Contents

1 Short theoretical introduction 1

2 Problems 12

3 Solutions 23

2
Chapter 1

Short theoretical
introduction

Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 , and l ∈ R. We’ll say that l
represents the limit of (an )n≥1 if any neighborhood of l contains all the terms of
the sequence, starting from a certain index. We write this fact as lim an = l,
n→∞
or an → l.

We can rewrite the above definition into the following equivalence:

lim an = l ⇔ (∀)V ∈ V(l), (∃)nV ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ nV ⇒ an ∈ V .

n→∞

One can easily observe from this definition that if a sequence is constant then
it’s limit is equal with the constant term.

We’ll say that a sequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 is convergent if it has limit
and lim an ∈ R, or divergent if it doesn’t have a limit or if it has the limit
n→∞
equal to ±∞.

Theorem: If a sequence has limit, then this limit is unique.

Proof: Consider a sequence (an )n≥1 ⊆ R which has two different limits l0 , l00 ∈ R.
It follows that there exist two neighborhoods V 0 ∈ V(l0 ) and V 00 ∈ V(l00 ) such
that V 0 ∩ V 00 = ∅. As an → l0 ⇒ (∃)n0 ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ n0 ⇒ an ∈ V 0 .
Also, since an → l00 ⇒ (∃)n00 ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ n00 ⇒ an ∈ V 00 . Hence
(∀)n ≥ max{n0 , n00 } we have an ∈ V 0 ∩ V 00 = ∅.

Theorem: Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 . Then we have:

(i) lim an = l ∈ R ⇔ (∀)ε > 0, (∃)nε ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ nε ⇒ |an − l| < ε.
n→∞

1
2 A Collection of Limits

(ii) lim an = ∞ ⇔ (∀)ε > 0, (∃)nε ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ nε ⇒ an > ε.

n→∞

(iii) lim an = −∞ ⇔ (∀)ε > 0, (∃)nε ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ nε ⇒ an < −ε

n→∞

Theorem: Let (an )n≥1 a sequence of real numbers.

1. If lim an = l, then any subsequence of (an )n≥1 has the limit equal to l.
n→∞

2. If there exist two subsequences of (an )n≥1 with different limits, then the
sequence (an )n≥1 is divergent.

3. If there exist two subsequences of (an )n≥1 which cover it and have a common
limit, then lim an = l.
n→∞

Definition: A sequence (xn )n≥1 is a Cauchy sequence if (∀)ε > 0, (∃)nε ∈ N

such that |xn+p − xn | < ε, (∀)n ≥ nε , (∀)p ∈ N.

Theorem: A sequence of real numbers is convergent if and only if it is a Cauchy

sequence.

Theorem: Any increasing and unbounded sequence has the limit ∞.

Theorem: Any increasing and bounded sequence converge to the upper bound
of the sequence.

Theorem: Any convergent sequence is bounded.

Theorem(Cesaro lemma): Any bounded sequence of real numbers contains

at least one convergent subsequence.

Theorem(Weierstrass theorem): Any monotonic and bounded sequence is

convergent.

Theorem: Any monotonic sequence of real numbers has limit.

Theorem: Consider two convergent sequences (an )n≥1 and (bn )n≥1 such that
an ≤ bn , (∀)n ∈ N∗ . Then we have lim an ≤ lim bn .
n→∞ n→∞

Theorem: Consider a convergent sequence (an )n≥1 and a real number a such
that an ≤ a, (∀)n ∈ N∗ . Then lim an ≤ a.
n→∞

Theorem: Consider a convergent sequence (an )n≥1 such that lim an = a.

n→∞
Them lim |an | = |a|.
n→∞
Short teoretical introduction 3

Theorem: Consider two sequences of real numbers (an )n≥1 and (bn )n≥1 such
that an ≤ bn , (∀)n ∈ N∗ . Then:

1. If lim an = ∞ it follows that lim bn = ∞.

n→∞ n→∞

2. If lim bn = −∞ it follows that lim an = −∞.

n→∞ n→∞

Limit operations:

Consider two sequences an and bn which have limit. Then we have:

1. lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn (except the case (∞, −∞)).

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2. lim (an · bn ) = lim an · lim bn (except the cases (0, ±∞)).

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an lim an
3. lim = n→∞ (except the cases (0, 0), (±∞, ±∞)).
n→∞ bn lim bn
n→∞

lim bn
4. lim abnn = ( lim an )n→∞ (except the cases (1, ±∞), (∞, 0), (0, 0)).
n→∞ n→∞

5. lim (logan bn ) = log lim a ( lim bn ).

n→∞ n n→∞
n→∞

Trivial consequences:

1. lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn ;

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

2. lim (λan ) = λ lim an (λ ∈ R);

n→∞ n→∞

√ q
3. lim k
an = k lim an (k ∈ N);
n→∞ n→∞

Theorem (Squeeze theorem): Let (an )n≥1 , (bn )n≥1 , (cn )n≥1 be three se-
quences of real numbers such that an ≤ bn ≤ cn , (∀)n ∈ N∗ and lim an =
n→∞
lim cn = l ∈ R. Then lim bn = l.
n→∞ n→∞

Theorem: Let (xn )n≥1 a sequence of real numbers such that lim (xn+1 −xn ) =
n→∞
α ∈ R.

1. If α > 0, then lim xn = ∞.

n→∞

2. If α < 0, then lim xn = −∞.

n→∞
4 A Collection of Limits

Theorem (Ratio test): Consider a sequence of real positive numbers (an )n≥1 ,
an+1
for which l = lim ∈ R.
n→∞ an

1. If l < 1 then lim an = 0.

n→∞

2. If l > 1 then lim an = ∞.

n→∞

an+1
Proof: 1. Let V = (α, β) ∈ V(l) with l < β < 1. Because l = lim ,
n→∞ an
an+1
there is some n0 ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ n0 ⇒ ∈ V , hence (∀)n ≥ n0 ⇒
an
an+1
< 1. That means starting from the index n0 the sequence (an )n≥1 is
an
strictly decreasing. Since the sequence is strictly decreasing and it contains
only positive terms, the sequence is bounded. Using Weierstrass Theorem, it
follows that the sequence is convergent. We have:
an+1 an+1
an+1 = · an ⇒ lim an+1 = lim · lim an
an n→∞ n→∞ an n→∞
which is equivalent with:

lim an (1 − l) = 0
n→∞

which implies that lim an = 0.

n→∞

1 bn+1 1
2. Denoting bn = we have lim = < 1, hence lim bn = 0 which
an n→∞ bn l n→∞
implies that lim an = ∞.
n→∞

Theorem: Consider
 a convergent
 sequence of real non-zero numbers (xn )n≥1
xn ∗
such that lim n − 1 ∈ R . Then lim xn = 0.
n→∞ xn−1 n→∞

Theorem(Cesaro-Stolz lemma): 1. Consider two sequences (an )n≥1 and

(bn )n≥1 such that:

(i) the sequence (bn )n≥1 is strictly increasing and unbounded;

an+1 − an
(ii) the limit lim = l exists.
n→∞ bn+1 − bn

 
an an
Then the sequence is convergent and lim = l.
bn n≥1
n→∞ bn

Proof: Let’s consider the case l ∈ R and assume (bn )n≥1 is a strictly increasing
sequence, hence lim bn = ∞. Now let V ∈ V(l), then there exists α > 0 such
n→∞
Short teoretical introduction 5

an
that (l − α, l + α) ⊆ V . Let β ∈ R such that 0 < β < α. As lim = l, there
n→∞ bn
an+1 − an
exists k ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ k ⇒ ∈ (l − β, l + β), which implies
bn+1 − bn
that:

(l − β)(bn+1 − bn ) < an+1 − an < (l + β)(bn+1 − bn ), (∀)n ≥ k

Now writing this inequality from k to n − 1 we have:

(l − β)(bk+1 − bk ) < ak+1 − ak < (l + β)(bk+1 − bk )

(l − β)(bk+2 − bk+1 ) < ak+2 − ak+1 < (l + β)(bk+2 − bk+1 )

...

(l − β)(bn − bn−1 ) < an − an−1 < (l + β)(bn − bn−1 )

Summing all these inequalities we find that:

(l − β)(bn − bk ) < an − ak < (l + β)(bn − bk )

As lim bn = ∞, starting from an index we have bn > 0. The last inequality
n→∞
rewrites as:
   
bk an ak bk
(l − β) 1 − < − < (l + β) 1 − ⇔
bn bn bn bn

ak + (β − l)bk an ak − (β + l)bk
⇔ (l − β) + < <l+β+
bn bn bn
As

ak + (β − l)bk ak − (β + l)bk
lim = lim =0
n→∞ bn n→∞ bn
there exists an index p ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ p we have:

ak + (β − l)bk ak − (β + l)bk
, ∈ (β − α, α − β)
bn bn
We shall look for the inequalities:

ak + (β − l)bk
>β−α
bn
and

ak − (β + l)bk
<α−β
bn
6 A Collection of Limits

Choosing m = max{k, p}, then (∀)n ≥ m we have:

an
l−α< <l+α
bn
an an
which means that ∈ V ⇒ lim = l. It remains to prove the theorem
bn n→∞ bn
when l = ±∞, but these cases can be proven analogous choosing V = (α, ∞)
and V = (−∞, α), respectively.

2. Let (xn )n≥1 and (yn )n≥1 such that:

(i) lim xn = lim yn = 0, yn 6= 0, (∀)n ∈ N∗ ;

n→∞ n→∞

(ii) the sequence (yn )n≥1 is strictly decreasing;

xn+1 − xn
(iii) the limit lim = l ∈ R.
n→∞ yn+1 − yn

 
xn xn
Then the sequence has a limit and lim = l.
yn n≥1
n→∞ yn

xn xn+1 − xn
Remark: In problem’s solutions we’ll write directly lim = lim ,
yn n→∞ yn+1 − yn
n→∞
and if the limit we arrive to belongs to R, then the application of Cesaro-Stolz
lemma is valid.

Trivial consequences:

1. Consider a sequence (an )n≥1 of strictly positive real numbers for which exists
an+1
lim = l. Then we have:
n→∞ an
√ an+1
lim n an = lim
n→∞ n→∞ an

Proof: Using Cesaro-Stolz theorem we have:

 
√ ln an ln an+1 − ln an an+1
lim (ln n
an ) = lim = lim = lim ln = ln l
n→∞ n→∞ n n→∞ (n + 1) − n n→∞ an

Then:
√
√ √
n lim (ln n an )
lim n
an = lim eln an
= en→∞ = eln l = l
n→∞ n→∞

2. Let (xn )n≥1 a sequence of real numbers which has limit. Then:
x1 + x2 + . . . + xn
lim = lim xn
n→∞ n n→∞
Short teoretical introduction 7

3. Let (xn )n≥1 a sequence of real positive numbers which has limit. Then:
√
lim n
x1 x2 . . . xn = lim xn
n→∞ n→∞

Theorem (Reciprocal Cesaro-Stolz): Let (xn )n≥1 and (yn )n≥1 two se-
quences of real numbers such that:

(i) (yn )n≥1 is strictly increasing and unbounded;

xn
(ii) the limit lim = l ∈ R;
n→∞ yn
yn
(iii) the limit lim ∈ R+ \{1}.
n→∞ yn+1

xn+1 − xn
Then the limit lim exists and it is equal to l.
n→∞ yn+1 − yn

Theorem (exponential sequence): Let a ∈ R. Consider the sequence xn =

an , n ∈ N∗ .

1. If a ≤ −1, the sequence is divergent.

2. If a ∈ (−1, 1), then lim xn = 0.

n→∞

3. If a = 1, then lim xn = 1.
n→∞

4. If a > 1, then lim xn = ∞.

n→∞

Theorem (power sequence): Let a ∈ R. Consider the sequence xn = na , n ∈

N∗ .

1. If a < 0, then lim xn = 0.

n→∞

2. If a = 0, then lim xn = 1.
n→∞

3. If a > 0, then lim xn = ∞.

n→∞

Theorem (polynomial sequence): Let an = ak nk + ak−1 nk−1 + . . . + a1 n +

a0 , (ak 6= 0).

