101: Emergence of

Psychology and Personality

UNIT 4: PERSONALITY
 Module 1: PERSONALITY
• The word "personality" comes from the Latin word "persona," which means
"mask."
• In ancient Rome, actors wore masks to play different roles in theater, and
the term "persona" was used to refer to the character or role that the actor
was portraying.
• Over time, the term came to be used more broadly to refer to the social
identity or image that a person presents to others.
• The modern use of the term "personality" to refer to an individual's unique
pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors emerged in the late 19th century
with the development of psychology as a distinct scientific discipline.
• Personality refers to the unique set of enduring psychological characteristics
and patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that distinguish one
individual from another.

• It encompasses the way people think, feel, and behave in different situations
and across various contexts.

• Personality is typically thought of as stable and consistent over time,

although it can also change and develop over the course of an individual's
life.

• It is influenced by a combination of genetic, environmental, and situational

factors, as well as individual experiences and choices.
 The organization of Personality
• Personality can be organized and understood in various ways. One way to
conceptualize personality is through the use of personality traits.
• Traits are relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
that are consistent across situations and over time.
• Traits are often measured through self-report questionnaires or observed
through behavioral assessments.
• Some approaches to personality focus on the underlying psychological
processes that drive behavior. For example, psychodynamic theory
emphasizes unconscious processes and conflicts, while humanistic
approaches focus on individual growth and self-actualization.
 Scope and Concept of the study of personality
• The study of personality is a broad and multidisciplinary field that
encompasses a wide range of topics and research areas.

• At its core, personality psychology seeks to understand the fundamental

dimensions of human behavior, thought, and emotion that make each
individual unique.

• One important aspect of the study of personality is the identification and

measurement of personality traits.

• Another important aspect of personality psychology is the study of

personality development and change over the lifespan.
 Personality Psychology
• Personality psychology is a field of psychology that is concerned with
understanding and describing the enduring patterns of thought, feeling, and
behavior that characterize an individual over time and across different
situations.
• It seeks to identify the psychological traits, characteristics, and processes
that distinguish one person from another and to explain why individuals
behave in consistent and predictable ways.
• Personality psychologists use a variety of research methods to study
personality, including self-report questionnaires, behavioral observations,
and experimental manipulations.
• They also draw on theories and concepts from other areas of psychology,
including cognitive psychology, social psychology, and neuroscience.

• Personality psychology also encompasses the study of personality disorders,

which are persistent and maladaptive patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion
that significantly impair an individual's ability to function in daily life.

• Researchers in this area seek to understand the underlying causes and mechanisms
of personality disorders, as well as the most effective methods for assessment and
treatment.

• Overall, the study of personality is a complex and multifaceted field that draws on
insights and methods from a variety of disciplines, including psychology,
neuroscience, sociology, and anthropology.
 Module 2: Determinants of Personality
Some of the most important determinants of personality include:

• Genetics: Genetic factors can influence personality traits, such as

extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience. Twin and
adoption studies have shown that genetic factors account for a
significant proportion of individual differences in personality.

• Environment: Environmental factors, such as family upbringing,

cultural and societal norms, and life experiences, can also shape
personality development. For example, experiences of trauma or abuse
can have a lasting impact on personality traits.
• Cognitive and psychological processes: Cognitive and psychological
processes, such as self-awareness, self-esteem, and coping strategies,
can also influence personality development.

• Social interactions: Social interactions, such as peer relationships,

romantic relationships, and work relationships, can influence
personality development through feedback, social comparison, and
role modeling.

• Biological factors: Biological factors, such as hormones and brain

chemistry, can also play a role in shaping personality traits.
 Biological
• Physiology can have a significant impact on personality. The brain is
the primary organ that regulates behavior and personality, and changes
in brain function can affect various aspects of personality, including
emotional expression, decision-making, and social behavior.

• Research has shown that different brain regions and neurotransmitters

are associated with different personality traits.

• For example, the prefrontal cortex is involved in decision-making and

impulse control, and abnormalities in this region have been associated
with impulsivity and sensation seeking.
• The amygdala, a brain structure involved in emotional processing, has been
linked to traits such as anxiety, fearfulness, and emotional reactivity.

• In addition, hormones such as testosterone and cortisol can also have an

impact on personality.

• High levels of testosterone have been linked to traits such as aggression,

dominance, and risk-taking, while high levels of cortisol, a stress hormone,
have been associated with anxiety and depression.

