UNIT 29 MODERN DEVELOPMENTS IN

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-I

Structure
29.1 Introduction .
Objectives
29.2 Laser : Putting Light to Work
Applications of Laser
29.3 Fibre Optics
Applications of Optical Fibres
29.4 Space Technology
Dividends from Space
29.5 Fission and Fusion Energy
Nuclear Fission: Splitting the Atom
Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear Fusion: The Ultimate Source of Energy
The Other Side of the Coin
29.6 What is Biotechnology
Genetic Engineering
Enzyme Immobilisatio~
29;7 Summary
29.8 Terminal Questions
29.9 Answers

29.1 INTRODUCTION
Products of modern science and technology have become a part and parcel of our daily Ilfe.
Whether we are situated in farflung villages or in the hustle and bustle of cities, we come
across these products everyday - in food and agricukure, in transport andkommunications
or in various other articles we use. You have already read about some of these technologies
in Unit 28. There are several modem technologies which we may not come across d~rectly,
but we do read about them in the newspapers or magazines. One day we are told about
exciting developments in semiconductors, computers, robotics or artificial intelligence,
another day about lasers, optical fibres or materials science and technology. Millions of us
have watched Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma and astronauts from other nations make
successful trips in space -- a feat made possible'only due to the advances in space technology.
Biotechnology is a hot topic of debate and discussion these days. So is fission technolo&.
Fusion may replace fission as a source of nuclear energy by the beginning of the next century,
if the rapid pace of development continues.
You have studied, in Unit 27, that we shall be using in the next ten or fifteen years (or even
earlier) technologies that are now in the making. Hence, one of the last parts of this course '
tries to acquaint you with the emerging technologies. We would also like you to know and
think about the likely social impact of these technologies, about the benefits their proper use
might confer on us and the problems and difficulties their misuse might create for us. So
that, if the need arises, you could consciously react to and influence issues relating to these
technologies. What is being said about each technology is very brief. If some of you
develop an interest in any of these technologies and wish to study them further, a list of
hooks has also been provided at the end of the unit. In this unit we discuss lasers, fibre
O F $ ~ Sspace
, technology, fission and fusion, and biotechnology. In Unit 30, we will take
ug semiconductors, computer technology, robotics, artificial intelligence. and materials
science and technology.
Srience, Technology and Objectives
Development
After studying this unit you should be able to : ,
r --list properties that make light from a laser different from sunlight or light from ordinary
sources, such as fluorescent tubes, bulbs etc.,
state what an optical fibre is,
explain the-functions of rockets, artificial satellites and space probes,
describe nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and a nuclear reactor,
state what biotechnology is, and explain genetic engineering and enzyme immobilisation,
*
describe the applications of the technologies discussed in this unit.

29.2 LASER: PUTTING LIGHT TO WORK

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It's a fairly
long string of words. Well, don't let it stop you from reading further. What we wish to bring
out here is that lasers produce a very special kind of light. The light that lasers produce has
several useful properties that make it different from ordinary light. It is becarise of these
properties that laser light can be put to work in a number of ways.
Refer to Fig. 10.1 and Sec. 10.2 You may wonder what the difference between ordinary light and light from a laser is. Light
in Unit 10 to know what is meant
from the Sun or from a lamp in your home is a mixture of many wavelengths. Each
by wavelengfh.
wavelength produces a different colour. These colours mix and form ordinary light. We have
all seen colours in the sunlight separating out to form a rainbow in the sky after a rainy day.
Moreover. light waves from an ordinary source of light are all jumbled up and uncoordinated
in their movement (Fig. 29.la).

ORDINARY LIGHT
COHERENT LIGHT

LASER

Fig. 29.1: (a) Light from an ordinary source is made up of many wavelenihs and the waves move in different
directions; (b) laser light is of a single wavelength and all the waves are in phase with one another. i.e.
the crests (hills) and troughs (valleys) af one wav- fall on top of the crests and troughs of other waves.

Laser light is made up of u~al*es of the same wavelength. Whai is more, all the nvavekin a
laser beam are organised to proc~edexactiy in step (in phase) with each other
(Fig. 29.1 b). This property of lasers is called coherence. It reminds you of contingents of
smartly dressed meanmoving in unison in the Republic Day parade. Or of the uniform
movement of oars in boat races of Kerala held on Onam. Does it not? As a result of
coherence, light waves in a laser beam can travel laige distames without spreading
apart. Because a laser beam does nor smead ou!. there is a large concentruriori of energy
h laser beam falls. "
per iinir area on the object on ~ ' h l c the

29.2.1 Applications of Laser

Due to its properties, laser light can be put to a number of uses in industry, medicine,
communications etc. We will briefly describe some of these uses. Because of the high
concentratior, of energy, a laser beam can quickly bum tiny holes, a few millimetres wide,
even in a strip of steel. Lasers have an advantage over all other traditional methods of cutting
and welding. Using lasers you can cut anv kind of material. such as paper, plywood, plastic
or cloth, as also the hardest of metals, ceranlics and glass with greater efficiency and
accuracy. Lasers can, thus, make an ideal tool for metal workers, carpenters and tailors, apart
from engineers.
 Military Applications Modern Developments in
Science and Technology-I
Another area where the above mentioned properties of lasers are being used with a 'deadly'
precision is that of military applications. Lasers have been pressed into the service of the
global war machine. A whole range of laser weaponry has come into being, for use on land,
on sea and in space. X-ray lasers that can cany enormous energy have been developed.
Efforts are on to install.deadly laser weapons in satellites. The same technology could be
used to destroy factories, forests, farms and habitation. It is certainly a matter of concern,to
see so much human effort and wealth being used to turn the laser technology into an
instrument for mankind's destruction. Every effort should be made to stop this misuse of
technology.