1. If ak > 0, then lim an = ∞.

n→∞

2. If ak < 0, then lim an = −∞.

n→∞
8 A Collection of Limits

ak nk + ak−1 nk−1 + . . . + a1 n + a0
Theorem: Let bn = , (ak 6= 0 6= bp ).
bp np + bp−1 np−1 + . . . + b1 n + b0

1. If k < p, then lim bn = 0.

n→∞

ak
2. If k = p, then lim bn = .
n→∞ bp

ak
3. If k > p, then lim bn = · ∞.
n→∞ bp
 n
1
Theorem: The sequence an = 1+ , n ∈ N∗ is a strictly increasing and
n
bounded sequence and lim an = e.
n→∞

Theorem: Consider a sequence (an )n≥1 of real non-zero numbers such that
1
lim an = 0. Then lim (1 + an ) an = e.
n→∞ n→∞

Proof: If (bn )n≥1 is a sequence of non-zero positive integers such that lim bn =
 b n→∞n
1 n

1
∞, we have lim 1 + = e. Let ε > 0. From lim 1 + = e, it
n→∞ bn n→∞ n
  n
1
follows that there exists n0ε ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ n0ε ⇒ 1 + − e < ε.
n
00 ∗ 00
Also, since lim bn = ∞, there exists nε ∈ N such that (∀)n ≥ nε ⇒ bn >
n→∞
n0ε . Therefore there exists nε = max{n0ε , n00ε } ∈ N∗ such that (∀)n ≥ nε ⇒
 b b
1 n

1 n
1+ − e < ε. This means that: lim 1 + = e. The same
bn n→∞ bn
property is fulfilled if lim bn = −∞.
n→∞

 cn
1
If (cn )n≥1 is a sequence of real numbers such that lim cn = ∞, then lim 1+ =
n→∞ n→∞ cn
e. We can assume that cn > 1, (∀)n ∈ N∗ . Let’s denote dn = bcn c ∈ N∗ . In
this way (dn )n≥1 is sequence of positive integers with lim dn = ∞. We have:
n→∞

1 1 1
dn ≤ cn < dn + 1 ⇒ < ≤
dn + 1 cn dn
Hence it follows that:

 d  dn  cn  dn +1  dn +1

1 1 1 1 1
1+ < 1+ ≤ 1+ < 1+ ≤ 1+
dn + 1 n cn cn cn dn

Observe that:
Short teoretical introduction 9

 dn  dn +1  −1

1 1 1
lim 1+ = lim 1+ · 1+ =e
n→∞ dn + 1 n→∞ dn + 1 dn + 1

and
 dn +1  dn  
1 1 1
lim 1+ = lim 1 + · 1+ =e
n→∞ dn n→∞ dn dn
 c
1 n
Using the Squeeze Theorem it follows that lim 1 + = e. The same
n→∞ cn
property is fulfilled when lim cn = −∞.
n→∞

Now if the sequence (an )n≥1 contains a finite number of positive or negative
terms we can remove them and assume that the sequence contains only positive
1
terms. Denoting xn = we have lim xn = ∞. Then we have
an n→∞
  xn
1 1
lim (1 + an ) an = lim 1 + =e
n→∞ n→∞ xn
If the sequence contains an infinite number of positive or negative terms, the
1
same fact happens for the sequence (xn )n≥1 with xn = , (∀)n ∈ N∗ . Let’s
an
denote by (a0n )n≥1 the subsequence of positive terms , and by (a00n )n≥1 the subse-
1 1
quence of negative terms. Also let c0n = 0 , (∀)n ∈ N∗ and c00n = 00 , (∀)n ∈ N∗ .
an an
Then it follows that lim c0n = ∞ and lim c00n = −∞. Hence:
n→∞ n→∞
 c0n
1 1
lim (1 + a0n ) a0n = lim 1+ 0 =e
n→∞ n→∞ cn
and
 c00n
1 1
lim (1 + a00n ) a00n = lim 1 + 00 =e
n→∞ n→∞ cn
1
Then it follows that: lim (1 + an ) an = e.
n→∞

Consequence: Let (an )n≥1 , (bn )n≥1 two sequences of real numbers such that
an 6= 1, (∀)n ∈ N∗ , lim an = 1 and lim bn = ∞ or lim bn = −∞. If there
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim (an −1)bn
exists lim (an − 1)bn ∈ R, then we have lim abnn =e n→∞ .
n→∞ n→∞

n
X 1
Theorem: Consider the sequence (an )n≥0 defined by an = . We have
k!
k=0
lim an = e.
n→∞
10 A Collection of Limits

Theorem: Let (cn )n≥1 , a sequence defined by

1 1 1
cn = 1 + + + . . . + − ln n, n ≥ 1
2 3 n
Then (cn )n≥1 is strictly decreasing and bounded, and lim cn = γ, where γ is
n→∞
the Euler constant.

Recurrent sequences

A sequence (xn )n≥1 is a k-order recurrent sequence, if it is defined by a formula

of the form

xn+k = f (xn , xn+1 , . . . , nn+k−1 ), n ≥ 1

with given x1 , x2 , . . . , xk . The recurrence is linear if f is a linear function.
Second order recurrence formulas which are homogoeneus, with constant coef-
ficients, have the form xn+2 = αxn+1 + βxn , (∀)n ≥ 1 with given x1 , x2 , α, β.
To this recurrence formula we attach the equation r2 = αr + β, with r1 , r2 as
solutions.

If r1 , r2 ∈ R and r1 6= r2 , then xn = Ar1n +Br2n , where A, B are two real numbers,

usually found from the terms x1 , x2 . If r1 = r2 = r ∈ R, then xn = rn (A + nB)
and if r1 , r2 ∈ R, we have r1 , r2 = ρ(cos θ + i sin θ) so xn = ρn (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

Limit functions

Definition: Let f : D → R (D ⊆ R) and x0 ∈ R and accumulation point

of D. We’ll say that l ∈ R is the limit of the function f in x0 , and we write
lim f (x) = l, if for any neightborhood V of l, there is a neighborhood U of x0 ,
x→x0
such that for any x ∈ D ∩ U \{x0 }, we have f (x) ∈ V.

Theorem: Let f : D → R (D ⊂ R) and x0 an accumulation point of D. Then

lim f (x) = l (l, x0 ∈ R) if and only if (∀)ε > 0, (∃)δε > 0, (∀)x ∈ D\{x0 }
x→x0
such that |x − x0 | < δε ⇒ |f (x) − l| < ε.

If l = ±∞, we have:

lim f (x) = ±∞ ⇔ (∀)ε > 0, (∃)δε > 0, (∀)x ∈ D\{x0 } such that |x−x0 | < δε ,
x→x0
we have f (x) > ε (f (x) < ε).

Theorem: Let f : D ⊂ R ⇒ R and x0 an accumulation point of D. Then

lim f (x) = l (l ∈ R, x0 ∈ R), if and only if (∀)(xn )n≥1 , xn ∈ D\{x0 }, xn →
x→x0
x0 , we have lim f (xn ) = l.
n→∞

One-side limits
Short teoretical introduction 11

Definition: Let f : D ⊆ R → R and x0 ∈ R an accumulation point of D. We’ll

say that ls ∈ R (or ld ∈ R) is the left-side limit (or right-side limit) of f in x0 if
for any neigborhood V of ls (or ld ), there is a neighborhood U of x0 , such that
for any x < x0 , x ∈ U ∩ D\{x0 } (x > x0 respectively), f (x) ∈ V.

We write ls = lim f (x) = f (x0 − 0) and ld = lim f (x) = f (x0 + 0).

x → x0 x → x0
x<x0 x>x0

Theorem: Let f : D ⊆ R → R and x0 ∈ R an accumulation point of the sets

(−∞, x0 ) ∩ D and (x0 , ∞) ∩ D. Then f has the limit l ∈ R if and only if f has
equal one-side limits in x0 .

Remarkable limits

If lim f (x) = 0, then:

x→x0

sin f (x)
1. lim = 1;
x→x0 f (x)
tan f (x)
2. lim = 1;
x→x0 f (x)
arcsin f (x)
3. lim = 1;
x→x0 f (x)
arctan f (x)
4. lim = 1;
x→x0 f (x)
1
5. lim (1 + f (x)) f (x) =e
x→x0

ln(1 + f (x))
6. lim = 1;
x→x0 f (x)

af (x) − 1
7. lim = ln a (a > 0);
x→x0 f (x)
(1 + f (x))r − 1
8. lim = r (r ∈ R);
x→x0 f (x)
If lim f (x) = ∞, then:
x→x0

 f (x)
1
9. lim 1 + = e;
x→x0 f (x)
ln f (x)
10. lim = 0;
x→x0 f (x)
Chapter 2

Problems

1. Evaluate:
p p 
3 3
lim n3 + 2n2 + 1 − n3 − 1
n→∞

2. Evaluate:
√3
5x + 2 + 2
lim √
x→−2 3x + 10 − 2
n
X 3n2 + 9n
3. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 , such that ak = , (∀)n ≥ 1.
2
k=1
Prove that this sequence is an arithmetical progression and evaluate:
n
1 X
lim ak
n→∞ nan
k=1

1
4. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 such that a1 = a2 = 0 and an+1 = (an +
3
2
an−1 + b), where 0 ≤ b ≤ 1. Prove that the sequence is convergent and evaluate
lim an .
n→∞

5. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that x1 = 1 and xn =

1
2xn−1 + , (∀)n ≥ 2. Evaluate lim xn .
n n→∞

6. Evaluate:
  n 
4 π  π
lim n + n2 sinn + cos 2nπ +
n→∞ 5 6 n
7. Evaluate:

12
Problems 13

n
X k! · k
lim
n→∞ (n + 1)!
k=1

8. Evaluate:
    
1 1 1
lim 1− 2 1 − 2 · ... · 1 − 2
n→∞ 2 3 n
9. Evaluate:
s
n 33n (n!)3
lim
n→∞ (3n)!
10. Consider a sequence of real positive numbers (xn )n≥1 such that (n+1)xn+1 −
nxn < 0, (∀)n ≥ 1. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate it’s
limit.

11. Find the real numbers a and b such that:

p 
3
lim 1 − n3 − an − b = 0
n→∞

12. Let p ∈ N and α1 , α2 , ..., αp positive distinct real numbers. Evaluate:

q
lim n α1n + α2n + . . . + αpn
n→∞
∗
13. If a ∈ R , evaluate:
cos x − cos a
lim
x→−a x2 − a2
14. If n ∈ N∗ , evaluate:

ln(1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn )
lim
x→0 nx
15. Evaluate:
n
!
2
X 2k 3 + 8k 2 + 6k − 1
lim n +n−
n→∞ k 2 + 4k + 3
k=1

16. Find a ∈ R∗ such that:

1 − cos ax sin x
lim = lim
x→0 x2 x→π π − x

17. Evaluate:
√
3
√
x2 + 7 − x + 3
lim
x→1 x2 − 3x + 2
18. Evaluate:
14 A Collection of Limits

p p 
lim 2n2 + n − λ 2n2 − n
n→∞

where λ is a real number.

19. If a, b, c ∈ R, evaluate:
√ √ √

lim a x + 1 + b x + 2 + c x + 3
x→∞

20. Find the set A ⊂ R such that ax2 + x + 3 ≥ 0, (∀)a ∈ A, (∀)x ∈ R. Then
for any a ∈ A, evaluate:
 p 
lim x + 1 − ax2 + x + 3
x→∞

21. If k ∈ R, evaluate:
r r !
k n n+2
lim n −
n→∞ n+1 n+3

22. If k ∈ N and a ∈ R+ \{1}, evaluate:

r r !
k 1 n−1 n+1
lim n (a − 1) n −
n→∞ n n+2
23. Evaluate:
n
X 1
lim √
n→∞
k=1
n2 + k
24. If a > 0, p ≥ 2, evaluate:
n
X 1
lim √
p
n→∞
k=1
np + ka
25. Evaluate:

n!
lim
n→∞ (1 + 12 )(1 + 22 ) · . . . · (1 + n2 )
26. Evaluate:

n2 − 1
2
 
2n − 3 n
lim
n→∞ 2n2 − n + 1
27. Evaluate:
p
1 + sin2 x − cos x
lim √
x→0 1 − 1 + tan2 x
Problems 15

28. Evaluate:
 √ x
x+ x
lim √
x→∞ x− x
29. Evaluate:
1
lim (cos x) sin x
x→0
x>0

30. Evaluate:
1
lim (ex + sin x) x
x→0

31. If a, b ∈ R∗+ , evaluate:

√
n
!n
a−1+ b
lim
n→∞ a
32. Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 defined by:

if n ≤ k, k ∈ N∗

 1
k k
an = (n + 1) − n
 n

if n > k
k−1

i)Evaluate lim an .
n→∞

n
X
ii)If bn = 1 + k · lim an , evaluate:
n→∞
k=1
n
b2n

lim
n→∞ bn−1 bn+1
xn+1 + xn
33. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that xn+2 = , (∀)n ∈
2
N∗ . If x1 ≤ x2 ,

i)Prove that the sequence (x2n+1 )n≥0 is increasing, while the sequence (x2n )n≥0
is decreasing;

ii)Prove that:

|x2 − x1 |
|xn+2 − xn+1 | = , (∀)n ∈ N∗
2n
iii)Prove that:

2xn+2 + xn+1 = 2x2 + x1 , (∀)n ∈ N∗

x1 + 2x2
iv)Prove that (xn )n≥1 is convergent and that it’s limit is .
3
16 A Collection of Limits
√ √
34. Let an , bn ∈ Q such that (1 + 2)n = an + bn 2, (∀)n ∈ N∗ . Evaluate
an
lim .
n→∞ bn

35. If a > 0, evaluate:

(a + x)x − 1
lim
x→0 x
3
36. Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 such that a1 = and an+1 =
2
a2n − an + 1
. Prove that (an )n≥1 is convergent and find it’s limit.
an

37. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that x0 ∈ (0, 1) and
xn+1 = xn − x2n + x3n − x4n , (∀)n ≥ 0. Prove that this sequence is convergent
and evaluate lim xn .
n→∞

p
38. Let a > 0 and b ∈ (a, 2a) and a sequence x0 = b, xn+1 = a+ xn (2a − xn ), (∀)n ≥
0. Study the convergence of the sequence (xn )n≥0 .

39. Evaluate:
n+1
X 1
lim arctan
n→∞ 2k 2
k=1

40. Evaluate:
n
X k
lim
n→∞ 4k 4+1
k=1

41. Evaluate:
n
X 1 + 3 + 32 + . . . + 3k
lim
n→∞ 5k+2
k=1

42. Evaluate:
n X
i
!
X k−1
lim n+1−
n→∞
i=2 k=2
k!

43. Evaluate:

11 + 22 + 33 + . . . + nn
lim
n→∞ nn
n
44. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 such that a0 = 2 and an−1 − an = .
(n + 1)!
Evaluate lim ((n + 1)! ln an ).
n→∞
Problems 17

45. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 with x1 = a > 0 and xn+1 =
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . + nxn
, n ∈ N∗ . Evaluate it’s limit.
n
n
X 1 π2
46. Using lim 2
= , evaluate:
n→∞ k 6
k=1
n
X 1
lim
n→∞ (2k − 1)2
k=1

47. Consider the sequence (xn )n≥1 defined by x1 = a, x2 = b, a < b and

xn−1 + λxn−2
xn = , n ≥ 3, λ > 0. Prove that this sequence is convergent and
1+λ
find it’s limit.