• Overall, while physiology is just one factor among many that contribute to
personality development, it can have a significant impact on an individual's
temperament, emotional tendencies, and social behavior.
• While the specific genetic mechanisms underlying personality are not
yet fully understood, it is thought that many different genes may be
involved in shaping various aspects of personality.

• Additionally, gene-environment interactions may also play a role, as

genes can influence how individuals respond to environmental factors
and experiences.

• However, it is important to note that genetics is not the only

determinant of personality.
• Environmental factors, such as upbringing, culture, and life
experiences, can also shape personality development.

• Furthermore, personality is not fixed and can change over time as a

result of various environmental factors and life experiences.

• In summary, while genetics is an important factor in personality

development, it is only one of many factors, and the complex interplay
of genetic and environmental factors ultimately shapes an individual's
unique personality.
 Environmental
• Socialization, society, and culture can have a significant impact on
personality. These factors shape an individual's attitudes, beliefs, values,
and behaviors, which in turn can influence personality development.

• Socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn and internalize

the norms, values, and behaviors of their society or culture.

• This process begins in childhood and continues throughout life. Parents,

family members, peers, and other social institutions, such as schools and
religious organizations, all play a role in socializing individuals.
• Society and culture also shape personality by providing individuals with a
sense of identity and belonging.
• The cultural norms and values of a society or culture can influence an
individual's attitudes towards themselves, others, and the world around
them.
• For example, collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize the importance of
group harmony and interdependence, while individualistic cultures tend to
emphasize personal autonomy and independence.
• In addition, societal and cultural factors can influence the types of
experiences and opportunities available to individuals, which can in turn
shape personality development.
• For example, growing up in a disadvantaged or marginalized
community may lead to experiences of discrimination, trauma, or
limited access to resources, which can impact personality traits such as
resilience, coping strategies, and self-esteem.

• Overall, socialization, society, and culture all play important roles in

shaping personality development.

• While individual differences also play a role, the norms, values, and
behaviors of one's social and cultural environment provide a
framework for understanding and expressing personality.
Module 3: Various approaches of personality
While there are differences between the various approaches to understanding
personality in psychology, there are also some common points:

• Personality is relatively stable: All approaches to personality suggest that

personality is a relatively stable construct, meaning that it remains consistent over
time and across situations.

• Personality is unique: Each approach acknowledges that individuals have unique

personality traits and characteristics that distinguish them from others.

• Personality is shaped by nature and nurture: All approaches suggest that

personality is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, including
childhood experiences, cultural norms, and social interactions.
• Personality influences behavior: All approaches suggest that personality
influences an individual's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, and that these
components are interconnected.

• Personality can be measured: All approaches suggest that personality can be

assessed and measured, whether through self-report surveys, behavioral
observations, or physiological measures.

While the specific theories and perspectives of each approach may differ, these
common points provide a framework for understanding the study of personality in
psychology.
 Freud's psychoanalytic approach
• It is a theory of psychology developed by Sigmund Freud, a famous
Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst. The theory emphasizes the role of
unconscious processes in human behavior and mental functioning.
• According to Freud, the human psyche is divided into three main parts: the
id, the ego, and the superego.
• The id is the part of the psyche that is responsible for our most basic desires
and instincts, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual drive.
• The ego is the rational part of the psyche that mediates between the id and
the external world, trying to satisfy the id's desires in socially acceptable
ways.
• The superego is the moral part of the psyche that represents societal norms
and values and tries to control the impulses of the id.
• Freud also believed that the unconscious mind plays a significant role in
shaping our behavior and personality.
• He developed a technique called psychoanalysis, which involves exploring
a patient's unconscious thoughts and feelings through free association,
dream analysis, and other techniques to gain insight into their underlying
psychological conflicts and motivations.
• Some critics of Freud's psychoanalytic approach argue that it is too focused
on sex and that its concepts are too abstract and difficult to test
scientifically.
 Neo-Freudian theories
• Neo-Freudian theories refer to a group of psychoanalytic theories and approaches
developed by psychologists who were influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud,
but who also sought to modify, expand, or challenge his ideas.

• The term "Neo-Freudian" is often used to describe theorists who developed their
ideas in the early to mid-20th century, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik
Erikson, Karen Horney, and Anna Freud, who was also Sigmund Freud's daughter.