Healing Touch of Lasers

Contrast the above application of lasers with their uses in medicine where the laser is
working wonders.
A laser can be applied with almost perfect precision in surgery. It can bum away diseased
tissue without damaging the healthy tis'sue nearby. The tissues are cut neatly and without --
any oozing of blood, and they can also be joined together. Lasers are completely sterile,
because bacteria cannot survive exposure to a laser beam. Today, lasers are routinely used
I L

in eye surgery to treat detached retinas and to destroy abnormal blood vessels that form in
the retinas of diabetic patients. Earlier these diseases would result in blindness. For such
patients, laser is indeed a "miracle light". Lasers have become standard equipment
- . for ear,
eye and other delicate forms of surgery. From removing brain tumours, to stoppiag
(2)
bleeding from ulcers, and treating cancer of the bladder, lasers find a wide use in medicine
(Fig. 29.2).

Communications
Lasers have also become an important means of long distancecommunication. Travelling
through hair-like.glass fibres, laser light can be made to carry thousands of times more (3)
information than electric signals in conventional copper wire. Thousands of telephone calls
can be transmitted on a single fibre.
Fig. 29.2: A laser beam ( I ) guided
Other Uses by an opt~calfibre (2)burns he
I
Lasers may be used to measure the distance of objects like the moon from the earth. Here, block in the leg artery (3).
itime taken for a laser beam to reach the moon and be reflected back to the earth is measured.
As you know, light travels at the speed of 3 x lo5 km per second. Thus, the distance can be
found from the simple formula :distance = speed x time. Laser beams are also used to
1 read and play the music or
Among other things, scientists use lasers to monitor small traces of chemicals polluting the- images recorded on CDS
atmosphere because these molecules disturb the passage of the beam and thereby reveal (compact disks), and read the
information stored on CDROMs
themselves. Efforts are being made to transmit power by means of laser beams. Laser beams m computers.
are used to etch music and video pictures on records which look like ordinary gramophone
records. Such records can be played back by a laser beam and, thus, they never wear out. If
you happen to visit a science museum you will see holograms of various objects. These are
life-like three dimensional images created by laser beams.
Thus, you see that lasers can be put to endless uses for the knefit of h~imanbeings. These
uses seem to be limited only by the imagination of the scientistgsnd engineers. And the best
is yet to come.

SAQ 1
a) Using the words given below, fill in the blank spaces in the following sta(ements about
laseis and their properties.
i) Lasers are sources of a special kind of ......................which has several useful
properties.
ii) A-laser beam can carry energy or ...................... over ................. I.... distances.
iii) Lasers can direct a large ......................of energy per unit ...................... on the object
on which it falls because it does not ...................... out.

light, spread, amount, signals, long, area

Science, Technology and
Development
b) Here are a few applications of lasers. Which of the properties of lasers mentioned in part
(a) of this SAQ are being utilised for these applications? Write the appropriate numbers
against each application.
i) Finding the distance between the earth and the moon. ......................
ii) Drilling holes in baby bottle nipples. ......................
iii) Shooting down missiles. ......................
iv) Transmitting phone calls. ......................
The application of lasers in communications has been made possible largely due to the
advances in fibre optics. Let us know about fibre optics and its applications.

29.3 FIBRE OPTICS

Radiowaves are electre The songs you hear on your transistor, or the pictures you see on your TV are canied from
magnetic waves of long the studios to your home on radiowaves. Telephone calls you make, on the other hand, are
wavelength. See Sec. 10.2 in Unit
10 to refresh your memory. bansmitted by electric current flowing in copper wires. In-the recent past,-new technologies
have sppeared for transmitting various kinds of electric signals on glass fibres. This has been
possible due to the advances in fibre optics technology.
Fibre optics is the technique of transmitting light waves through glass wires as thin as
human hair.
These wires called optical fibres could be made of glass or transparent plastic, quartz, nylon
or polystyrene. Opticalfibres are thin hair-like solid strands that carry light along their
length, by a process of multiple total internal reflections (Fig. 29.3). We will not go into the
details of the process. In this process the beam of light entering at one end is transmitted
along the fibre, without loss of intensity, whether the fibre is straight or bent in a curve.

f
Fig. 293: Transmission of light through an optical fibre.