48. Evaluate:
n
lim √
n
n→∞ n!
1
49. Consider the sequence (xn )n≥1 defined by x1 = 1 and xn = , n≥
1 + xn−1
2. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate lim xn .
n→∞

50. If a, b ∈ R∗ , evaluate:

ln(cos ax)
lim
x→0 ln(cos bx)

{x} if x ∈ Q
51. Let f : R → R, f (x) = . Find all α ∈ R for which
x if x ∈ R\Q
lim f (x) exists.
x→α


bxc if x ∈ Q
52. Let f : R → R, f (x) = . Find all α ∈ R for which
x if x ∈ R\Q
lim f (x) exists.
x→α

53. Let (xn )n≥1 be a sequence of positive real numbers such that x1 > 0 and
a
3xn = 2xn−1 + 2 , where a is a real positive number. Prove that xn is
xn−1
convergent and evaluate lim xn .
n→∞

54.Consider asequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 such that a1 = 12 and an+1 =
3
an 1 + . Evaluate:
n+1
n
X 1
lim
n→∞ ak
k=1
18 A Collection of Limits

55. Evaluate:
 n
n
lim √
n→∞ n2 + 1
56. If a ∈ R, evaluate:
n  2 
X k a
lim
n→∞ n3
k=1

57. Evaluate:
n
!n
n
X 1 1
lim 2 −
n→∞ k(k + 2) 4
k=1

58. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 , such that an > 0, (∀)n ∈ N and lim n(an+1 −
√ n→∞
an ) = 1. Evaluate lim an and lim n an .
n→∞ n→∞

59. Evaluate:
√ √ √
1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + ... + n n
lim √
n→∞ n2 n
60. Evaluate:
1
limπ (sin x) 2x−π
x→ 2

61. Evaluate:
 
1
lim n2 ln cos
n→∞ n
62. Given a, b ∈ R∗+ , evaluate:
√ !n
√
a+ nb n

lim
n→∞ 2
   
1 0 0 1
63. Let α > β > 0 and the matrices A = , B= .
0 1 1 0

i)Prove that (∃)(xn )n≥1 , (yn )n≥1 ∈ R such that:

 n
α β
= xn A + yn B, (∀)n ≥ 1
β α
xn
ii)Evaluate lim .
n→∞ yn

64. If a ∈ R such that |a| < 1 and p ∈ N∗ is given, evaluate:

Problems 19

lim np · an
n→∞

65. If p ∈ N∗ , evaluate:
1p + 2p + 3p + . . . + np
lim
n→∞ np+1
66. If n ∈ N∗ , evaluate:

sin(n arccos x)
lim √
x→1 1 − x2
x<1
∗
67. If n ∈ N , evaluate:

1 − cos(n arccos x)
lim
x→1 1 − x2
x<1

68. Study the convergence of the sequence:

xn + a
xn+1 = , n ≥ 1, x1 ≥ 0, a > 0
xn + 1
69. Consider two sequences of real numbers (xn )n≥0 and (yn )n≥0 such that
x0 = y0 = 3, xn = 2xn−1 + yn−1 and yn = 2xn−1 + 3yn−1 , (∀)n ≥ 1. Evaluate
xn
lim .
n→∞ yn

70. Evaluate:
tan x − x
lim
x→0 x2
71. Evaluate:
tan x − arctan x
lim
x→0 x2
72. Let a > 0 and a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥0 such that xn ∈ (0, a) and
a2
xn+1 (a − xn ) > , (∀)n ∈ N. Prove that (xn )n≥1 is convergent and evaluate
4
lim xn .
n→∞

73. Evaluate:
√

2n
lim cos nπ e
n→∞

74. Evaluate:

 tan (n−1)π
n+1 2n
lim
n→∞ n
20 A Collection of Limits

75. Evaluate:
v
u n  
uY n
lim t
n
n→∞ k
k=1

76. If a > 0, evaluate:

√ √ √
a+ a+ 3
a + ... + n
a−n
lim
n→∞ ln n
77. Evaluate:
π
π
lim n ln tan +
n→∞ 4 n
78. Let k ∈ N and a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈ R such that a0 + a1 + a2 + . . . + ak = 0.
Evaluate:
 √ √ √
3

lim a0 3 n + a1 3 n + 1 + . . . + ak n + k
n→∞

79. Evaluate:
 p 
3
lim sin nπ n3 + 3n2 + 4n − 5
n→∞

80. Evaluate:
2 arcsin x − π
lim
x→1 sin πx
x<1

81. Evaluate:
n
X 1
lim
n→∞ k ln k
k=2

82. Evaluate:
 ! 1 
n
X n3 x2

lim  lim 1+ sin2 (kx) 

n→∞ x→0
k=1
∗
83. If p ∈ N , evaluate:
n
X (k + 1)(k + 2) · . . . · (k + p)
lim
n→∞ np+1
k=0
 π
84. If αn ∈ 0, is a root of the equation tan α + cot α = n, n ≥ 2, evaluate:
4
lim (sin αn + cos αn )n
n→∞

85. Evaluate:
Problems 21

s 
n+k
n
X 2
lim
n→∞ n2
k=1

86. Evaluate:
v
u n  
uY k
lim t
n
1+
n→∞ n
k=1

87. Evaluate:
arctan x − arcsin x
lim
x→0 x3
88. If α > 0, evaluate:

(n + 1)α − nα
lim
n→∞ nα−1
89. Evaluate:
n
X k2
lim
n→∞ 2k
k=1

90. Evaluate:
n
X (k + 1)(k + 2)
lim
n→∞ 2k
k=0

91. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that x1 ∈ (0, 1) and
xn+1 = x2n − xn + 1, (∀)n ∈ N. Evaluate:

lim (x1 x2 · . . . · xn )
n→∞

92. If n ∈ N∗ , evaluate:
1 − cos x · cos 2x · . . . · cos nx
lim
x→0 x2
93. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that xn is the real root
of the equation x3 + nx − n = 0, n ∈ N∗ . Prove that this sequence is convergent
and find it’s limit.

94. Evaluate:
arctan x − arctan 2
lim
x→2 tan x − tan 2
95. Evaluate:
22 A Collection of Limits

√
22
√
32
√
n2
1+ 2! + 3! + . . . + n!
lim
n→∞ n
x2
96. Let (xn )n≥1 such that x1 > 0, x1 + x21 < 1 and xn+1 = xn + n2 , (∀)n ≥ 1.
n
1 1
Prove that the sequences (xn )n≥1 and (yn )n≥2 , yn = − are convergent.
xn n − 1

97. Evaluate:
n
X 2i
lim sin
n→∞
i=1
n2
98. If a > 0, a 6= 1, evaluate:
xx − ax
lim
x→a ax − aa

99. Consider a sequence of positive real numbers (an )n≥1 such that an+1 −
1 1
= an + , (∀)n ≥ 1. Evaluate:
an+1 an
 
1 1 1 1
lim √ + + ... +
n→∞ n a1 a2 an
100. Evaluate:

2arctan x − 2arcsin x
lim
x→0 2tan x − 2sin x
Chapter 3

Solutions

1. Evaluate:
p p 
3 3
lim n3 + 2n2 + 1 − n3 − 1
n→∞
Solution:

p
3
p
3
 n3 + 2n2 + 1 − n3 + 1
lim n3 + 2n2 + 1 − n3 − 1 = lim p p p
n→∞ 3
n→∞ (n3 + 2n2 + 1)2 + 3 (n3 − 1)(n3 + 2n2 + 1) + 3 (n3 − 1)2
n2 2 + n2


= lim q 
n→∞ 3 2 1 2

q
1

2 1

q 3 1 2


n 2 1 + n + n3 + 3
1 − n3 1 + n + n3 + 1 − n3
2
=
3
2. Evaluate:
√3
5x + 2 + 2
lim √
x→−2 3x + 10 − 2
Solution:

√ √
3
5x+10
√
3
5x + 2 + 2 (5x+2)2 −2 3 5x+2+4
lim √ = lim
x→−2 3x + 10 − 2 x→−2 √ 3x+6
3x+10+2
√
5 3x + 10 + 2
= lim p √
3 x→−2 3 (5x + 2)2 − 2 3 5x + 2 + 4
5
=
9
n
X 3n2 + 9n
3. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 , such that ak = , (∀)n ≥ 1.
2
k=1
Prove that this sequence is an arithmetical progression and evaluate:

23
24 A Collection of Limits

n
1 X
lim ak
n→∞ nan
k=1

Solution: For n = 1 we get a1 = 6. Then a1 + a2 = 15, so a2 = 9 and the ratio

is r = 3. Therefore the general term is an = 6 + 3(n − 1) = 3(n + 1). So:
n
1 X n+3 1
lim ak = lim =
n→∞ nan n→∞ 2n + 2 2
k=1

1
4. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 such that a1 = a2 = 0 and an+1 = (an +
3
2
an−1 + b), where 0 ≤ b < 1. Prove that the sequence is convergent and evaluate
lim an .
n→∞

b
Solution: We have a2 − a1 = 0 and a3 − a2 = ≥ 0, so assuming an−1 ≥ an−2
3
and an ≥ an−1 , we need to show that an+1 ≥ an . The recurrence equation gives
us:
1
an+1 − an = (an − an−1 + a2n−1 − a2n−2 )
3
Therefore it follows that the sequence is monotonically increasing. Also, because
b 4b
b ≤ 1, we have a3 = < 1, a4 = < 1. Assuming that an−1 , an < 1, it
3 9
follows that:
1 1
an+1 = (b + an + a2n−1 ) < (1 + 1 + 1) = 1
3 3
Hence an ∈ [0, 1), (∀)n ∈ N∗ , which means the sequence is bounded. From
Weierstrass theorem it follows that the sequence is convergent. Let then lim an =
n→∞
l. By passing to limit in the recurrence relation, we have:
√
l2 − 2l + b = 0 ⇔ (l − 1)2 = 1 − b ⇒ l = 1 ± 1 − b
√ √
Because 1 + 1 − b > 1 and an ∈ [0, 1), it follows that lim an = 1 − 1 − b.
n→∞

5. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that x1 = 1 and xn =

1
2xn−1 + , (∀)n ≥ 2. Evaluate lim xn .
2 n→∞

Solution: Let’s evaluate a few terms:

1
x2 = 2 +
2
1 1 1
x3 = 22 + 2 · + = 22 + (22 − 1)
2 2 2
Solutions 25

1 1
x4 = 23 + 22 − 1 + = 23 + (23 − 1)
2 2
1 1
x5 = 24 + 23 − 1 + = 24 + (24 − 1)
2 2
1
and by induction we can show immediately that xn = 2n−1 + (2n−1 − 1). Thus
2
lim xn = ∞.
n→∞

6. Evaluate:
  n 
4 π  π
lim n + n2 sinn + cos 2nπ +
n→∞ 5 6 n
Solution: We have:
4n+1 ·(n+1)
5n+1 4(n + 1) 4
lim 4n ·n
= lim = <1
n→∞ n→∞5n 5
5n
 n
4
Thus using the ratio test it follows that lim n = 0. Also
n→∞ 5
(n+1)2
n+1 n2 + 2n + 1 1
lim 2 2 = lim = <1
n→∞ n n→∞ 2n2 2
2n
n2 π
From the ratio test it follows that lim n = lim n2 sinn = 0. Therefore the
n→∞ 2 n→∞ 6
limit is equal to
 π π
lim cos 2nπ + = lim cos = cos 0 = 1
n→∞ n n→∞ n
7. Evaluate:
n
X k! · k
lim
n→∞ (n + 1)!
k=1

Solution:

n n  
X k! · k X (k + 1)! − k! 1
lim = lim = lim 1 − =1
n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)! n→∞ (n + 1)!
k=1 k=1

8. Evaluate:
    
1 1 1
lim 1− 2 1 − 2 · ... · 1 − 2
n→∞ 2 3 n
Solution:
26 A Collection of Limits

     n  
1 1 1 Y 1
lim 1− 1 − 2 · · · 1 − 2 = lim 1− 2
n→∞ 22 3 n n→∞
r=2
r
n
Y r2 − 1 

= lim
n→∞
r=2
r2
n  
Y (r − 1)(r + 1)
= lim
n→∞
r=2
r2
 
1 1
= lim 1 +
2 n→∞ n
1
=
2
9. Evaluate:
s
n 33n (n!)3
lim
n→∞ (3n)!

33n (n!)3
Solution: Define an = . Then:
(3n)!
√ an+1
lim n an = lim
n→∞ n→∞ an
3n+3
3 [(n + 1)!]3 (3n)!
= lim · 3n
n→∞ (3n + 3)! 3 (n!)3
27(n + 1)3
= lim
n→∞ (3n + 1)(3n + 2)(3n + 3)

=1

10. Consider a sequence of real positive numbers (xn )n≥1 such that (n+1)xn+1 −
nxn < 0, (∀)n ≥ 1. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate it’s
limit.

Solution: Because nxn > (n + 1)xn+1 , we deduce that x1 > 2x2 > 3x3 >
x1
. . . > nxn , whence 0 < xn < . Using the Squeeze Theorem it follows that
n
lim xn = 0.
n→∞

11. Find the real numbers a and b such that:

p 
3
lim 1 − n3 − an − b = 0
n→∞

Solution: We have:
Solutions 27

p 
3
b = lim 1 − n3 − an
n→∞
1 − n3 − a3 n3
= lim p p √
3
n→∞ 3
(1 − n3 )2 + 3 an(1 − n3 ) + a2 n2
n −1 − a3 + n13


= lim q
2 q
q 2
n→∞ 3 1
n3 − 1 + 3 a n15 − n12 + 3 na 4

If −1 − a3 6= 0, it follows that b = ±∞, which is false. Hence a3 = −1 ⇒ a = −1

and so b = 0.