• These theorists generally agreed with some of Freud's core concepts, such as the
importance of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences in shaping
personality, but they also developed their own unique ideas and theories.
 Carl Jung's theory of personality
• Also known as analytical psychology, emphasizes the importance of
the unconscious mind and the collective unconscious in shaping
human behavior and personality.

• According to Jung, the psyche is divided into three main parts: the
conscious ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective
unconscious.

• The conscious ego is the part of the psyche that is aware of immediate
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
• The personal unconscious contains material that is not currently in the
individual's awareness, such as repressed memories, forgotten
experiences, and subliminal perceptions.

• The collective unconscious is a deeper, inherited layer of the

unconscious mind that contains archetypes, or universal symbolic
images and patterns, that are shared by all humans and are the result of
our common evolutionary history.

• Jung also developed the concept of personality types, which he

believed were based on two main psychological functions: thinking
and feeling, and two main attitudes: extraversion and introversion.
According to Jung, individuals can be classified into eight personality types based on these functions and
attitudes.

1. Extroverted-Thinking: Concerned with outside world but often impose own view onto others.

2. Extroverted-Feeling: Interactions with others can be emotional at times, but sociable and funny.

3. Extroverted-Sensation: Experiencing and participating in exciting activities.

4. Extroverted-Intuition: Enjoy novelty and promoting new ideas and concepts to others.

5. Introverted-Thinking: Pursue their own ideas and not concerned if these ideas are accepted. Prefer
abstract ideas to making plans with others.

6. Introverted-Feeling: Strong feelings kept inside, erupting occasionally forcefully. Creative artists.

7. Introverted-Sensation: Focus on the perceptions of their world, attending only to own

psychological sensations.

8. Introverted-Intuition: Have difficulty communicating own insights and intuitions and have trouble
understanding own thoughts.
 Alfred Adler’s theory of personality
• An Austrian psychotherapist and founder of the school of Individual Psychology.
• He developed a personality theory that emphasized the individual's unique
perception of reality, the importance of social and cultural factors, and the concept
of striving for superiority.
• According to Adler, each person is unique, and their personality is shaped by their
subjective interpretation of their experiences.
• He believed that people strive to overcome feelings of inferiority and to achieve a
sense of superiority or mastery in their lives.
• This "striving for superiority" is the driving force behind human behavior, and it
can manifest itself in positive or negative ways.
• Adler also emphasized the importance of social and cultural factors in
shaping personality.

• He believed that a person's upbringing and family dynamics play a crucial

role in their development.

• Specifically, he proposed that birth order and sibling relationships can have
a significant impact on personality development.

• Adler's theory also includes the concept of the "inferiority complex," which
refers to an exaggerated feeling of inferiority that can develop when a
person's efforts to achieve superiority are consistently thwarted.
 Margaret Mahler’s theory of personality
• A Hungarian psychoanalyst who developed a theory of personality development
that focuses on the early stages of life, particularly the separation-individuation
process that occurs during infancy.
• Mahler believed that infants are born with a sense of undifferentiated unity with
their mother or primary caregiver, which she called the “symbiotic phase”.
During this phase, the infant does not perceive themselves as separate from their
caregiver.
• Around six months of age, infants begin to develop a sense of self-awareness and
separation from their caregiver. Mahler called this the "differentiation phase“.
The infant begins to recognize themselves as separate from their caregiver and
develops a sense of autonomy.
• From around 10 months to three years of age, the infant enters the
"practicing subphase”. During this phase, they begin to explore the world
around them and develop a sense of agency and independence.
• Between the ages of three and four years old, the child enters the
"rapprochement subphase”. During this phase, the child may become
anxious about their separation from their caregiver and seek to be close to
them again while also maintaining their independence.
• Finally, around the age of four, the child enters the "consolidation
subphase”. During this phase, the child has developed a secure sense of self
and is able to maintain a healthy balance between their autonomy and their
attachment to their caregiver.
 Dispositional aspects of personality
• Dispositional aspects of personality refer to the enduring characteristics or
traits that individuals exhibit across different situations and over time.
• These traits can be thought of as relatively stable and consistent patterns of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish one person from another.
• Dispositional aspects of personality can have important implications for a
wide range of outcomes, including health, well-being, social relationships,
and work performance.
• For example, individuals who score high in conscientiousness tend to be
more successful in their careers, whereas those who score high in
neuroticism may be more prone to stress and anxiety.
 Eysenck Personality Theory
Developed by the British psychologist Hans Eysenck, is one of the most influential
and widely cited theories of personality.
According to Eysenck, there are three main dimensions of personality:
• Extraversion-Introversion: This dimension refers to the extent to which an
individual seeks social interaction and stimulation from the external environment.
• Neuroticism-Emotional Stability: This dimension refers to the extent to which
an individual experiences negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and
moodiness.
• Psychoticism-Superego Control: This dimension refers to the extent to which an
individual is prone to impulsive, aggressive, and antisocial behavior.
• Eysenck believed that these three dimensions were biologically
determined, and that individual differences in personality were largely
a result of genetic factors.