29.3.1 Applications of Optical Fibres

Fibre optics finds many applications in areas like medicine and communications which we
will briefly describe. We will also discuss its advhtage over tradifional technologies.
Viewing inaccessible regions
Instruments made of optical fibres, called endoscopes, are used to see the
internal organs of the human body, such as the interior of the stomach, or the bronchial
tubes. Inserted into the body, some fibres of the bundle carry light so that the internal organ
is lit up. Other fibres are used to return light so that the image of the interior is canied to the
observer outside. Endoscopes are often connected to a camera or TV monitor. Since these
fibres are very fine, they can be irrAertedeasily in the body. The images are very useful in
heart and brain surgery and ia diagnosis of some other diseases.
Freeing crowded cableways
The use of aptical fibres has been very adkantageous in telecommunications. Signals of
voice, text, computer data or picture transmissions are superimposed on laser beams. The ,
modulated laser beams are then guided along optical fibres, to various points where they are
received. At the receiving end, one is able to hear the voice, read the data or see the picture
(Fig. 29.4).
The signal carrying capacity of light waves is much greater than that of radio waves or
waves along copper wires. Therefore, the light waves travelling in fibres can carry thousands
of different signals. For instance, a pair of glass fibres can carry 1300 telephone calls at the
same time, as against 24 for copper wires.
 Modern Developmentsin
Science and Technology-I
transmitted signal +

laser source
ieceived signal
-
I
optical fibre
4
modulated light beam
demodulator

Fig. 29.1: The fibre optic link between lelephonr exchange<. A laher ha111 u i ~ hthe \rfnnl tmprchsed on il. IS
directed at one end of the fibre. 11 emerge?,at the other rtid. A phototliode convcrl\ Ihi. l i ~ h he:~m
t into
electrlc currcnt. The tlemodularor rccclvcr\ thr. or~pllr,~l
kiptial
The use of laser beams in optical fibres enables the transmission of signals for thousands of
kilometres. Transatlantic undersea fibre-optic cables have been in use for ~ommunication
between USA and UK. Instead of being broadczst from antennas, TV programrnek can now
be transmitted through fibre-optic cables. The cable TV can, thus, make available several
channels to the viewer. Freliminary experiments on the use of fibre-optic technology in India
are being done so that we can also take adtantage of this technology in the coming years.
Indian research laboratories have already developed the technology of producing the special
I glass, drawing fibres from it and giving it a special coating so that internal reflection takes
place with a minimum toss. Indian industry is now manufacturing optical fibres.
The fibre optics technology has many advantages over the traditional technology. An optical
fibre cable, the size of an ordinary electrical cord, can replace copper cable hundreds of
times thicker. Optical fibres are light and sturdy. ?'hey are much less expensive than copper II is possible to interfere with
w e s for the amouvt of information they carry. Because optical fibres carry light beams, and disturb messages being sent
they are free from the disturbances. wch as you hear on the radio due to nearby electric on radio waves, by transmitting
other radio waves of the same
I disturbances. Fibre-optic communication is also advanrapeous for military communication frequency at the same time. This
because it cannot be "jammed" process is called 'jamming'.

There may come a day when optical fibre cables enter many of our h o u s ~ carrying
s not only
telephone calls but also television programmes, communication from computers and
electronic mail sent from person to person.
SAQ 2
a) Select from i) to vii) below the three true statements about optical fibres and write your
answer in the space given below.
An optical fibre is:
i ) a hollow hair-like thin transparent wire that carries light.
ii) a solid hair-like thin transparent wire that carries radio waves.
iii) a solid hair-like thin transparent wire that carries light.
i v ) made up of a transparent material like glass, quartz or polystyrene.
v) used to carry information to nearby places.
vi) used to carry large amounts of information.
vii)rnore expensive than a copper cable ..................................................
r b) The following is a summary of what you have just learnt about fibre optics. Fill in the
blank spaces using the words given below:
Fibre optics is a technique that provides a way of transmitting information. It transmits
information on ....................... Light travels in glass wires known as .......................

I I
Fibre-optic cables are ...................... and transmit more information without loss and
disturbance,when compared with ...................... and ....................... Optiiai fibres are
made from ......................material.

optical fibres, electric current, lighter, cheaper, light waves, mdion~aves

t
Science, Technology and
You have just read about lasers and fibre optics. We will now describe space technology;
Developn~ent
another major technology to have emerged in modem times.

29.4 SPACE TECHNOLOGY

In a flat dry plain called the Sea of Tranquillity on the moon, is a footprint. This footprint
was left there by Neil Armstrong. He was the first human being to walk on the moon. He
was a member of the 3-man crew carried to the moon by the American spacecraft Apollo 1 1
in July, 1969.
It was a dream come true for mankind -a dream of flying into space and vikiting another
body in the universe. Since then great strides have been made in space technology. The
first step irffhis direction was the development df rockets.

Rockets or Launch Vehicles

Every flight into space begins with a rocket launching. The rocket can lift a satellite or
spaceship carrying human beings and equipment into space. Therefore, it is also called
launch vehicle. The rocket has been known to mankind for centuries. Rockets used as
firecrackers are a common sight on festive occasions in our country. But the rockets that
launch space whicles use highly advanced technology, and, of course, they are far more
powerful.

LIQUID
PUMP
1 COMBUSTION EXHAUST
PAY~OAD CHAMBER NOZZLE

I
PUMP
Fig. 29.5: Cutaway view of a liquid-fuel rocket. Pump drives fuel and oxidiscr to combustion chamber.