12. Let p ∈ N and α1 , α2 , ..., αp positive distinct real numbers. Evaluate:

q
lim n α1n + α2n + . . . + αpn
n→∞

Solution: WLOG let αj = max{α1 , α2 , . . . , αp }, 1 ≤ j ≤ p. Then:

s n  n  n  n  n
q α1 α2 αj−1 αj+1 αp
lim n
α1n + α2n + ... + αpn = lim αj n
+ + ... + +1+ + ... +
n→∞ n→∞ αj αj αj αj αj
= αj
= max{α1 , α2 , . . . , αp }

13. If a ∈ R∗ , evaluate:
cos x − cos a
lim
x→−a x2 − a2
Solution:

cos x − cos a −2 sin x+a x−a

2 · sin 2
lim = lim
x→−a x2 − a2 x→−a (x − a)(x + a)
sin x+a
2 sin x−a
2
= lim x+a · lim
x→−a x→−a a − x
2
sin x−a
2
= lim
x→−a a − x
sin a
=−
2a
14. If n ∈ N∗ , evaluate:

ln(1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn )
lim
x→0 nx
ln(1 + x)
Solution: Using lim = 1, we have:
x→0 x
28 A Collection of Limits

ln(1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn ) ln(1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn ) x + x2 + . . . + xn
lim = lim · lim
x→0 nx x→0 x + x2 + . . . + xn x→0 nx
x + x2 + . . . + xn
= lim
x→0 nx
1 + x + . . . + xn−1
= lim
x→0 n
1
=
n
15. Evaluate:
n
!
2
X 2k 3 + 8k 2 + 6k − 1
lim n +n−
n→∞ k 2 + 4k + 3
k=1

Solution: Telescoping, we have:

n
! n n n
!
2
X 2k 3 + 8k 2 + 6k − 1 2
X 1X 1 1X 1
lim n +n− = lim n + n − 2 k+ −
n→∞ k 2 + 4k + 3 n→∞ 2 k+1 2 k+3
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
n n
!
1 X 1 X 1
= lim −
2 n→∞ k+1 k+3
k=1 k=1
 
5 1 1 1
= − lim +
12 2 n→∞ n + 2 n + 3
5
=
12
16. Find a ∈ R∗ such that:

1 − cos ax sin x
lim = lim
x→0 x2 x→π π − x

Solution: Observe that:

1 − cos ax a2 2 sin2 ax 2 a2
lim 2
= lim a 2 x2 =
x→0 x 4 x→0 4
2
and

sin x sin (π − x)
lim = lim =1
x→π π−x x→π π−x
a2 √
Therefore = 1, which implies a = ± 2.
2

17. Evaluate:
Solutions 29

√
3
√
x2 + 7 − x + 3
lim
x→1 x2 − 3x + 2

Solution:

√
3
√ √3
√
x2 + 7 − x + 3 x2 + 7 − 3 2− x+3
lim = lim 2 + lim 2
x→1 x2 − 3x + 2 x→1 x − 3x + 2 x→1 x − 3x + 2
x+1 1
= lim p √  + lim √
x→1 x→1 (2 − x)(2 + x + 3)
(x − 2) 3 (x2 + 7)2 + 2 3 x2 + 7 + 4
2 1
=− +
12 4
1
=
12

18. Evaluate:
p p 
lim 2n2 + n − λ 2n2 − n
n→∞

where λ is a real number.

Solution:


p p  2n2 + n − λ2 2n2 − n
lim 2n2 + n − λ 2n2 − n = lim √ √
n→∞ n→∞ 2n2 + n + λ 2n2 − n



2n2 1 − λ2 + n 1 + λ2
= lim q q 
n→∞
n 2 + n1 + λ 2 − n1



2n 1 − λ2 + 1 + λ2
= lim q q
n→∞
2 + n1 + λ 2 − n1

+∞ if λ ∈ (−∞, 1)
 √


= 2
if λ = 1

 2
 −∞ if λ ∈ (1, +∞)

19. If a, b, c ∈ R, evaluate:

√ √ √

lim a x + 1 + b x + 2 + c x + 3
x→∞

Solution: If a + b + c 6= 0, we have:
30 A Collection of Limits

r r r !
√ √ √
√ 1 2 3
lim a x + 1 + b x + 2 + c x + 3 = lim x a 1 + + b 1 + + c 1 +
x→∞ x→∞ x x x
√
= lim x (a + b + c)
x→∞

−∞ if a + b + c < 0
=
∞ if a + b + c > 0

If a + b + c = 0, then:

√ √ √
√ √ √

lim a x + 1 + b x + 2 + c x + 3 = lim a x + 1 − a + b x + 2 − b + c x + 3 − c
x→∞ x→∞
 
a b + xb c + 2c
x
= lim  q +q +q 
x→∞ 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1
x + x2 + x x + x2 + x x + x2 + x

=0

20. Find the set A ⊂ R such that ax2 + x + 3 ≥ 0, (∀)a ∈ A, (∀)x ∈ R. Then
for any a ∈ A, evaluate:
 p 
lim x+1− ax2 + x + 3
x→∞

Solution:
 We have ax2 + x + 3 ≥ 0, (∀)x ∈ R if a > 0 and ∆x ≤ 0, whence
1
a∈ , ∞ . Then:
12
 p  (1 − a)x2 + x − 2
lim x + 1 − ax2 + x + 3 = lim √
x→∞ x→∞ x + 1 + ax2 + x + 3
(1 − a)x + 1 − x2
= lim q
x→∞
1 + x1 + a + x1 + x32
  
1

 ∞ if a ∈ , 1
12


= 1
 if a = 1
 2


−∞ if a ∈ (1, ∞)

21. If k ∈ R, evaluate:

r r !
k n n+2
lim n −
n→∞ n+1 n+3

Solution:
Solutions 31

r !
nk
r
k n n+2 −2
lim n − = lim · lim r r
n→∞ n+1 n+3 n→∞ (n + 1)(n + 2) n→∞ n n+2
+
n+1 n+3
−nk
= lim
n→∞ (n + 1)(n + 2)

 0 if k < 2
= −1 if k = 2
−∞ if k > 2


22. If k ∈ N and a ∈ R+ \{1}, evaluate:

r r !
1 n−1 n+1
lim nk (a − 1)
n −
n→∞ n n+2

Solution:

r r ! 1
k 1 n−1 n+1 −nk (a n − 1) 2
lim n (a − 1)
n − = lim · lim r r
n→∞ n n+2 n→∞ n(n + 2) n→∞ n−1 n+1
+
n n+2
1
k−1
−n an − 1
= lim · lim 1
n→∞ n(n + 2) n→∞
n
−nk−2
= ln a · lim
n→∞ n + 2


 0 if k ∈ {0, 1, 2}
− ln a if k = 3

=

 ∞ if k ≥ 4 and a ∈ (0, 1)
−∞ if k ≥ 4 and a > 1


23. Evaluate:
n
X 1
lim √
n→∞
k=1
n2 +k
Solution: Clearly

1 1 1
√ ≤√ ≤√ , (∀)1 ≤ k ≤ n
n2 +n n2 +k n2 +1
Thus summing for k = 1, n, we get:
n
n X 1 n
√ ≤ √ ≤√
n2 + n k=1 n2 + k n2 + 1
32 A Collection of Limits

n 1 n 1
Because lim √ = lim q = 1 and lim √ = lim q =
n→∞ n2 +n n→∞
1+ 1 n→∞ n2 +1 n→∞
1+ 1
n n2
1, using the squeeze theorem it follows that:
n
X 1
lim √ =1
n→∞
k=1
n2 + k
24. If a > 0, p ≥ 2, evaluate:
n
X 1
lim √
p
n→∞
k=1
np + ka
Solution: Obviously
1 1 1
√ ≤ √ ≤ √ , (∀)1 ≤ k ≤ n
p
np + na p
np + ka p
np + a
Thus summing for k = 1, n, we get:
n
n X 1 n
√ ≤ √ ≤ √
p
np + na k=1 n2 + k p
np + a
n 1 n 1
Because lim √ = lim r = 1 and lim √ = lim r =
n→∞p
np
+a n→∞ a n→∞ p p
n + na n→∞ a
1+ p 1 + p−1
n n
1, using the squeeze theorem it follows that:
n
X 1
lim √
p
=1
n→∞
k=1
np + ka
25. Evaluate:
n!
lim
n→∞ (1 + 12 )(1 + 22 ) · . . . · (1 + n2 )
Solution: We have
n!
0≤
(1 + 12 )(1 + 22 ) · . . . · (1 + n2 )
n!
< 2 2
1 · 2 · . . . · n2
n!
=
(1 · 2 · . . . · n) · (1 · 2 · . . . · n)
n!
=
(n!)2
1
=
n!
Thus using squeeze theorem it follows that:
Solutions 33

n!
lim =0
n→∞ (1 + 12 )(1 + 22 ) · . . . · (1 + n2 )
26. Evaluate:

n2 − 1
2
 
2n − 3 n
lim
n→∞ 2n2 − n + 1
Solution:

2 2
 2
 n −1   n −1
2n − 3 n n−4 n
lim = lim 1+
n→∞ 2n2 − n + 1 n→∞ 2n2 − n + 1
2
 (n−4)(n −1)
3 −2n 2 +n
 2
  2n −n+1 2n
 n−4 n−4 
= lim  1 + 2

n→∞  2n − n + 1 

n3 −4n2 −n+4
lim 3 2
= en→∞ 2n −2n +n
1
= e2
√
= e

27. Evaluate:
p
1 + sin2 x − cos x
lim √
x→0 1 − 1 + tan2 x
Solution:
p √
1 + sin2 x − cos x (1 + sin2 x − cos2 x)(1 + 1 + tan2 x)
lim √ = lim p
x→0 1 − 1 + tan2 x x→0
(1 − 1 − tan2 x)( 1 + sin2 x + cos x)
√
2 sin2 x(1 + 1 + tan2 x)
= lim p
x→0
− tan2 x( 1 + sin2 x + cos x)
√
−2 cos2 x(1 + 1 + tan2 x)
= lim p
x→0
1 + sin2 x + cos x
= −2
28. Evaluate:
 √ x
x+ x
lim √
x→∞ x− x
34 A Collection of Limits

Solution:
 √ x  √ x
x+ x 2 x
lim √ = lim 1 + √
x→∞ x− x x→∞ x− x
√
2x x
√  √
x− x x− x

 √  √
 2 x 2 x 
= lim  1 + √ 
x→∞  x− x 

√
2x x
lim √
= ex→∞ x − x
√
2 x
lim
x→∞ 1 − √1
=e x
∞
=e
=∞

29. Evaluate:

1
lim (cos x) sin x
x→0
x>0

Solution:

cos x − 1
 1 
sin x
1
lim (cos x) sin x = lim (1 + (cos x − 1)) cos x − 1 
x→0 x→0
x>0 x>0

−2 sin2 x2
lim x x
x → 0 2 sin 2 · cos 2
=e x>0
x
lim − tan
x→0 2
= e x>0
= e0
=1

30. Evaluate:

1
lim (ex + sin x) x
x→0

Solution:
Solutions 35

   x1
x
1
x sin x
lim (e + sin x) = lim e 1 + x
x
x→0 x→0 e
sin x
x 

  e xex
1 sin x sin x 
= lim (ex ) x · lim  1 + x

e

x→0 x→0

x 1
lim · x
= e · ex→0 sin x e
= e2
31. If a, b ∈ R∗+ , evaluate:
√
n
!n
a−1+ b
lim
n→∞ a

Solution:
√
n( n b − 1)
!√a
 
√ !n √ a
n n n
a−1+ b  b − 1 b − 1 
lim = lim  1+ 
n→∞ a n→∞  a 

1
1 bn − 1
lim
a n→∞ n1
=e
ln b
=e a
1
= ba
32. Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 defined by:

if n ≤ k, k ∈ N∗

 1
an = (n + 1)k − nk
 n

if n > k
k−1

i)Evaluate lim an .
n→∞

n
X
ii)If bn = 1 + k · lim an , evaluate:
n→∞
k=1
n
b2n

lim
n→∞ bn−1 bn+1
Solution: i) We have
36 A Collection of Limits

(n + 1)k − nk
lim an = lim  
n→∞ n→∞ n
k−1
(k − 1)! · k · nk−1 + . . . + (k − 1)!
= lim
n→∞ (n − k + 2)(n − k + 3) · . . . · n

k! · nk−1 + . . .
=
nk−1 + . . .
= k!
ii) Then:
n
X n
X n
X
bn = 1 + k · k! = 1 + (k + 1)! − k! = (n + 1)!
k=1 k=1 k=1
so
n n
b2n
 
1
lim = lim 1− = e−1
n→∞ bn−1 bn+1 n→∞ n
xn+1 + xn
33. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that xn+2 = , (∀)n ∈
2
N∗ . If x1 ≤ x2 ,

i)Prove that the sequence (x2n+1 )n≥0 is increasing, while the sequence (x2n )n≥0
is decreasing;

ii)Prove that:

|x2 − x1 |
|xn+2 − xn+1 | = , (∀)n ∈ N∗
2n
iii)Prove that:

2xn+2 + xn+1 = 2x2 + x1 , (∀)n ∈ N∗

x1 + 2x2
iv)Prove that (xn )n≥1 is convergent and that it’s limit is .
3

Solution: i)Using induction we can show that x2n−1 ≤ x2n . Then the sequence
(x2n+1 )n≥0 will be increasing, because
x2n + x2n−1 x2n−1 + x2n−1
x2n+1 = ≥ = x2n−1
2 2
Similarly, we can show that (x2n )n≥1 is decreasing.

|x2 − x1 |
ii) For n = 1, we get |x3 − x2 | = , so assuming it’s true for some k, we
2
have:
Solutions 37

xk+2 + xk+1 |xk+2 − xk+1 | |x2 − x1 |

|xk+3 − xk+2 | = − xk+2 = =
2 2 2n+1
Thus, by induction the equality is proven.