• He also argued that personality traits were hierarchically organized,

with the three main dimensions at the top level and more specific traits
at lower levels.

• The Eysenck Personality Theory has been influential in the field of

personality psychology and has stimulated a great deal of research on
the biological and genetic basis of personality.
PEN MODEL
 Allport’s personality theory
Gordon Allport was a prominent American psychologist who developed a
comprehensive theory of personality.

His theory emphasizes the uniqueness of each individual and the importance
of understanding people in terms of their individual traits and qualities.

According to Allport, personality is composed of three main types of traits:

• Cardinal traits: These are the dominant traits that define a person's
personality, and they are present in all aspects of the individual's life.
Cardinal traits are rare and are often associated with individuals who are
highly accomplished in a particular area.
• Central traits: These are the general traits that are present to some degree
in all individuals, and they form the basis of an individual's personality.
Central traits may be positive or negative, and they are used to describe
individuals in terms of their typical behavior and characteristics.

• Secondary traits: These are the specific traits that are less dominant and
less consistent than central traits. Secondary traits are often situational and
may only appear in certain contexts or circumstances.

• Allport believed that personality could not be reduced to a set of general

principles or universal laws, and that each individual must be understood in
terms of their own unique experiences and qualities.
 Cattell’s Personality theory
• Raymond Cattell was a British-American psychologist who developed a
comprehensive theory of personality that emphasized the importance of trait
analysis.

• Cattell's theory includes both surface traits and source traits.

• Surface traits are specific behaviors and characteristics that are easily observable,
while source traits are underlying traits that are less visible but are responsible for
producing the surface traits.

• Cattell developed a number of personality tests, including the Sixteen Personality

Factor Questionnaire (16PF), which is designed to measure an individual's
personality traits based on the 16 source traits.
Cattell identified 16 primary source traits, which he believed were the
basic building blocks of personality. These traits are:
1) Reserved vs. Warm 9) Tough-Minded vs. Tender-Minded

2) Abstracted vs. Concrete Thinking 10) Trusting vs. Suspicious

3) Apprehensive vs. Self-Assured 11) Practical vs. Imaginative

4) Open to Change vs. Conservative 12) Forthright vs. Shrewd

5) Privately Focused vs. Outgoing 13) Self-Reliant vs. Group-Oriented

6) Serious vs. Lighthearted 14) Traditional vs. Liberal

7) Expedient vs. Conscientious 15) Tense vs. Relaxed

8) Shy vs. Bold 16) Sensitive vs. Utilitarian

 Big five factor theory
• The five basic personality traits is a theory developed in 1949 by D. W.
Fiske (1949) and later expanded upon by other researchers including
Norman (1967), Smith (1967), Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa
(1987).
• The Big Five Factor Theory of Personality, also known as the Five-Factor
Model (FFM), is one of the most widely accepted and studied theories of
personality in modern psychology.
• It is based on the idea that there are five fundamental dimensions of
personality that can be used to describe and explain individual differences in
behavior and cognition.
 The five factors, or traits, are:
I. Openness to Experience: This trait refers to an individual's degree of
imagination, creativity, and openness to new ideas and experiences.

II. Conscientiousness: This trait refers to an individual's degree of organization,

responsibility, and dependability.

III. Extraversion: This trait refers to an individual's degree of sociability,

assertiveness, and tendency to seek out stimulation and excitement.

IV. Agreeableness: This trait refers to an individual's degree of compassion,

cooperation, and tendency to get along with others.

V. Neuroticism (sometimes called Emotional Stability): This trait refers to an

individual's degree of anxiety, moodiness, and emotional instability.
 Phenomenological approach
• The phenomenological approach to personality emphasizes the subjective
experiences and personal meanings that individuals attach to their lives.

• This approach focuses on the study of the conscious experience of the

individual, and how this experience is shaped by their perceptions, beliefs,
and attitudes.