When the fuel in the rocket is set tofire, a stream of hot gases is expelled at a high speed
from its rear end (Fig. 24.5). As ireaction to the thrust of the,gases, the rocket moves in the
opposite direction. As long as the fuel in the rocket burns, shooting out gases, the rocket
continues to accelerate forward, and acquires great speed.
No single rocket fired from the earth can attain in one go the high speeneeded to orbit the
earth, or to escape its pull. Higher speeds are reached by using big and small rockets, in
stages. in the launch vehicle. As the large rocket soars into space and uses up its fuel, lt IS
separated from the smaller rocket and drops off. The smaller rocket already going at high
speed is then fired to accelerate it to an even higher speed. Three-stagerockets are usually
able to achieve speeds suitable for most purposes in space (Fig. 29.6). The final stage of the
launch vehicle carries the payload.
Activity
Verify the principle of rocket motion by releasing an inflated balloon with its neck open.
The different kinds of payloads that rockets carry into space include artificial satellites and
space probes to nearby heavenly bodies. The satellites and probes themselves carry
communication and research Quipment.
I Artificial Satellites-Tireless Servants in the Sky
The space crafts that move in an orbit around the earth are called artificial satellites. Most
Fig. 29.6. The multr-stage Indian satellites go around the earth &ce In about 90 minutes at a height of a few hundred
Rocket PSLV. kilometres. But it is possible to launch satellites with a proper speed at greater heights
(around 36,000 kms). They would then move around the earth once in 24 hours and
La*,- n
-
..
nn
.
. *A Ls r*n+;Lnn...r C.."L r"tnll;*nr ""lln,i frltpll;tp~
"~.~n~;nnnru
 As you have read in Urut 26%our own INSAT series of satellkes are geostationary
,]lites Every night towards thc cnd of T v news on m y channel. we are shown Modern Developments in
plCtureS Of Clouds over Ind,a. These pictures He laken by INSAT Science and Techndogy-1
to earth, ~~a from monltofing the weather, INSAT satellites are used to
telephone calls. Television PrOgmmmes He also via these
-. .
-,satellites.
satellites carry equipment 10 survey the earth's natural resources and monitor weather.
India's satellite Programme has also provided useful information on agricultural land and
prospecting for ores and minerals. Recently, the satellite IRS 2D in the IRS (Indian
Remote Sensing Satellite) series has been launched to smrey India's natural resources
by remote sensing methods.
The effect of living in space on plants and animals is also studied in satellites. At present,
Russia has a space station called Mir going round the earth as a satellite. Crew members
and supplies are regularly sent to @isstation where three or:more personswork at
time, for periods as long as a year. Satellites can pinpoint sources of pollution, spot forest
fires and locate areas of disease in crops and forests. Weather conditions can be monitored
by satellites enabling us to predict storms and prevent damage. Satellites also help in
locating and guiding ships. But-the maximum use of satellites .-
is made for communications.
~

Space Probes-Journeying to Neighbouring world;

If a spacecraft is di.rected to move out in space, away from the earth, it is called a space
probe. As you read in Unit 11; several unmanned space probes have either passed by or
landed on the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn; Uranus and Neptune. They
have sent back valuable data and photographs of all these planets. So we have come to know
what these planets look like from near, what they are made up of, and what physical
conditions prevail near them.
SAQ 3
a) INS AT-2D is.a geostationary salellitc. Which two of the.following statements about
INSAT-2D are true? Write T against the appropriate choices.
i) It circles around the earth at a height of 400 kiiometres. ......................
ii) It completes two orbits around the moon in 24 hours. ......................
.iii) It can be used to give advance warning of cyclones and prevent loss of life and
property. ......................
iv) Experiments on plants are being done aboard INSAT-2D ...........................
V) It has sent valuable data about the neighbouring planets to the earth. ..........;...........
vi) It circles the earth once in every 24 hours. ......................
b) Write in the space given, which of the following spacecraft is a rocket, an artificial
satellite or a spaceprobe?
i) Intelsat can bring home to us on TV any event occurring in the world. ......................
ii) The spacecraft Pioneer sent the first photographs of Jupiter to the
ea;th ......................
i i i ) Saturn-5 put the manned Apollo spacecraft in itsorbit around the
-.-
.............
moon.
. &.
1 .
.*........ ..
29.4.1 Dividends from Space
When the space programme began. its primary aims were research, adventure and cational
prestige. As it expanded, the investment in it also grew. It is now a highly expensive
undertaking. A natural question to ask is, hdw does it benefit humankind.
1..
,There have been many benefits from space programme. In meeting the challenge of space
travel, scientists and engineers have come out with a stream of innoyations. These are
equally useful on the earth. Some examples are---new materials for.usc'in'industry, e.g., light
but strong alloys, better steel, plastics and adhesives. Highly reliable and tiny electronic
components made for spacecraft are now used in TV and other electronic goods. Computers
have become compact. Medical instruments made for astronauts are used in hospitals. ~ e w
technology for food preservation saves energy. Ultra sensitive fire alarms and fireproof
fabrics have 6een developed. The list is very long.
If you add to it the benefits derived from a satellite, like weather forecasting; prospecting or
communication, it hecomes truly remarkable. As you have read -in Unit 26, the,satellites are
being used in a big way not only for news and information but also for education.
 I
Science, Technology and Programmes initiated from a Cw : places can reach people situated in d~stantand inaccessible
Development
locations. -Most parts of our country can now be reached through satellite supported
I
I
television.
As it is with all scientific endeavors, space can also be misused. Either bombs. laser
machines or other kinds of weapons can be stationed there. There is a world-wide and strong
opinion to prevent the use of space for war-like purposes.
Perhaps the futility of war-mongering is realised most if one looks at space travel from ,
another view. Travelling in space has given, man an entirely new view of his home, his
planet Earth. It has shown the earth as a beautiful planet, rich in colour. movement and life.
Our planet is a "closed systemw,dependent only on the sun for energy, with limited
resources that cannot be replaced. It is a spaceship itself. fragile and isolated in the vast
universe-a flicker of life very precious. Certainly, the planet Earth demands preservation as
a single environment. We have only one world. We must protect it from those who because
of their greed or ignorance would use science and technology to destroy it.
Nuclear fission and fusion technology is another such technology which can be put to
destructive use. However, strong public opinion around the world has served to curb its
destructive use to home extent. Let us now examine this technology and various issues
related to its use.