iii) Observe that:

xn+1 + xn
2xn+2 + xn+1 = 2 · + xn+1 = 2xn+1 + xn
2
and repeating the process, the demanded identity is showed.

iv) From i) it follows that the sequences (x2n )n≥1 and (x2n−1 )n≥1 are convergent
and have the same limit. Let l = lim xn = l. Then from iii), we get
n→∞
x1 + 2x2
3l = x1 + 2x2 ⇒ l =
3
√ n √
34. Let an , bn ∈ Q such that (1 + 2) = an + bn 2, (∀)n ∈ N∗ . Evaluate
an
lim .
n→∞ bn

√ √ √ √
Solution: Because (1+ 2)n = an +bn 2, it follows that (1− 2)n = an −bn 2.
Solving this system we find:
1h √ √ i
an = (1 + 2)n + (1 − 2)n
2
and
1 h √ √ i
bn = √ (1 + 2)n − (1 − 2)n
2 2
an √
and therefore lim = 2.
n→∞ bn

35. If a > 0, evaluate:

(a + x)x − 1
lim
x→0 x
Solution:

(a + x)x − 1 ex ln(a+x) − 1
lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 x
ex ln(a+x) − 1
= lim · lim ln(a + x)
x→0 x ln(a + x) x→0

= ln a
3
36. Consider a sequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 such that a1 = and an+1 =
2
a2n − an + 1
. Prove that (an )n≥1 is convergent and find it’s limit.
an
38 A Collection of Limits

1
Solution: By AM − GM we have an+1 = an + − 1 ≥ 1, (∀)n ≥ 2, so the
an
1
sequence is lower bounded. Also an+1 − an = − 1 ≤ 0, hence the sequence
an
3
is decreasing. Therefore (an )n≥1 is bounded by 1 and a1 = . Then, because
2
l2 − l + 1
(an )n≥1 is convergent, denote lim an = l, to obtain l = ⇒l=1
n→∞ l

37. Consider sequence (xn )n≥1 of real numbers such that x0 ∈ (0, 1) and xn+1 =
xn −x2n +x3n −x4n , (∀)n ≥ 0. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate
lim xn .
n→∞

Solution: It’s easy to see that the recurrence formula can be written as: xn+1 =
xn (1 − xn )(1 + x2n ), n ∈ N, then because 1 − x0 > 0, it’s easy to show by
induction that xn ∈ (0, 1). Now rewrite the recurrence formula as xn+1 − xn =
−x2n (x2n − xn + 1) < 0. It follows that the sequence is strictly decreasing, thus
convergent. Let lim xn = l. Then
n→∞

l = l − l2 + l3 − l4 ⇒ l2 (l2 − l + 1) = 0 ⇒ l = 0
p
38. Let a > 0 and b ∈ (a, 2a) and a sequence x0 = b, xn+1 = a+ xn (2a − xn ), (∀)n ≥
0. Study the convergence of the sequence (xn )n≥0 .
√
Solution: Let’s see a few terms: x1 = a + 2ab − b2 and also

q p p p
x2 = a+ (a + 2ab − b2 )(a − 2ab − b2 ) = a+ a2 − 2ab + b2 = a+|a−b| = b
√
2
2k+1 = a + 2ab − b , (∀)k ∈
Thus the sequence is periodic, with x2k = b and xp
2
N. Then lim x2k = b and lim x2k+1 = a + 2ab − b . The sequence is
k→∞ n→∞
√
 
1
convergent if and only if b = a+ 2ab − b , which implies that b = 1 + √
2 a,
2
which is also the limit in this case.

39. Evaluate:
n+1
X 1
lim arctan
n→∞ 2k 2
k=1

1 k k−1
Solution: We can check easily that arctan = arctan − arctan .
2k 2 k+1 k
Then:
n+1
X 1 n π
lim arctan = lim arctan =
n→∞ 2k 2 n→∞ n+1 4
k=1
Solutions 39

40. Evaluate:
n
X k
lim
n→∞ 4k 4 + 1
k=1
Solution:
n n n
!
X k 1X 1 1X 1
lim 4
= lim 2
− 2
n→∞ 4k + 1 n→∞ 2 2k − 2k + 1 2 2k + 2k + 1
k=1 k=1 k=1
 
1 1
= lim 1 − 2
4 n→∞ 2n + 2n + 1
1
=
4
41. Evaluate:
n
X 1 + 3 + 32 + . . . + 3k
lim
n→∞ 5k+2
k=1
Solution: In the numerator we have a geometrical progression, so:
n n
X 1 + 3 + 32 + . . . + 3k X 3k+1 − 1
lim = lim
n→∞ 5k+2 n→∞ 2 · 5k+2
k=1 k=1
n  k 
1 X 3 1
= lim −
10 n→∞ 5k 5k
k=2
 
1 9 1
= −
10 10 20
17
=
200
42. Evaluate:
i
n X
!
X k−1
lim n+1−
n→∞
i=2 k=2
k!
Solution:

n X
i
! n X
i  !
X k−1 X 1 1
lim n+1− = lim n+1− −
n→∞
i=2 k=2
k! n→∞
i=2 k=2
(k − 1)! k!
n  !
X 1
= lim n+1− 1−
n→∞
i=2
i!
n
!n
X1
= lim 1+
n→∞
i=1
i!
=e
40 A Collection of Limits

43. Evaluate:

11 + 22 + 33 + . . . + nn
lim
n→∞ nn
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz theorem we have:

11 + 22 + 33 + . . . + nn (n + 1)n+1
lim n
= lim
n→∞ n n→∞ (n + 1)n+1 − nn

n+1
1 + n1
= lim
n→∞ 1 + 1 n+1 − 1


n n
e
=
e−0
=1
n
44. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 such that a0 = 2 and an−1 − an = .
(n + 1)!
Evaluate lim ((n + 1)! ln an ).
n→∞

Solution: Observe that

−k 1 1
ak − ak−1 = = − , (∀)1 ≤ k ≤ n
(k + 1)! (k + 1)! k!
1
Letting k = 1, 2, 3 · · · n and summing, we get an − a0 = − 1. Since
(n + 1)!
1 ln(1 + f (x))
a0 = 2 we get an = 1 + . Using the result lim = 1, we
(n + 1)! f (x)→0 f (x)
conclude that
 
1
ln 1 + (n+1)!
lim (n + 1)! ln an = lim 1 =1
n→∞ n→∞
(n+1)!

45. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 with x1 = a > 0 and xn+1 =
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . + nxn
, n ∈ N∗ . Evaluate it’s limit.
n

Solution: The sequence is strictly increasing because:

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . + nxn x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + . . . + (n − 1)xn−1

xn+1 −xn = −xn = >0
n n
Then

a + 2a + . . . + na (n + 1)a
xn+1 > =
n 2
It follows that lim xn = ∞.
n→∞
Solutions 41

n
X 1 π2
46. Using lim = , evaluate:
n→∞ k2 6
k=1
n
X 1
lim
n→∞ (2k − 1)2
k=1

Solution:
n 2n n
X 1 X 1 X 1
lim 2
= lim 2
− lim
n→∞ (2k − 1) n→∞ k n→∞ (2k)2
k=1 k=1 k=1
2n n
X 1 1 X 1
= lim 2
− lim
n→∞ k 4 n→∞ k2
k=1 k=1
π π
= −
6 24
π
=
8
47. Consider the sequence (xn )n≥1 defined by x1 = a, x2 = b, a < b and
xn−1 + λxn−2
xn = , n ≥ 3, λ > 0. Prove that this sequence is convergent and
1+λ
find it’s limit.

b + λa
Solution: The sequence isn’t monotonic because x3 = ∈ [a, b]. We can
1+λ
prove by induction that xn ∈ [a, b]. The sequences (x2n )n≥1 and (x2n−1 )n≥1 are
monotonically increasing. Also, we can show by induction, that:
 2k
λ
x2k − x2k−1 = (b − a)
1+λ
It follows that the sequences (x2n )n≥1 and (x2n−1 )n≥1 have the same limit, so
(xn )n≥1 is convergent. The recurrence formulas can be written as

xk − xk−1 = λ(xk−2 − xk ), (∀)k ≥ 3

Summing for k = 3, 4, 5, . . . , n, we have:

xn − b = λ(a + b − xn−1 − xn ) ⇔ (1 + λ)xn + λxn−1 = (1 + λ)b + λa

By passing to limit, it follows that:

b + λ(a + b)
lim xn =
n→∞ 1 + 2λ

48. Evaluate:
n
lim √
n
n→∞ n!
42 A Collection of Limits

Solution: Using the consequence of Cesaro-Stolz lemma, we have:

r
n nn
lim √
n
= lim n
n→∞ n! n→∞ n!
(n+1)n+1
(n+1)!
= lim nn
n→∞
n!
(n + 1)n+1
= lim
n→∞ nn · (n + 1)
 n
1
= lim 1 +
n→∞ n
=e
1
49. Consider the sequence (xn )n≥1 defined by x1 = 1 and xn = , n≥
1 + xn−1
2. Prove that this sequence is convergent and evaluate lim xn .
n→∞

Solution: We can show easily by induction that xn ∈ (0, 1) and that the
sequence (x2n )n≥1 is increasing, while the sequence (x2n−1 )n≥1 is decreasing.
Observe that:
1 1 1 + x2n
x2n+2 = = =
1 + x2n+1 1 2 + x2n
1+
1 + x2n
√
5−1
The sequence (x2n )n≥1 is convergent, so it has the limit . Similarly
√ 2
5−1
lim x2n−1 = . Therefore (xn )n≥1 is convergent and has the limit equal
n→∞ √ 2
5−1
to .
2
50. If a, b ∈ R∗ , evaluate:

ln(cos ax)
lim
x→0 ln(cos bx)

Solution:
1
ln(cos ax) (cos ax − 1) · ln(1 + cos ax − 1) cos ax − 1
lim = lim
x→0 ln(cos bx) x→0 1
(cos bx − 1) · ln(1 + cos bx − 1) cos bx −1
−2 sin2ax
2
= lim 2
x→0 −2 sin bx
2
2
a
=
b2
Solutions 43

{x} if x ∈ Q
51. Let f : R → R, f (x) = . Find all α ∈ R for which
x if x ∈ R\Q
lim f (x) exists.
x→α

 f = g − h, where g : R → R, g(x) = x, (∀)x ∈ R and h : R →

Solution: Let
bxc if x ∈ Q
R, h(x) = . If α ∈ R\[0, 1), we can find two sequences
0 if x ∈ R\Q
xn ∈ Q and yn ∈ R\Q going to α, such that the sequences (f (xn )) and (f (yn ))
have different limits. If α ∈ [0, 1), h(x) = 0 and f (x) = x, thus (∀)α ∈ [0, 1), we
have lim f (x) = α.
x→α


bxc if x ∈ Q
52. Let f : R → R, f (x) = . Find all α ∈ R for which
x if x ∈ R\Q
lim f (x) exists.
x→α

Solution: Divide the problem in two cases:

Case I: α = k ∈ Z. Consider a sequence (xn ), xn ∈ (k − 1, k) ∩ Q and

(yn ), yn ∈ (k − 1, k) ∩ (R\Q), both tending to k. Then:

lim f (xn ) = lim bxn c = lim (k − 1) = k − 1

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

and lim f (yn ) = lim yn = k. Therefore lim f (x) doesn’t exist.

n→∞ n→∞ x→α

Case II: α ∈ R\Z. Let bαc = k. Consider a sequence (xn ), xn ∈ (k, k + 1) ∩ Q

and (yn ), yn ∈ (k, k + 1) ∩ (R\Q), which tend both to α. Then:

lim f (xn ) = lim bxn c = lim k = k

n→α n→α n→α

and lim f (yn ) = lim yn = α. Again, in this case, lim f (x) doesn’t exist.
n→α n→α x→α

53. Let (xn )n≥1 be a sequence of positive real numbers such that x1 > 0 and
a
3xn = 2xn−1 + 2 , where a is a real positive number. Prove that xn is
xn−1
convergent and evaluate lim xn .
n→∞

Solution: By AM-GM
a
xn + xn + x2n
r
a √ √
xn+1 = ≥ 3 xn · xn · 2
= 3 a ⇒ xn ≥ 3 a
3 xn
Also

a a − x3n
3(xn+1 − xn ) = 2
− xn = ≤ 0 ⇒ xn+1 − xn ≤ 0, ∀ n ∈ N , n ≥ 2
xn x3n
44 A Collection of Limits

Therefore, the sequence (xn )n≥1 is decreasing and lower bounded, so it’s conver-
√
gent. By passing to limit in the recurrence formula we obtain lim xn = 3 a.
n→∞

54.Consider asequence of real numbers (an )n≥1 such that a1 = 12 and an+1 =
3
an 1 + . Evaluate:
n+1

n
X 1
lim
n→∞ ak
k=1

Solution: Rewrite the recurrence formula as

n+4
an+1 = an ·
n+1

Writing it for n = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 and multiplying the obtained equalities, we

find that:

(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
an = , (∀)n ∈ N∗
2

Then:

n n
X 1 X 2
lim = lim
n→∞ ak n→∞ (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
k=1 k=1
n  
X 1 2 1
= lim − +
n→∞ k+1 k+2 k+3
k=1
 
1 1 1
= lim − +
n→∞ 6 n+2 n+3
1
=
6

55. Evaluate:

 n
n
lim √
n→∞ n2 + 1

Solution:
Solutions 45

√

n n − n2 + 1
√ √
n2 + 1
 
n2 + 1
n √ ! √
2 2

n  n − n + 1 n − n + 1
lim √ = lim  1+ √


n→∞ n2 + 1 n→∞  n2 + 1 

√

n n − n2 + 1
lim √
= en→∞ n2 + 1
−n
lim √ √

=e
n→∞ n2 +1· n2 + 1 + n
−n
lim √
=e n→∞ n2 + 1 + n n2 + 1
−1
lim
n→∞ 1 p 2
n+ + n +1
=e n
= e0
=1

