress theory

(σ1 - σ2)/2= σy /(2*FS)

By substitution and calculation factor of safety FS = 2.356

Numerical-3: A cantilever rod is loaded as shown in the following

figure. If the tensile yield strength of the material is 300 MPa determine the

Page 9 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

rod diameter using (a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum
shear stress theory

At the outset it is necessary to identify the mostly stressed element. Torsional

shear stress as well as axial normal stress is the same throughout the length of
the rod but the bearing stress is largest at the welded end. Now among the four
corner elements on the rod, the element A is mostly loaded as shown in
following figure

Shear stress due to bending VQ/It is also developed but this is neglected due to
its small value compared to the other stresses. Substituting values of T, P, F and
L, the elemental stresses may be shown as in following figure.

Page 10 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

The principal stress for the case is determined by the following equation,

By Maximum Principal Stress Theory, Setting, σ1 = σy we get d = 26.67mm

By maximum shear stress theory by setting (σ1 – σ2)/2 = σy /2, we get, d =

30.63mm

Numerical-4: The state of plane stress shown occurs at a critical point

of a steel machine component. As a result of several tensile tests it has been
found that the tensile yield strength is σy=250MPa for the grade of steel
used. Determine the factor of safety with respect to yield using maximum
shearing stress criterion.

Construction of the Mohr’s circle determines

σavg = ½ (80-40) = 20MPa and τm= (602+252)1/2 = 65MPa

σa= 20+65 = 85 MPa and σb= 20-65 = -45 MPa

The corresponding shearing stress at yield is τ y = ½ σy = ½ (250) = 125MPa

Factor of safety, FS = τ m/ τy = 125/65 = 1.92

Page 11 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

Summary:
Different types of loading and criterion for design of structural
members/machine parts subjected to static loading based on different failure
theories have been discussed. Development of yield surface and optimization of
design criterion for ductile and brittle materials were illustrated.

Assignments:

Assignment-1: A Force F = 45,000N is necessary to rotate the shaft shown

in the following figure at uniform speed. The crank shaft is made of ductile steel
whose elastic limit is 207,000 kPa, both in tension and compression. With E =
207 X 106 kPa and ν = 0.25, determine the diameter of the shaft using
maximum shear stress theory, using factor of safety = 2. Consider a point on the
periphery at section A for analysis (Answer, d = 10.4 cm)

Assignment-2: Following figure shows three elements a, b and c subjected

to different states of stress. Which one of these three, do you think will yield
first according to i) maximum stress theory, ii) maximum strain theory, and iii)
maximum shear stress theory? Assume Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.25 [Answer: i) b,
ii) a, and iii) c]

Page 12 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918
 VTU EDUSAT LIVE – Programme # 23
15CV32-Strength of Materials

Assignment-3: Determine the diameter of a ductile steel bar if the tensile

load F is 35,000N and the torsional moment T is 1800N.m. Use factor of safety
= 1.5. E = 207*106kPa and σyp = 207,000kPa. Use the maximum shear stress
theory. (Answer: d = 4.1cm)

Assignment-4: At a pint in a steel member, the state of stress shown in

Figure. The tensile elastic limit is 413.7kPa. If the shearing stress at a point is
206.85kPa, when yielding starts, what is the tensile stress σ at the point
according to maximum shearing stress theory? (Answer: Zero)

Reference:
1. Ferdinand P. Beer, E Russel Johnston Jr., John T. Dewolf and David F.
Mazurek, Mechanics of Materials (SI Units), 5th Edition, Tata McGraw
Hill Private Limited, New Delhi
2. L. S. Srinath, Advanced Mechanics of Solids, McGraw Hill, 2009
3. NPTEL Lecture Notes, Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur,
(http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-
contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Machine%20design1/pdf/Module-3_lesson-
1.pdf)

Page 13 of 13 Dr. C V Srinivasa, Department of Civil Engineering

Global Academy of Technology, RR Nagar, Bengaluru-560098
[email protected], 94498 09918