29.5 FISSION, AND FUSION ENERGY

'The Italian navigator has arrived in the new world'
This coded message announced the beginning of the atoyic age on 2nd December? 1942.
The 'navigator' was the Italian-American physicist Enrico Fermi. That afternoon, in a
squash court under the stadium of Chicago University of USA, Fermi and his team of
scientists succeeded in taming the atom for the first time. In the heart of the first atomic'

furnace, atoms were made to split, under strict control, to produce energy. Fermi had indeed
ushered in a new world. Today, in the giant atomic power stations around the world, or'in
nuclear weapons, we can see how far this discovery has taken us.

29.5.1 Nuclear Fission: Splitting the Atom

You know that atoms are made up of a nucleus and electrons moving around the nucleus,
and the nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. The principal actor in the fission drama
is the uranium atom. The nucleus of the Uranium 238 atom has 92 protons and 146 neutrons.
About one atom in 140 atoms of uranium ha5 143 neutrons in its nucleus.*lt is called
Uranium 235. It is the Uranium 235 that is mostly used to provide fuel for nuclear furneces.
Before the Second World War, two German scientists discovered that if neutrons were shot
at the nuclei of Uranium 235, the nuclei split into two and produced other neutrons to repeat
the process. This is called nuclear fission (Fig. 29.7a).
Nuclear jlssion is the splitting cq'a lur,ye nut leus into nt20~mollernlrclei.

Fission
fragment

/ -

I
/ Energy ,-

----A

Fig. 29.7: (a) Nuclear fission: (b) chain reaction.

 Modem Developments in
Release of Energy Science and Techndolty-1
When the atom splits, the masses of the fragments and the neutrons produced do not add up
to the mass of the original. A tiny amount of matter disappears. This lost matter turns into
energy. The amount of energy 'E' generated by the. lost matter of mass 'm' is given by the
famous equation due to Einstein:
E = mc2, where c is the speed of light.
c is large (about 300 million metres/s'ec) and c2 is enormous (about 90,000 trillion m2/sec2).
Thus, a small amount of lost matter would get converted into very very large amounts of
energy.
Chain Reaction
When the atomic nucleus splits, it not only gives off energy, but also throws out two or three
more neutrons. 'These new neutrons can, in turn, split two or three other ::toms. Ttus way they
release more energy and more neutrons, which will split more atoms. In ol her words, once
the splitting of the nuclei starts, it becomes self-sustaining. This whole prdccss is calleda
chain reaction (Fig. 29.7b). If the chain reaction is allowed to go on, ~t would lead to an
explosive release of energy. Control it by absorbing the extra neutrons and you have the
slow, smouldering reaction of the "nuclear reactor". This serves as a source of energy much
like a thermal power station. We will now describe the nuclear reactor. But how about trying
an SAQ first!

SAQ 4
a) State In the hoxes given, which of the following statements about nuclear fission
are true (T) or false (F).
i) Nuclear fission is the process in which two light nuclei are formed wh'en a U
heavy nucleus $plit\.
ii) The 5uln of the mas$es of the resulting nuclei is exactly equal to the mass u
of the parent nucleu\.
ii'i) When an a~omicnucleus splits, it only gives off energy and nothing else.
iv) In nuclear fission a small amount of matter disappears and is converted into
energy.
V) The ainount of energy released is huge because it depends on the square of
the speed of light.
b) In the space given below draw the next stepof thechain reaction sllown inFig. 29.7 (b).
 Sckwt, Technology and 29.5.2 Nuclear Reactor
Development
Nuclearjission can be maintaived as a controlled cjiain reaction in a nuclear reactor to
produce energy.
Fermi had found from experiment that slower moving neutrons were more effective in
The black 'lead' used in pencils
causing nuclearfission. But most neutrons produced by the splitting of the nuclei are quite
is, in feet, made of graphite fast. A way was required to slow them down. It was found that certain materials slow down
n u krd. rs it is mistakenly the neutrons. Graphite. a pure form of carbon, is one such material. Such materials are called
#led. moderators.
There was still the problem of controlling the chain reaction so created, that is, to stop the ,