56. If a ∈ R, evaluate:
n  2 
X k a
lim
n→∞ n3
k=1

Solution: We have x − 1 < bxc ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ R. Choosing x = k 2 a, letting k to

take values from 1 to n and summing we have:

n
X n
X n
X
(k 2 a − 1) k2 a k2 a
 
n
X n
X n
 X k=1 k=1 k=1
(k 2 a − 1) < k2 a ≤ k2 a ⇔

< ≤
n3 n3 n3
k=1 k=1 k=1

Now observe that:

n
X
(k 2 a − 1) n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
a· −n a
lim k=1
= lim 6 =
n→∞ n3 n→∞ n 3 3
and
n
X
k2 a
k=1 an(n + 1)(2n + 1) a
lim = lim =
n→∞ n3 n→∞ 6n 3 3
46 A Collection of Limits

So using the Squeeze Theorem it follows that:

n  2 
X k a a
lim =
n→∞ n3 3
k=1

57. Evaluate:
n
!n
X 1 1
lim 2n −
n→∞ k(k + 2) 4
k=1

Solution:

n
!n n n
!n
n
X 1 1 1X1 1X 1
n 1
lim 2 − = lim 2 − −
n→∞ k(k + 2) 4 n→∞ 2 k 2 k+2 4
k=1 k=1 k=1
   n
3 1 1 1 1
= lim 2n − + −
n→∞ 4 2 n+1 n+2 4
 n
2n + 3
= lim 1 −
n→∞ (n + 1)(n + 2)
  −n(2n + 3)
  −(n + 1)(n + 2) (n + 1)(n + 2)
 2n + 3 2n + 3 
 1−
= lim  
n→∞ (n + 1)(n + 2) 

−2n2 − 3n
lim
= en→∞ n2 + 3n + 2
= e−2

58. Consider the sequence (an )n≥1 , such that an > 0, (∀)n ∈ N and lim n(an+1 −
√ n→∞
an ) = 1. Evaluate lim an and lim n an .
n→∞ n→∞

Solution: Start with the ε criterion

lim n(an+1 −an ) = 1 ⇔ (∀)ε > 0, (∃)nε ∈ N, (∀)n ≥ nε ⇒ |n(an+1 − an ) − 1| < ε

n→∞

Let ε ∈ (0, 1). Then for n ≥ nε , we have:

1−ε 1+ε
−ε < n(an+1 − an ) − 1 < ε ⇒ < an+1 − an <
n n
Summing for n = nε , nε + 1, . . . , n, we get:

   
1 1 1 1 1 1
(1−ε) + + ... + < an+1 −anε < (1−ε) + + ... +
nε nε + 1 n nε nε + 1 n
Solutions 47

√
By passing to limit, it follows that lim an = ∞. To evaluate lim n
an , recall
n→∞ n→∞
that in the above conditions we have:

1−ε 1+ε 1−ε an+1 1+ε

< an+1 − an < ⇒ < −1<
n n nan an nan

an+1 √
Thus lim = 1, and the root test implies that lim n an = 1
n→∞ an n→∞

59. Evaluate:

√ √ √
1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + ... + n n
lim √
n→∞ n2 n

Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz lemma, we have:

√ √ √ √
1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + ... + n n (n + 1) n + 1
lim √ = lim √ √
n→∞ n2 n n→∞ (n + 1)2 n + 1 − n2 n
p
(n + 1)3
= lim p √
n→∞ (n + 1)5 − n5
p p √ 
(n + 1)3 (n + 1)5 + n5
= lim
n→∞ (n + 1)5 − n5
√
n4 + 4n3 + 6n2 + 4n + 1 + n8 + 3n7 + 3n6 + n5
= lim
n→∞ 5n4 + 10n3 + 10n2 + 5n + 1
q
1 + n4 + n62 + n43 + n14 + 1 + n3 + n32 + n13
= lim
n→∞ 5 + 10
n
+ n102 + n53 + n14
2
=
5

60. Evaluate:

1
limπ (sin x) 2x−π
x→ 2

Solution:
48 A Collection of Limits

sin x − 1
1
 1 
2x − π
lim (sin x) 2x−π = limπ (1 + sin x − 1) sin x − 1 
x→ π
2 x→ 2

sin x − 1
lim
=e x→ π
2 2x − π
cos y − 1
lim
=e y→0 2y
− sin2 y2
lim
= ey→0 y
2 
sin y2

y
lim y · −
=e
y→0
2 4

= e0
=1

61. Evaluate:
 
1
lim n2 ln cos
n→∞ n

ln(1 + xn )
Solution: We’ll use the well-known limit lim = 1. We have:
xn →0 xn
ln 1 + n1 − 1
    

2 1 2 1
lim n ln cos = lim n cos − 1 · lim
n→∞ n n→∞ n n→∞ cos n1 − 1
1
= lim −2n2 · sin2
n→∞ 2n
 1 2
1 sin 2n
= lim − · 1
n→∞ 2 2n
1
=−
2
62. Given a, b ∈ R∗+ , evaluate:

√ √
n
!n
n
a+ b
lim
n→∞ 2

1
√
Solution: Using the limits lim (1 + xn ) xn = e and lim n( n a − 1) = ln a,
xn →∞ n→∞
we have:
Solutions 49

√ √
n
!n √ √
n
!n
n
a+ b n
a−1+ b−1
lim = lim 1+
n→∞ 2 n→∞ 2
√ √
n( n a−1)+n( n b−1)
2 √ 2
 
√ √ !√ n
n n a−1+ b−1 
 n
a−1+ b−1
= lim  1+ 
n→∞  2 

√ √
n( n a−1)+n( n b−1)
lim 2
= en→∞
ln a+ln b
=e 2
√
= eln ab
√
= ab
   
1 0 0 1
63. Let α > β > 0 and the matrices A = , B= .
0 1 1 0

i)Prove that (∃)(xn )n≥1 , (yn )n≥1 ∈ R such that:

 n
α β
= xn A + yn B, (∀)n ≥ 1
β α
xn
ii)Evaluate lim .
n→∞ yn

Solution: i) We proceed by induction. For n = 1, we have

 
α β
= αA + βB
β α
Hence x1 = α and y1 = β. Let
 k
α β
= xk A + yk B
β α
Then
 k+1
α β
= (αA + βB)(xk A + yk B)
β α
Using B 2 = A, we have:
 k+1
α β
= (αxk + βyk )A + (βxk + αyk )B
β α
50 A Collection of Limits

Thus xk+1 = αxk + βyk and yk+1 = βxk + αyk .

∗
ii) An easy induction
 shows  that xn , yn > 0, (∀)n ∈ N . Let X ∈ M2 (R)
xn yn
such that X n = . Because det(X n ) = (det X)n , it follows that
yn xn
(α2 − β 2 )n = x2n − yn2 , and because α > β, we have xn > yn , (∀)n ∈ N∗ . Let
xn
zn = . Then:
yn
xn+1 αxn + βyn αzn + β
zn+1 = = =
yn+1 βxn + αyn βzn + α
α
It’s easy to see that the sequence is bounded by 1 and . Also the sequence is
β
strictly decreasing, because

αzn + β β(1 − zn2 )

zn+1 − zn = − zn = <0
βzn + α βzn + α
Therefore the sequence is convergent. Let lim zn = l, then
n→∞

αl + β
l= ⇒ l2 = 1
βl + α
 
α xn
l can’t be −1, because zn ∈ 1, , hence lim = 1.
β n→∞ yn

64. If a ∈ R such that |a| < 1 and p ∈ N∗ is given, evaluate:

lim np · an
n→∞

Solution: If a = 0, we get np · an = 0, (∀)n ∈ N. If a 6= 0, since |a| < 1, there

1
is a α > 0 such that |a| = . Let now n > p, then from binomial expansion
1+α
we get:

1 (p + 1)!
(1 + α)n > Cnp+1 · αp+1 ⇔ n
<
(1 + α) n(n − 1)(n − 2) · . . . · (n − p) · αp+1

Then:

0 < |np · an |
= np · |a|n
np · (p + 1)!
<
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · . . . · (n − p) · αp+1
np−1 · (p + 1)!
=
(n − 1)(n − 2) · . . . · (n − p) · αp+1
Keeping in mind that
Solutions 51

np−1 · (p + 1)!
lim =0
n→∞ (n − 1)(n − 2) · . . . · (n − p) · αp+1

and using the Squeeze Theorem, it follows that

lim np · an = 0
n→∞

65. If p ∈ N∗ , evaluate:
1 p + 2 p + 3 p + . . . + np
lim
n→∞ np+1
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz lemma we have:

1 p + 2 p + 3 p + . . . + np (n + 1)p
lim p+1
= lim
n→∞ n n→∞ (n + 1)p+1 − np+1
 
p
np + np−1 + . . .
1
= lim    
n→∞ p+1 p p+1
n + np−1 + . . .
1 2
1
= 
p+1
1
1
=
p+1
66. If n ∈ N∗ , evaluate:

sin(n arccos x)
lim √
x→1 1 − x2
x<1

First solution: Recall the identity:

     
n n n n
cos nt + i sin nt = n
cos t + i cos n−1
t · sin t + . . . + i sinn t
0 1 n
For t = arccos x, we have:

     
n n−1 p n n−3 p n n−5 p
sin(n arccos x) = x · 1 − x2 − x ( 1 − x2 ) 3 + x ( 1 − x2 )5 −. . .
1 3 5
Then:

      
sin(n arccos x) n n−1 n n−3 n n−5
lim √ = lim x − x (1 − x2 ) + x (1 − x2 )2 − . . . = n
x→1 1 − x2 x→1 1 3 5
x<1 x<1
52 A Collection of Limits

Second solution:

sin(n arccos x) sin(n arccos x) n arccos x

lim √ = lim · lim √
x→1 1−x 2 x → 1 n arccos x x → 1 1 − x2
x<1 x<1 x<1
n arccos x
= lim √
x→1 1 − x2
x<1
ny
= lim √
y→0 1 − cosy
y>0
ny
= lim
y → 0 sin y
y>0
=n
67. If n ∈ N∗ , evaluate:

1 − cos(n arccos x)
lim
x→1 1 − x2
x<1

Solution:

 n arccos x 
1 − cos(n arccos x) 2 sin2
lim = lim 2
x→1 1 − x2 x→1 1 − x2
x<1 x<1
 n arccos x 
2 sin2 n2 arccos2 x
2
= lim  n arccos x 2 · lim
x→1 x → 1 4(1 − x2 )
x<1 x<1
2
n2 arccos2 x
= lim
x → 1 4(1 − x2 )
x<1
n2 y 2
= lim 2
y → 0 2 sin y
y>0

n2
=
2

68. Study the convergence of the sequence:

xn + a
xn+1 = , n ≥ 1, x1 ≥ 0, a > 0
xn + 1
yn+1
Solution: Consider a sequence (yn )n≥1 such that xn = − 1. Thus, our
yn
recurrence √ to : yn+2 − 2yn+1
√ formula reduces + (1 − a)yn = 0, whence yn =
α · (1 + a)n + β · (1 − a)n . Finally:
Solutions 53

√ √
α · (1 + a)n+1 + β · (1 − a)n+1
lim xn = lim √ √ −1
n→∞ n→∞ α · (1 + a)n + β · (1 − a)n
√  √  n √
α · (1 + a) + β · 1− √a
1+ a
· (1 − a)
= lim  √ n −1
n→∞
α + β · 1− √a
1+ a
√
α · (1 + a)
= −1
√ α
= a
69. Consider two sequences of real numbers (xn )n≥0 and (yn )n≥0 such that
x0 = y0 = 3, xn = 2xn−1 + yn−1 and yn = 2xn−1 + 3yn−1 , (∀)n ≥ 1. Evaluate
xn
lim .
n→∞ yn

First solution: Summing the hypothesis equalities, we have

xn + yn = 4(xn−1 + yn−1 ), n ≥ 1
Then xn + yn = 4 x0 + y0 ) = 6 · 4n . Substracting the hypothesis equalities, we
(

get

yn − xn = 2yn−1 , n ≥ 1
Summing with the previous equality we have 2yn = 2yn−1 +6·4n ⇒ yn −yn−1 =
3 · 4n . Then

y1 − y0 = 3 · 4

y2 − y1 = 3 · 42

y3 − y2 = 3 · 43

...

yn − yn−1 = 3 · 4n
Summing, it follows that:

4n+1 − 1
yn = y0 + 3(4 + 42 + . . . + 4n ) = 3(1 + 4 + 42 + . . . + 4n ) = 3 · = 4n+1 − 1
4−1
Then xn = 2 · 4n + 1, and therefore:
xn 2 · 4n + 1 1
lim = lim =
n→∞ yn n→∞ 4 · 4n − 1 2
54 A Collection of Limits

xn 2an−1 + 1
Second solution: Define an = so that an = . Now let an =
yn 2an−1 + 3
bn+1 3
− to obtain 2bn+1 − 5bn + bn−1 = 0. Then bn = α · 2n + β · 2−n for some
bn 2
α, β ∈ R. We finally come to:

α · 2n+1 + β · 2−n−1
 
3 3 1
lim an = lim − =2− =
n→∞ n→∞ α · 2n + β · 2−n 2 2 2
70. Evaluate:

tan x − x
lim
x→0 x2
 π
Solution: If x ∈ 0, , we have:
2
tan x − x tan x − sin x tan x(1 − cos x) 2 tan x · sin2 x2
0< < = =
x2 x2 x2 x2
2 tan x · sin2 x2 sin x2 2
 
tan x
and because lim = lim · lim x = 0, using the
x→0 x2 x→0 2 x→0
2
Squeeze Theorem it follows that:

tan x − x
lim =0
x→0 x2
x>0

Also

tan x − x − tan y + y tan y − y

lim 2
= lim 2
= − lim =0
x→0 x y→0 y y→0 y2
x<0 y>0 y>0

71. Evaluate:

tan x − arctan x
lim
x→0 x2
Solution: Using the result from the previous problem, we have:

tan x − arctan x tan x − x x − arctan x

lim = lim + lim
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 x→0 x2
x − arctan x
= lim
x→0 x2
tan y − y
= lim
y→0 tan2 y

tan y − y y2
= lim · lim
y→0 y 2 y→0 tan2 y

=0
Solutions 55

72. Let a > 0 and a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥0 such that xn ∈ (0, a) and
a2
xn+1 (a − xn ) > , (∀)n ∈ N. Prove that (xn )n≥1 is convergent and evaluate
4
lim xn .
n→∞

xn+1  xn  1
Solution: Rewrite the condition as 1− > . With the substitution
a a 4
xn 1
yn = , we have yn+1 (1 − yn ) > , with yn ∈ (0, 1). Then:
a 4

2 2
4yn+1 −4yn yn+1 −1 > 0 ⇔ 4yn yn+1 −4yn+1 +4yn+1 −4yn+1 +1 < 0 ⇔ 4yn (yn+1 −yn ) > (2yn+1 −1)2

So yn+1 − yn > 0, whence the sequence is strictly increasing. Let lim yn = l.

n→∞
 2
1 1 1 a
Then l(1 − l) ≥ ⇔ l − ≤ 0. Hence l = ⇒ lim xn = .
4 2 2 n→∞ 2

73. Evaluate:

√

2n
lim cos nπ e
n→∞

af (x) − 1
Solution: Using lim = ln a, with a ∈ R, we have:
f (x)→0 f (x)
√
√
lim cos nπ 2n e = lim |(−1)n · cos nπ 2n e − nπ |


n→∞ n→∞
1
!
π e 2n − 1
= lim cos · 1
n→∞ 2 2n
1
!
π e 2n − 1
= cos · lim 1
2 n→∞ 2n
π
= cos
2
=0
√

2n
It follows that lim cos nπ e = 0.
n→∞

74. Evaluate:

 tan (n−1)π
n+1 2n
lim
n→∞ n

Solution:
56 A Collection of Limits

 tan (n−1)π  n  n1 tan (n−1)π

2n
n+1 2n 1
lim = lim 1+
n→∞ n n→∞ n
tan (n−1)π
2n
lim
= en→∞ n
π π


tan 2− 2n
lim
= en→∞ n
π
cot 2n
lim
= en→∞ n
1
lim π
=e
n→∞ n tan 2n
π
2
· 2n π
lim
n→∞ π tan
=e 2n

2
= eπ

75. Evaluate:
v
u n  
uY n
lim t
n
n→∞ k
k=1

Solution: Using AM-GM, we have:

√
n
√
n 1 + 2 + ... + n n+1
n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · ... · n < =
n 2
(n + 1)n (n + 1)n
Therefore > 2n ⇒ lim = ∞. So:
n! n→∞ n!
n+1
Y n + 1 
v
u n   k
uY n (n + 1)n
lim tn
= lim k=1n   = lim =∞
n→∞ k n→∞ Y n n→∞ n!
k=1
k
k=1

76. If a > 0, evaluate:

√ √ √
a+ a+ 3
a + ... + n
a−n
lim
n→∞ ln n
Solution:
Solutions 57

√ √ √ √
a+ a+ 3
a + ... + n
a−n a−1
n+1

lim = lim
n→∞ ln n ln(n + 1) − ln n
n→∞
√
n · ( n+1 a − 1)
= lim
n
n→∞ ln 1 + 1
n
" 1 #
a n+1 − 1 n
= lim 1 ·
n→∞
n+1
n+1
= ln a
77. Evaluate:
π π
lim n ln tan +
n→∞ 4 n
Solution:

π π  π π n
lim n ln tan + = lim ln tan +
n→∞ 4 n n→∞ 4 n  π π 
 1 n tan + − 1
4 n
 tan π + π − 1 
 
 π π
= ln lim  1 + tan

+ −1 4 n 
4 n

n→∞  

 π
π 
lim tan −1
+
= ln en→∞ 4 n
 π π 
= lim n tan + −1
n→∞ 4 n
 π 
1 + tan
n
= lim n  π −1

n→∞
1 − tan
n
π
2n tan
= lim n
n→∞ π
1 − tan
n
π
= 2 lim n tan
n→∞ n
π
tan
= 2π lim n
n→∞ π
n
= 2π
78. Let k ∈ N and a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ∈ R such that a0 + a1 + a2 + . . . + ak = 0.
Evaluate:
 √ √ √
3

lim a0 3 n + a1 3 n + 1 + . . . + ak n + k
n→∞
58 A Collection of Limits

Solution:

k
!
 √
3
√
3
√
3
 √
3
X √
3
lim a0 n + a1 n + 1 + . . . + ak n + k = lim a0 n + ai n + i
n→∞ n→∞
i=1
k k
!
√ X X √
3
= lim − n· 3
ai + ai n + i
n→∞
i=1 i=1
k √
X 3
√ 
= lim ai n+i− 3
n
n→∞
i=1
k
X iai
= lim p p √
3
n→∞
i=1
3
(n + i)2 + n(n + i) + n2
3

=0

79. Evaluate:
 p 
3
lim sin nπ n3 + 3n2 + 4n − 5
n→∞

Solution:

 p   p 
3 3
lim sin nπ n3 + 3n2 + 4n − 5 = lim sin nπ n3 + 3n2 + 4n − 5 − n(n + 1)π
n→∞ n→∞
 p 
3
= lim sin nπ n3 + 3n2 + 4n − 5 − n − 1
n→∞
!
n(n − 6)π
= lim sin p √
n→∞ 3
(n − 5) + (n + 1) 3 n3 − 5 + (n + 1)2
3 2
 
6
1− n
= sin π lim q
 
n→∞ 5

2
q 1 2

+ 1 + n1 3 1 − 5
3


1− n3 n3 + 1+ n
π
= sin
√ 3
3
=
2

80. Evaluate:

2 arcsin x − π
lim
x→1 sin πx
x<1

Solution:
Solutions 59

arcsin x − π2 sin arcsin x − π2

2 arcsin x − π
lim = 2 lim π
· lim
x→1 sin πx x → 1 sin arcsin x − x→1 sin πx
x<1 x<1 2 x<1
p
− 1 − y2
= 2 lim
x→1 sin πx
x<1
p
y(2 − y)
= −2 lim
y→0 sin π(1 − y)
y>0
p
2(1 − y)
= −2 lim
y→0 sin πy
y>0
√
πy 2−y
= −2 lim · lim √
y → 0 sin πy y → 0 π y
y>0 y>0
= −∞

81. Evaluate:

n
X 1
lim
n→∞ k ln k
k=2

Solution: Using Lagrange formula we can deduce that

1
> ln(ln(k + 1)) − ln(ln k)
k ln k
Summing from k = 2 to n it follows that

n
X 1
> ln(ln(n + 1)) − ln(ln 2))
k ln k
k=2

Then it is obvious that:

n
X 1
lim =∞
n→∞ k ln k
k=2

82. Evaluate:
 ! 1 
n
X n3 x2

lim  lim 1+ sin2 (kx) 

n→∞ x→0
k=1

Solution:
60 A Collection of Limits

n
X
sin2 (kx)
 1  k=1
n3 x2
 n
X 
! 31 2  2
sin (kx)
  ! 
Xn n x  Xn 
2 2
lim  lim 1+ sin (kx)  = lim  lim 1 + sin (kx) k=1
 

n→∞ x→0 n→∞ x→0 
k=1  k=1 
 

 n
X

2
 sin (kx) 
 1 k=1

 lim
 n3 x→0

= lim e x2 

n→∞  
 
 

12 + 22 + . . . + n2
lim
= en→∞ n3
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
lim
= en→∞ 6n2
√
3
= e

83. If p ∈ N∗ , evaluate:
n
X (k + 1)(k + 2) · . . . · (k + p)
lim
n→∞ np+1
k=0

Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz, we have:

(k + p)!
n n
X (k + 1)(k + 2) · . . . · (k + p) X
k!
lim =
n→∞ np+1 np+1
k=0 k=0
(n + p + 1)!
(n + 1)!
= lim
n→∞ (n + 1)p+1 − np+1

(n + 2)(n + 3) · . . . · (n + p + 1)
= lim p+1
+ p+1


p p+1
1 n + ... + 1 − n
n→∞ n
p
n + ...
= lim
n→∞ (p + 1)np + . . .
1
=
p+1
Solutions 61
 π
84. If αn ∈ 0, is a root of the equation tan α + cot α = n, n ≥ 2, evaluate:
4
lim (sin αn + cos αn )n
n→∞

Solution:
n
lim (sin αn + cos αn )n = lim (sin αn + cos αn )2 2

n→∞ n→∞
n
= lim (1 + 2 cos αn · sin αn ) 2
n→∞
 n
2
 2 
= lim  1+ 
n→∞  sin2 αn + cos2 αn 
cos αn · sin αn
 n
2 2
= lim 1 +
n→∞ tan αn + cot αn
 n
2 2
= lim 1 +
n→∞ n
=e
85. Evaluate:
s 
n+k
n
X 2
lim
n→∞ n2
k=1

First solution: Cesaro-Stolz gives:

s  s  s  s 
n+k 2n + 1 2n + 2 n+1
n + −
X 2 2 2 2
lim = lim
n→∞ n2 n→∞ 2n + 1
k=1
p p p
1 2n(2n + 1) + (2n + 1)(2n + 2) − n(n + 1)
= √ lim
2 n→∞ 2n + 1
r r r
2 6 2 1
4+ + 4+ + 2 − 1+
1 n n n n
= √ lim
2 n→∞ 1
2+
n
3
= √
2 2

Second solution: Observe that:

62 A Collection of Limits

n2
    
n+k (n + k − 1)(n + k) k k−1
= = 1+ 1+
2 2 2 n n
for which we have
2 2
n2 n2 n2
    
k−1 k k−1 k
1+ ≤ 1+ 1+ ≤ 1+
2 n 2 n n 2 n
therefore

  s   
n k−1 n+k n k
√ 1+ ≤ ≤√ 1+
2 n 2 2 n

Summing from k = 1 to n, we get:

s 
n+k
n n 
2
  
1 X k−1 X 1 X k
√ 1+ ≤ lim ≤ √ 1+
n 2 k=1 n n→∞ n2 n 2 k=1 n
k=1

We can apply the Squeeze theorem because

   
1 X k−1 1 n−1 3n − 1 3
lim √ 1+ = lim √ n+ = lim √ = √
n→∞ n 2 n n→∞ n 2 2 n→∞ 2n 2 2 2
k=1

and

n    
1 X k 1 n+1 3n + 1 3
lim √ 1+ = lim √ n+ = lim √ = √
n→∞ n 2 n n→∞ n 2 2 n→∞ 2n 2 2 2
k=1

Thus
s 
n+k
n
X 2 3
lim = √
n→∞ n2 2 2
k=1

86. Evaluate:
v
u n  
uY k
lim t
n
1+
n→∞ n
k=1

Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz we’ll evaluate:

Solutions 63

n  
X k
v ln 1 +
u n 
uY k

k=1
n
lim ln n
t 1+ = lim
n→∞ n n→∞ n
k=1
n+1   n  
X k X k
= lim ln 1 + − ln 1 +
n→∞ n+1 n
k=1 k=1
n k
X 1 + n+1
= lim ln + ln 2
n→∞
k=1 1 + nk
  n 
4n + 2 n
= lim ln ·
n→∞ n+1 n+1
= ln 4 − 1
It follows that:
v
u n  
uY k
lim n
t 1+ = 4e−1
n→∞ n
k=1

87. Evaluate:
arctan x − arcsin x
lim
x→0 x3
Solution:

arctan x − arcsin x arctan x − arcsin x tan(arctan x − arcsin x)

lim = lim · lim
x→0 x3 x→0 tan(arctan x − arcsin x) x→0 x3
tan(arctan x − arcsin x)
= lim
x→0 x3
x
x− √
1 1 − x2
= lim 3 · x
x→0 x
1+ √
1 − x2
√
1 1 − x2 − 1
= lim 2 · √
x→0 x 1 − x2 + x2
−1
= lim √ √
x→0 ( 1 − x2 + x2 )( 1 − x2 + 1)

1
=−
2
88. If α > 0, evaluate:

(n + 1)α − nα
lim
n→∞ nα−1
64 A Collection of Limits

Solution: Let

α α
nα 1 + n1 − 1
 
(n + 1)α − nα
 
1
xn = = = n 1 + − 1
nα−1 nα−1 n
xn
Then lim = 0. Observe that:
n→∞ n

 α
 n xn  n α
xn 1  x 
n x  1
1+ = 1+ ⇔  1+ n = 1+
n n n n

lim xn
By passing to limit, we have en→∞ = eα . Hence lim xn = α.
n→∞

89. Evaluate:
n
X k2
lim
n→∞ 2k
k=1

Solution:

n n 
k2

X X k(k + 1) k
lim = lim −
n→∞ 2k n→∞ 2k 2k
k=1 k=1
" n  n
#
k2 (k + 1)2
 X
X 3k + 1 k
= lim − + −
n→∞ 2k−1 2k 2k 2k
k=1 k=1
" n
#
(n + 1)2
 X
2k + 1
= lim 1− +
n→∞ 2n 2k
k=1
" n n
#
(n + 1)2
 X k X 1
= lim 1− +2 +
n→∞ 2n 2k 2k
k=1 k=1
" n  n
#
(n + 1)2
  X
X k k+1 1 1
= lim 1− +2 − k + k +
n→∞ 2n 2k−1 2 2 2k
k=1 k=1
" n
#
(n + 1)2
  
n+1 X 1
= lim 1− n
+ 2 1 − n
+ 3
n→∞ 2 2 2k
k=1
n2 + 4n + 3
  
1
= lim 3 − + 3 1 −
n→∞ 2n 2n
n2 + 4n + 6
 
= lim 6 −
n→∞ 2n
n2 + 4n + 6
= 6 − lim
n→∞ 2n
Because:
Solutions 65

(n + 1)2 + 4(n + 1) + 6
2n+1 n2 + 6n + 11 1
lim 2 = lim =
n→∞ n + 4n + 6 n→∞ 2n2 + 8n + 12 2
2n

n2 + 4n + 6
it follows that lim = 0, therefore our limit is 6.
n→∞ 2n
90. Evaluate:
n
X (k + 1)(k + 2)
lim
n→∞ 2k
k=0

Solution: Using the previous limit, we have:

n n n n
!
X (k + 1)(k + 2) X k2 X k X 1
lim = lim +3· +
n→∞ 2k n→∞ 2k 2k 2k−1
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
1 − 21n
   
n+2
= 6 + 3 lim 2 − n + lim 2 + 1
n→∞ 2 n→∞
2
= 16

91. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that x1 ∈ (0, 1) and
xn+1 = x2n − xn + 1, (∀)n ∈ N. Evaluate:

lim (x1 x2 · . . . · xn )
n→∞

Solution: Substracting xn from both sides of the recurrence formula gives

xn+1 − xn = x2n − 2xn + 1 = (xn − 1)2 ≥ 0 so (xn )n≥1 is an increasing sequence.

x1 ∈ (0, 1) is given as hypothesis. Now if there exists k ∈ N such that xk ∈ (0, 1),
then (xk − 1) ∈ (−1, 0), so xk (xk − 1) ∈ (−1, 0). Then xk+1 = 1 + xk (xk − 1) ∈
(0, 1) as well, so by induction we see that the sequence in contained in (0, 1).