• Phenomenology views the individual as an active and creative participant in

their own life, rather than simply a passive recipient of external stimuli.

• It recognizes the importance of personal perspectives and interpretations,

and how these shape an individual's behavior, emotions, and attitudes.
 Kelly's personality theory
• George Kelly's personality theory, also known as personal construct
theory, is a cognitive theory of personality that emphasizes the role of
individual perceptions and interpretation in shaping personality.

• According to Kelly, individuals are like scientists who create and test
hypotheses about the world in order to make sense of their
experiences.

• At the core of Kelly's theory is the idea of personal constructs, which

are the individual's unique ways of categorizing and understanding the
world.
• Personal constructs are mental representations that individuals use to
understand and predict events, people, and situations in their lives.

• They are created through an individual's experiences and are

constantly evolving as new experiences are encountered.

• Kelly believed that personal constructs could be used to understand an

individual's personality, and that an individual's behavior and
experiences could be predicted based on their personal constructs.
 George Kelly's personal construct theory includes 11 corollaries:

1. Construction corollary: People anticipate events by using their personal

constructs to form hypotheses about what will happen in a given situation.
2. Individuality corollary: Each person has a unique set of personal
constructs and, therefore, a unique way of perceiving and interpreting the
world.
3. Organization corollary: Personal constructs are organized hierarchically,
with some constructs being more central to an individual's personality
than others.
4. Dichotomy corollary: Personal constructs are expressed in terms of
dichotomies, such as good-bad, smart-stupid, or honest-dishonest.
5. Choice corollary: People choose among alternative constructs to predict
and understand events.

6. Range corollary: Each construct has a limited range of applicability,

meaning that it applies to certain situations and not others.

7. Experience corollary: People continually revise and refine their personal

constructs based on new experiences.

8. Modulation corollary: Personal constructs can be changed to

accommodate new experiences or to better fit the individual's
understanding of the world.
9. Fragmentation corollary: People may hold multiple, conflicting
personal constructs that are difficult to reconcile.

10. Commonality corollary: People share personal constructs with

others, allowing for communication and understanding among
individuals.

11. Sociality corollary: Personal constructs are influenced by social and

cultural factors, and individuals may share constructs with others
who are part of the same cultural group.
 Carl rogers personality theory
• Carl Rogers was a prominent psychologist who developed a humanistic
approach to psychology, which focused on the importance of the
individual's subjective experience and the innate tendency towards growth
and self-actualization.
• Rogers' personality theory emphasizes the importance of empathy,
unconditional positive regard, and congruence in facilitating personal
growth and development.
• Rogers believed that individuals have an innate drive towards growth and
self-actualization, and that their behavior and personality are shaped by
their interactions with the environment.
 Rogers identified several key concepts of his personality theory:

• Self-concept: The self-concept is an individual's perception of themselves, including their

beliefs about their own abilities, personality traits, and values.

• Congruence: Congruence refers to the extent to which an individual's self-concept aligns

with their actual experience.

• Incongruence: Incongruence occurs when an individual's self-concept does not align

with their actual experience, leading to anxiety and a lack of personal growth.

• Unconditional positive regard: Unconditional positive regard refers to the acceptance

and support that individuals receive from others, regardless of their behavior or actions.

• Empathy: Empathy refers to the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
person.
• He emphasized the importance of the individual's subjective experience and
the need for a supportive and accepting environment in order to foster
personal growth.

• He emphasized the importance of the therapist-client relationship in

facilitating personal growth and helping individuals to develop a more
congruent self-concept.

• Client-centered therapy, also known as person-centered therapy or

Rogerian therapy, is a non-directive form of talk therapy developed by
humanist psychologist Carl Rogers during the 1940s and 1950s.
 Behavioral and Cognitive approach
• The behavioral approach to personality emphasizes the role of learning and
conditioning in shaping an individual's behavior and personality.

• This approach suggests that people's behavior is shaped by their

environment and experiences, particularly through classical and operant
conditioning.

• According to this approach, personality is seen as a set of learned behaviors

that are shaped by reinforcement and punishment.

• This approach focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned,
reinforced, and maintained over time.
• In contrast, the cognitive approach to personality emphasizes the role of
internal mental processes, such as thoughts, beliefs, and perceptions, in
shaping an individual's personality.

• This approach suggests that people's behavior is influenced by their

cognitive processes and their interpretation of the world around them.