reaction or allow it to proceed at will. Materials which absorb neutrons would serve to
control the reaction. The neutrons absorbed by such materials would be removed and would
no longer split atomic nuclei. And the reaction would be controlled. The material usually
chosen as an absorber of neutrons, is cadmium or boron steel.
In a nuclear reactor (see Fig. 29.8a). rod-like containers of Uranium-235 are inserted in holes
made in a huge block of graphite. The graphite block slows down neutrons to enhance the
chain reaction. Control rods of cadmium are also inserted into the graphite block. When
pushed out, they absorb fewer neutrons and the reaction is speeded up.
The problem, then, is to remove the heat and use it to generate electrical energy. This is
achieved by circulating water, or liquid sodium to absorb the heat generated in the graphite
block. This heat may generate steam, which can turn a turbine (a wheel with slanting blades)
a n q h e connected electrical generator (Fig. 29.8b).

Q. 29&. (a) A schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor. (b) heat generated in nuclear fission is used to convert
water into steam in most of the reactors. The steam drives a turbine which is connected to an electric
generator. The steam is cooled and reused.

1 Megawatt - lo6 watts Watt 1s Today we have reactors capable of yielding power upto 500 Megawatts. Smaller reactors
the unit of power, which is the which give 1 to 5 Megawatt power are mostly used for reseasch work. The large ones are
amount of energy used per
second.
used for producing electricity, and driving submarines, or ships. From the uranium rods used
in the reactor, another fissionable material like Plutonium 239 may be obtained. Thus, a
-. reactor set up to generate energy can become a source for obtaining material for making a
bomb. India is committed to the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
SAQ 5
Give short aqswers in the space provided.
a) What purpose does the huge block of graphite serve in a nuclear reactor?

1 b) How is the speed of a nuclear reaction controlled?

 Hazards of a Nuclear World Modem Developments in
Science and Technology-I
The-picture painted abdve seems rosy. Yet, it does have a few shades of grey. There are
many risks associated with the use of nuclear fission energy. These risks have caused world-
.
wide debate, controversy and at times fear. Accidents have happened in nuclear power
plants everywhere in the world.
In 1986, there was a major nuclear accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the
_thenUSSR. Rare as they are, sltch accidents raise demands fm.a complete ban on nuclear
power plants. However, an unbiased assessment of the pasr accidents indicates that this is
not the answer. A better solution lies in the need to'resssess plant,safety, devise improved
methods of avoiding or containing the extent of mishaps. In India, there has been heated
discussion on this issue, but on the basis of several precautions and safety measures, it has
been dec~dedto go ahead with the programme ~Tgeneratingabout4000 Megawatt power
by t h ~ method.
s by the year 2000 A.D.
Another major problem is the disposal of radio-active waste material from the spent uranium
rods of the nuclear reactors. Several alternatives are being tried out everywhere in the world,
for example, burying it thousands of feet deep in the earth or in the ocean bed. Some western
countries were recently reported to be dumping the highly injurious radio-active waste in
African or South American countries.
LIGHTER MASS
WELlUM UUCLE'L
From mining of the ore, to nuclear waste disposal,-each step in the nuclear fuel cycle carries
risks. The risks and benefits of each step depend largely on a strict watch over malfunction
and human error. The challenge is to eliminate the risks and to increase the benefits.

29.5.3 Nuclear Fusion: The Ultimate Source of Energy Fig. 29.9: An imaginary sketch
showing a typical nuclear fusion
An energy hungry world views with envy the glowing power of the sun and the stars, which reaction.
is based on a slightly different nuclear process called nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fusion takes place when two light atomic nuclei join orfitse together to form one
nucleus. .

Fig. 29.9 shows one of the simplest fusion reactions. TWO nuclei of heavy hydrogen Heavy hydrogen or deuterium ts
(deuterium! also fuse to give a nuc!eus of helium, a neutron and energy. In this process a an isotope of hydrogen, i.e.,i&
atom has the same number of
tremendous amount of energy is released. Half a kilo of deuterium gas would yield as much electrons, but its nucleus has 1
energy as 1300 tons of coal. What is more, we can get deuterium from sea water. There's protoo and 1 neutron.
about 40 nlillion tons of deuterium in sea water. This could provide us energy for many Hydrogen is the lightest element.
thousand million years. Its atom is made up of one
electron moving around one
Well then, what stops us from tapping this source of energy? The reason is that high proton.
temperature, equivalent of millions of degrees centrigrade, is required to start fusion. And
once the gas has been heated, it must be prevented from expanding; it must be contained.
But no container walls can withstand such temperatures. Hence, entirely new techniques
have to be developed. Much activity is going around the world to generate power through
nuclear fusion. The development of fusion power has proved to be, perhaps, the most
difficult task ever tackled. Nevertheless, if fusion reactors come into being, humankind
would never again face an energy shortage.