(xn )n≥1 is increasing and bounded from above, so it converges. If lim xn = 1

n→∞
then from the recurrence, l = l2 − l + 1 which gives l = 1. Thus, lim xn = 1.
n→∞

Now rewrite the recurrence formula as 1−xn+1 = xn (1−xn ). For n = 1, 2, . . . , n,

we have:

1 − x2 = x1 (1 − x1 )

1 − x3 = x2 (1 − x2 )

...
66 A Collection of Limits

1 − xn = xn−1 (1 − xn−1 )

1 − xn+1 = xn (1 − xn )
Multiplying them we have:

1 − xn+1 = x1 x2 · . . . · xn (1 − x1 )
Thus:

1 − xn+1
lim (x1 x2 · . . . · xn ) = lim =0
n→∞ n→∞ 1 − x1

92. If n ∈ N∗ , evaluate:

1 − cos x · cos 2x · . . . · cos nx

lim
x→0 x2
Solution: Let

1 − cos x · cos 2x · . . . · cos nx

an = lim
x→0 x2
Then

1 − cos x · cos 2x · . . . · cos nx · cos(n + 1)x

an+1 = lim
x→0 x2
1 − cos x · cos 2x · . . . · cos nx cos x · cos 2x · . . . · ·nx(1 − cos(n + 1)x)
= lim + lim
x→0 x2 x→0 x2
1 − cos(n + 1)x
= an + lim
x→0 x2
2 (n+1)x
2 sin 2
= an + lim
x→0 x2
!2
(n + 1)2 sin (n+1)x 2
= an + lim n+1
2 x→0
2
(n + 1)2
= an +
2
Now let n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1:

a0 = 0

1
a1 = a0 +
2
Solutions 67

22
a2 = a1 +
2

32
a3 = a2 +
2

...

n2
an = an−1 +
2
Summing gives:

1 1 n2 1 1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
an = + 2 + ... + = (12 + 22 + . . . + n2 ) = ·
2 2 2 2 2 6
Finally, the answer is

1 − cos x · cos 2x · . . . · cos nx n(n + 1)(2n + 1)

lim 2
=
x→0 x 12
93. Consider a sequence of real numbers (xn )n≥1 such that xn is the real root
of the equation x3 + nx − n = 0, n ∈ N∗ . Prove that this sequence is convergent
and find it’s limit.

Solution: Let f (x) = x3 + nx − n. Then f 0 (x) = 3x2 + n > 0, so f has only

one real root which is contained in the interval (0, 1)(because f (0) = −n and
f (1) = 1, so xn ∈ (0, 1)).

The sequence (xn )n≥1 is strictly increasing, because

1 − xn
xn+1 − xn = >0
x2n+1 + xn+1 xn + x2n + n

x3
Therefore the sequence is convergent. From the equation, we have xn = 1 − n .
n
By passing to limit, we find that lim xn = 1.
n→∞

94. Evaluate:

arctan x − arctan 2
lim
x→2 tan x − tan 2
tan a − tan b
Solution: Using tan(a − b) = , we have:
1 + tan a · tan b
68 A Collection of Limits

arctan x − arctan 2 arctan x − arctan 2 tan(arctan x − arctan 2)

lim = lim · lim
x→2 tan x − tan 2 x→2 tan(arctan x − arctan 2) x→2 tan x − tan 2
x−2
1+2x
= lim sin(x−2)
x→2
cos x·cos 2
x−2 cos x · cos 2
= lim · lim
sin(x − 2) x→2 1 + 2x
x→2
cos x · cos 2
= lim
x→2 1 + 2x
cos2 2
=
5
95. Evaluate:
√
22 32
√ √
n2
1+ 2! + 3! + . . . + n!
lim
n→∞ n
Solution: Using Cesaro-Stolz:
√
22
√
32
√
n2
1+ 2! + 3! + . . . + n! (n+1)2
p
lim = lim (n + 1)!
n→∞ n n→∞

Also, an application of AM-GM gives:

(n+1)2
p
1≤ (n + 1)!
q p
n+1 n+1
= 1 · 2 · 3 · . . . · n · (n + 1)
r
n+1 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n + n + 1
<
n+1
r
n+1 n+2
=
2
Thus
r
(n+1)2
p n+1 n+2
1 ≤ lim (n + 1)! ≤ lim =1
n→∞ n→∞ 2
From the Squeeze Theorem it follows that:
√
22 32
√ √
n2
1+ 2! + 3! + . . . + n!
lim =1
n→∞ n
x2
96. Let (xn )n≥1 such that x1 > 0, x1 + x21 < 1 and xn+1 = xn + n2 , (∀)n ≥ 1.
n
1 1
Prove that the sequences (xn )n≥1 and (yn )n≥2 , yn = − are convergent.
xn n − 1
Solutions 69

x2n
Solution: xn+1 − xn = , so the (xn )n≥1 is strictly increasing.
n2
1 1
x2 = x1 + x21 < 1 ⇒ > 1 ⇒ y2 = −1>0
x2 x2
Also
1 1 1 1
yn+1 − yn = − − +
xn+1 n xn n−1
1 xn+1 − xn
= −
n(n − 1) xn xn+1
1 xn
= −
n(n − 1) n2 xn+1
1 1
> − 2
n(n − 1) n
1
= 2
n (n − 1)
>0
1
Hence (yn )n≥2 is strictly increasing. Observe that xn = . So
1
yn +
n−1
1
lim xn = . Assuming that lim yn = ∞, we have lim xn = 0, which is
n→∞ lim yn n→∞ n→∞
n→∞
a contradiction, because x1 > 0 and the sequence (xn )n≥1 is strictly increasing.
Hence (yn )n≥2 is convergent. It follows that (xn )n≥2 is also convergent.

97. Evaluate:
n
X 2i
lim sin
n→∞
i=1
n2

First solution: Let’s start from

sin x sin x
lim = 1 ⇔ (∀)ε > 0, (∃)δ > 0, (∀)x ∈ (−δ, δ)\{0} ⇒ −1 <ε
x→0 x x

Let some arbitrary ε > 0. For such ε, (∃)δ > 0 such that (∀)x ∈ (−δ, δ)\{0}, we
sin x 2
have 1 − ε < < 1 + ε. For δ > 0, (∃)nε ∈ N∗ such that < δ, (∀)n ≥ nε .
x n
2i 2
Because 0 < 2 ≤ , (∀)1 ≤ i ≤ n, n ≥ nε , we have:
n n
2i
sin 2
1−ε< n <1+ε
2i
n2
70 A Collection of Limits

Summing, we get:
n n n
X 2i X 2i X 2i
(1 − ε) 2
< sin 2
< (1 + ε) 2
i=1
n i=1
n i=1
n
Or equivalently:

(1 − ε)(n + 1) X 2i (1 + ε)(n + 1)
< sin 2 <
n i=1
n n
By passing to limit:
n
X 2i
1 − ε ≤ lim sin ≤1+ε
n→∞
i=1
n2
Or
n
X 2i
lim sin − 1 ≤ ε, (∀)ε > 0
n→∞
i=1
n2
which implies that:
n
X 2i
lim sin =1
n→∞
i=1
n2
Second solution: Start with the formula

(n + 1)y  ny 
n sin · sin x +
2 2
X
sin(x + yi) = y
i=1 sin
2
2
Setting x = 0, y = , it rewrites as
n2
n+1 1
n
2i sin 2
sin
n n
X
sin 2 =
n 1
i=1 sin 2
n
whence
n+1 1
sin sin
n2 · n
n+1 1
n
X 2i n 2 n · lim n + 1 = 1
lim sin = lim
n→∞ n2 n→∞ 1 n→∞ n
i=1 sin 2
n
1
n2
98. If a > 0, a 6= 1, evaluate:
Solutions 71

xx − ax
lim
x→a ax − aa
x
Solution: As lim x ln = 0, we have:
x→a a

xx − ax ex ln x − ex ln a
lim = lim
x→a ax − aa x→a ax − aa
x

x ln a
e ex ln a − 1
= lim
x→a aa (ax−a − 1)
x
ex ln a ex ln a − 1 x ln xa
       
x−a
= lim · lim · lim · lim
x→a aa x→a x ln xa x→a ax−a − 1 x→a x − a
 1 
1  x x−a

= · lim x ln
ln a x→a a
 a 1
  a
a x − a x − a
= · lim  1 +

ln a x→a a


a 1
= · ln e a
ln a
1
=
ln a
99. Consider a sequence of positive real numbers (an )n≥1 such that an+1 −
1 1
= an + , (∀)n ≥ 1. Evaluate:
an+1 an
 
1 1 1 1
lim √ + + ... +
n→∞ n a1 a2 an
Solution: (an )n≥1 is clearly an increasing sequence. If it has a finite limit, say
l, then

1 1 2
l− =l+ ⇒ =0
l l l
1
contradiction. Therefore an approaches infinity. Let yn = + a2n . Then
a2n
yn+1 = yn + 4. So

y2 = y1 + 4

y3 = y2 + 4

...
72 A Collection of Limits

yn+1 = yn + 4

Summing, it results that yn+1 = y1 + 4n, which rewrites as

 2
1 1
a2n+1 + = y1 + 4n ⇔ an+1 + = y1 + 2 + 4n ⇔
a2n+1 an+1

1 p p
an+1 + = 4n + y1 + 2 ⇒ a2n+1 − 4n + y1 + 2 · an+1 + 1 = 0
an+1
√ √
4n + y1 + 2 ± 4n + y1 − 2
from which an+1 = . If we accept that an+1 =
√ √ 2
4n + y1 + 2 − 4n + y1 − 2
, then:
2
√ √
4n + y1 + 2 − 4n + y1 − 2 2
lim an+1 = lim = lim √ √ =0
n→∞ n→∞ 2 n→∞ 4n + y1 + 2 + 4n + y1 − 2
√ √
4n + y1 + 2 + 4n + y1 − 2
which is false, therefore an+1 = .
2

By Cesaro-Stolz, we obtain:

  1
1 1 1 1 an
lim √ + + ... + = lim √ √
n→∞ n a1 a2 an n→∞ n+1− n
√ √
n+ n+1
= lim
n→∞ an+1
√ √
2( n + n + 1)
= lim √ √
n→∞ 4n + y1 + 2 + 4n + y1 − 2
r
1
2(1 + 1 + )
= lim r r n
n→∞ y1 2 y1 2
4+ + + 4+ −
n n n n
=1

100. Evaluate:

2arctan x − 2arcsin x
lim
x→0 2tan x − 2sin x
Solution:
Solutions 73

2arctan x − 2arcsin x 2arcsin x (2arctan x−arcsin x − 1)

lim tan x sin x
= lim
x→0 2 −2 x→0 2sin x (2tan x−sin x − 1)
2arctan x−arcsin x − 1
= lim
x→0 2tan x−sin x − 1
arctan x−arcsin x
2 −1 tan x − sin x arctan x − arcsin x
= lim · lim · lim
x→0 arctan x − arcsin x x→0 2tan x−sin x − 1 x→0 tan x − sin x
1 arctan x − arcsin x
= ln 2 · · lim
ln 2 x→0 tan x − sin x
arctan x − arcsin x x3
= lim 3
· lim
x→0 x x→0 tan x − sin x
arctan x − arcsin x tan(arctan x − arcsin x) x3
= lim · lim · lim
x→0 tan(arctan x − arcsin x) x→0 x3 x→0 tan x(1 − cos x)
x
x − 1−x2
√
2
1+ √x
1−x2 x3
= lim · lim
x→0 x3 x→0 2 tan x · sin2 x
2
 x 2
√
1 − x2 − 1 x
= lim √ · lim · 2 lim  2 x 
x→0 x2 ( 1 − x2 + x2 ) x→0 tan x x→0
sin
2
2
−x
= 2 lim √ √
x→0 x2 ( 1 − x2 + x2 )( 1 − x2 + 1)

= −1