• According to this approach, personality is seen as a set of cognitive

structures and processes that are shaped by internal factors such as beliefs,
expectations, and attitudes.

• This approach focuses on how people think about themselves and the world
and how these cognitive processes shape their behavior.
 B.F. Skinner theory of Personality
• An American psychologist who developed the theory of behaviorism.

• Skinner's personality theory emphasizes the role of the environment

in shaping an individual's behavior and personality.

• According to Skinner, behavior is determined by its consequences, and

individuals learn to repeat behaviors that are rewarded and avoid
behaviors that are punished.

• Skinner proposed the concept of operant conditioning, which involves

the use of reinforcement or punishment to shape behavior.
• Reinforcement refers to any consequence that increases the likelihood
of a behavior being repeated, while punishment refers to any
consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated.

• Skinner also believed that personality traits are not innate but rather
are learned through experiences and interactions with the environment.

• He proposed that the environment plays a crucial role in shaping an

individual's personality, and that the same principles of operant
conditioning apply to the development of personality.
 Operant conditioning
• A type of learning that occurs as a result of the consequences of a particular
behavior. It was first proposed by B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist
who believed that behavior is shaped by its consequences.

• In operant conditioning, an individual's behavior is either reinforced or

punished, which can either increase or decrease the likelihood of the
behavior being repeated in the future.

• Reinforcement refers to any consequence that increases the likelihood of a

behavior being repeated, while punishment refers to any consequence that
decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
 Miller and Dollard's theory of personality
• Dollard and Miller were two influential psychologists who developed
a theory of personality in the mid-20th century known as the "social
learning theory."

• According to their theory, personality is shaped by a combination of

environmental factors and individual learning experiences.

• It is based on the principles of behaviorism and psychoanalysis.

• The theory proposes that behavior is a result of a combination of

learned habits and instinctual drives.
• According to Miller and Dollard, all behavior is motivated by basic physiological
needs, such as hunger and thirst.

• They proposed that these needs create internal drives that push an individual to
engage in certain behaviors to satisfy those needs.

• The theory also emphasizes the role of learning in shaping personality.

• Individuals learn through a process of reinforcement, where behaviors that are

reinforced are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors that are punished are
less likely to be repeated.

• In addition to conditioning, Dollard and Miller also emphasized the importance

of social learning in shaping personality.
• They argued that individuals learn new behaviors and attitudes by observing and
imitating the actions of others around them.

• They also believed that individuals are more likely to adopt behaviors and
attitudes that they see as effective in achieving their goals.

• Emphasized the importance of observational learning, where individuals learn by

observing the behavior of others and the consequences of their actions.

• The theory proposes that personality is composed of habits, which are learned
responses to certain stimuli that have become automatic and predictable.

• Habits are formed through a process of reinforcement, and they can be positive or
negative, depending on whether they lead to rewards or punishments.
 Rotter Personality theory
• Julian Rotter was a prominent psychologist who developed a social
learning theory of personality in the mid-20th century.

• Rotter's theory emphasized the importance of cognitive factors in

shaping individual behavior and personality.

• According to Rotter's theory, personality is shaped by an individual's

beliefs and expectations about the consequences of their behavior.

• These beliefs and expectations, which he referred to as "locus of

control," can be either internal or external.
• Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that they are in control
of their own lives and that their actions determine their outcomes, while
individuals with an external locus of control believe that their outcomes are
determined by external factors such as luck or fate.

• Rotter also emphasized the importance of reinforcement in shaping

behavior.

• He believed that individuals are more likely to engage in behaviors that they
believe will lead to positive outcomes and that they will avoid behaviors
that they believe will lead to negative outcomes.
 Mischel personality theory
• Walter Mischel was a psychologist who developed a cognitive social
learning theory of personality in the mid-20th century.
• His theory emphasized the importance of situational factors in shaping
individual behavior and personality.
• Mischel believed that behavior is not simply a result of personality traits or
dispositions, but rather a product of the individual's interpretation of the
situation they are in.
• He argued that people engage in different behaviors depending on the
context or situation, and that personality traits only predict behavior in
certain situations.
• Mischel's theory also emphasized the role of cognitive processes in
shaping behavior.

• He believed that individuals use cognitive processes such as

perception, attention, and interpretation to make sense of the world
around them and to guide their behavior.

• He also suggested that individuals use cognitive strategies to regulate

their behavior, such as delaying gratification to achieve long-term
goals.