29.5.4 The Other Side of the Coin

The atomic nucleus, on the one hand, holds promise for unlimited energy. On the other
hand, it also
*
poses a threat to the very existence of the living as well as the non-livin'g world.
Mankind still rues the fateful days of August 6 and 9, 1945 when two atom bombs, which
were given the nicknames, the Little Boy and the Fat Man were dropped by America on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. In a flash, the cities crumbled to dust. Hundreds of
thousands of people died or were fatally injured within a few minutes. Many more thousands
of survivors and their descendants are still paying the price for what may be called an
unpardonable crime committed against humanity. They are not only suffering themselves
but also they often give birth to deformed or mentally retarded babies. The horrifying
spectre of the mushroom cloud which was observed over the two cities haunts us to this day.
The first bombs led to lhe manufacture of more bombs. Amenca was soon joined by the erstwhile
USSR, and an arms race commenced with stockpiling of even more deadly weapons.
Hydrogen bombs based on fusion, inter-continental ballistic missiles (each one carrying
Science, Technology and many bombs), and neutron bombs have been added to the nuclear arsenal. It is estimated that
Development
more than 50,000 nuclear weapons have been deployed around the world. Situated in silos, ,

mobile trains or trucks on land, in ships and submarines under the sea, in bombers riding the
sky, thcy are capa%lc of dcstrqjtmg Ule world many times over.

And look ut ~zthrrrit'c lose in the hur.gcrin

The world spends Inore than I trillion dollars (in rupee terms more than Ks. 15 lakh crore) in
a year or. making arms. The USA alone accounts for more than one third of this amount.
Much of this expcnditurc is incurred by the dcveIoping countries like ours. E v e ~ yone seems'to be
arming and buying froin t t ~ cfew big sellcrs in the world. If money werc not used for anns we could
feed and clothe the entire world population. change our hovels to proper houses and remove ,
'

illiteracy of our pcople.

The arms race cauqes a whole lot of economic problems in all countries, because this is
unprocluctive. The public all over the. world is worried and agitated about the threat to its
existence, and the grave economic tlifficulties faced by it. Only during the last 3 or 4 years. a
ray of hope has bccn scen.Thro~~gh a scrics of treaties, thc USA and Russia have agreed to
disinantlc sonic nuclear missiles. Ncgotialions arc going on to bring about nuclcar disarmament
on a bigger scale. India and the lhcn USSR had givcn a call in I986 for the creation of a nuclear
weapons-frec and non-\.iolcnt world. With such dcvastaling arms, counlncs have to learn to
settle thcir dsputes by egoti ti at ion. ;%lidhave patience and mutual trust to do so.

I I
Fig. 29.10: A nuclear n.~issilek i n g transfomied into doves, the symbols of peace-a reflection of people's desire
for peace and nuclear disarm;iment.

Biotechnology is another emerging technology which holds promise of unlimited benefits if

utilised properly. Let us see what this tech~iologyis.

29.6 WHAT IS BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology is, perhaps. best defined as the industrial utilisation of biological systems or
processes. In n sense, therefore, biote(.hnology ha? existed for thousands of years. The most
ancient biotechnological art is fermentation. Living micro-organisms have been used for
centuries to make curds. condiments, cheese and vinegar, to prepare dough for bread or
bhatilras. and to brew alcohol. But today we know much more about these simple processes.
With thehelp of powerful microkcopes and carefully done expe;iments in the laboratory, we
have come to under>tatid that the tiny microbes involved in these processes are small
biochemical factories. And they can be used for a variety of purposes, related to health,
medicine. food, pollution control ctc.
1
TIze uhilrrv to i.orrrr.olo r l r l nmtrrj?rrlutc.I?II( r o h e ~and I I . rhern,for
~ vcrriolrs uppli,c~utionshas
r ~ . ~ 1 1 1int etdl ~ r( ! I I . I . ( ' ~ hrot~(
I~ We w ~ l dmcribe
111lolog~. l two main technique\ of the new
42 biotechnologq, namely genetic engineering and enzvme immobiliqation.
I )

!
 Modem Developmentsin
29.6.1 Genetic Engineering Science and T&hnoloay.I
The modem biotechnology revolution is based on the understanding and manipulation of the
structure of DNA. DNA is a complex organic molecule that directs the synthesis of proteins
in all living organisms. Thus, it controls the physical structure, growth, reproduction and
function of all living beings. The programme for controlling protein synthesis is coded in the
PLASMID
chemical structure of DNA. The discovery of the code, and the synthesis of DNA in test DNA EXTRACnON
tubes, were important milestones in genetic engineering. However, the foundation of genetic
engineering was laid by the discovery, that QNA suppljed from outside is accepted by
micro-organisms. DNA thus inserted into the cell en from a micro-organism, enables the
cells to make the proteins specified in the codes of the inserted DNA. These new cells can be
cultivated or cloned, until a significant number of cells are available
*. to produce specific,
desired protein molecules.
-3

However, this is not so easily done. When a foreign DNA molecule enters a cell, spcclal
enzymes, called restriction enzymes, rapidly destroy it This problem was solved by the
discovery of the fact that small rings of DNA other than the main DNA strands exist in the
cells of bacteria. These circular DNA molecules are called plasmids (see Fig 29.11). A
technique was developed to insert foreign DNA fragments into plasmids taken out of the
cells. This is known as gene splicing and plasmid becomes a vehicle or a vector. Once the
foreign DNA is joined to the plasmids, m d inserted back in the host cell, the restriction
enzymes fail to destroy it. When the cell reproduces, the foreign DNA .is also replicated.
When the cell carries on its normal functions, the synthetic DNA in the plasmid directs the
manufacture of the protein coded in i ~ .
Thus, through genetic engineering tethniques, it is possible to introduce a foreign DNA into
a host cell and synthesise any desired protein. Large quantities of scarce biologically
significant proteins which are not easily available from natural sources can be manufactured
in'this manner. For example, insulin needed by diabetic patients can now be produced on a
large scale using this technique. Just as cattle are bred for specific functions like high milk
yield, or pulling heavy loads, now-a-days scientists breed bacteria for carrying out special
functions. By selecting suitable bacteria, and using genetic engineering techniques, new variel
of bacteria which can eat man-made artificial products like plastics are being developed.
Otherwise plastic materials, discarded and thrown in garbage, are hard to get rid off. These
special bacteria are affectionately called 'Bugs'. DAUGHTER CELLS
I
Fig. 29.11: An illustration of
the genetic engineering
technique; a) plasmid DNA is
29.6.2 Enzyme Immobilisation extracted from the host cell; b) it
is cut at the cleavage site by
The use of enzymes as catalysts is well known in a number of industries, such as baking or special techniques; c) foreign
wine making. But punfied enzymes are soluble in water. It is, therefore, not easy to remove DNA is then inserted into the
them from the final product. Further, it is difficult to re-use them. Thus, enzyme activity is plasmid; d) the transformed
plasmid is inserted back into the
lost in one cycle of the chemical reaction. These difficulties led to the development in the host cell. When the transfomd
late 1960s of immobilised enzymes. The trick is to link an enzyme chemically to a large cell multiplies. the foreign DNA
molecule, such as gelatin. It can then be used as a catalyst, and it can be extracted with the is also replicated.
large molecule, for use once again. Immobilised enzymes have been successfully used in the
production of semi-synthetic penicillin and in the large scale production of fructose from
maize. Fructose is sweeter than glucose, yet it has the same calorific value and is used as a
A catalyst is a substance which
low calorie sweetener. aids chemical change in other
substances without itself
SAQ 0
undergoing change. Enzymes
Explain in about three lines each what is meant by genetic engineering and enzyme are proteins that control the
immobilisation. biochemical processes in living
organisms.

Nuclear transfer is another technique

of genetic engineering whcrc the
nucleus ofthe egg cell is replaced by
the nucleus from the cell of a donor
organism, in order to create a clone.
The most famous ekample has been of
'Dolly', the first cloned sheep in Swtlan
This cloning technique has raised a
whole lot o f ethical issues as the
future holds the p~Jsibilitieso f
cloning human beings.
Biotechnology may be domir~atedby microbial and enzyme technology, but it is not
synonymous with them. Both animal and plant cells have their due share in its development.
Riotechnoloeical ex~loitationof animcl cells lies behind the.commercial ~roductionof viral
 Modern Developments in
3) State four ways in which we have benefited from our artificial satellite programme. Science and Techndogy-I.

4) What are the risks associated with the use of fission energy?

5) We are listing below a few statements giving applications of the technologies described
in this unit. State against each statement, which technology corresponds to the particular
application.
a) Our natural resources can be explored, TV programmes broadcast
from anywhere in the world can be relayed to any .other desired place. ....................
b) Large amounts of energy can be provided. ....................
c) Brain tumours and blocks m artenes can bc removed. ....................
d) Vlral vaccines and bacteria for removing pollution can be engineered. .....................
e ) Telephonic communications and TV programmes can be carried to large ...................
distances.

29.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Questions:
1) a) i) light
ii) signals, long
i i ~ amount.
) area, spread
b) (i)-(ii); (ii)-(111);(iii)-(ii), (iii); (iv)-(ii).
2) a) (iii), (iv), (vi).
b) light waves, optical fibres, lighter, electric current, radiowaves, cheaper.
3) a) (iii), (vi).
b) (i) artificial satellite (ii) space probe (iii) rocket.
4) a) (i) T (ii) F (iii) F (iv) T ;(v) T
b)

5) a) The graphite Meck slows down the neutrons.

b) It is controlled by using absorbers, such as cadmium rods. You can explzin further
how it is done.
6 ) Genetic engineering is the technique of introducing foreign DKA fragments into host
cells so that certain functions specific to the foreign DNA can be carried out within them.
Enzyme itnmobilisation is a technique which is used to chemicnlly bind enzymes to
certain substances so that they are not loct I C d single chemical reaction but can be
extracted and re-uhed.
Science, Technology and - Terminal Questions
Development .
Laser Light Ordinarv Lieht

1) single wavelength, many wave lengths,

2) coherent, incoherent,
3) beam can travel large I beam spreads apart, I
distance without spreading, I
energy concentration at a distance
I
4) carries large concentration of
energy per unit area. from the source is low.

2) Optical fibres are lighter and cheaper. Further, they can carry much more information.
3) Communication, resource mapping, meteorology, education.
4) Nuclear accidents, waste disposal.
5) a) Space technology; b) Fission and fusion; c) Lasers; d) Biotechnology; e) Optical fibres.
1