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Pyq ML

The document explains key concepts in logistic regression, including prediction using the logistic function and the binary cross-entropy loss function. It also discusses Kohonen Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) as an alternative to backpropagation, highlighting their advantages in unsupervised learning, robustness, and visualization. Additionally, it outlines various feature selection techniques such as filter, wrapper, embedded methods, and dimensionality reduction, emphasizing their importance in machine learning.

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3 views5 pages

Pyq ML

The document explains key concepts in logistic regression, including prediction using the logistic function and the binary cross-entropy loss function. It also discusses Kohonen Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) as an alternative to backpropagation, highlighting their advantages in unsupervised learning, robustness, and visualization. Additionally, it outlines various feature selection techniques such as filter, wrapper, embedded methods, and dimensionality reduction, emphasizing their importance in machine learning.

Uploaded by

amitabh
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Pyq 2020

Sure, here's a brief explanation of prediction and loss function in the


context of logistic regression:

1. Prediction: In logistic regression, prediction refers to estimating the


probability that a given input belongs to a particular class. This is
typically achieved using the logistic function (sigmoid function) to map
the output of the linear combination of input features to a value
between 0 and 1, representing the probability of the positive class.

2. Loss Function: The loss function in logistic regression quantifies the


difference between the predicted probabilities and the actual class
labels in the training data. The most commonly used loss function in
logistic regression is the binary cross-entropy (log loss) function, which
penalizes the model based on the deviation between the predicted
probabilities and the true labels. The goal of logistic regression is to
minimize this loss function to improve the model's predictive accuracy.

9)b) Backpropagation is a powerful algorithm for training neural


networks, but it has some shortcomings, such as its sensitivity to the
choice of initial weights, vanishing gradients, and the need for labeled
data for supervised learning tasks.

Kohonen Self-Organizing Maps (SOMs) offer an alternative approach to


learning that can overcome some of these shortcomings:
1. **Unsupervised Learning**: Unlike backpropagation, which typically
requires labeled data for supervised learning tasks, SOMs are trained
using unsupervised learning. They organize data based on similarity
without the need for explicit labels. This makes SOMs particularly useful
for exploratory data analysis and dimensionality reduction tasks.

2. **Topological Ordering**: Kohonen SOMs preserve the topological


properties of the input space in the output space. This means that
similar input patterns are mapped to nearby locations in the output
space. This property allows SOMs to capture the intrinsic structure of
high-dimensional data and to visualize it in a lower-dimensional map.

3. **Robustness to Initialization**: Kohonen SOMs are less sensitive to


the choice of initial weights compared to backpropagation. The self-
organizing process of SOMs allows them to adapt to the data
distribution during training, making them more robust to initialization
issues.

4. **Parallelism and Efficiency**: SOMs can be efficiently implemented


in parallel, making them suitable for large-scale and real-time
applications. The competitive learning mechanism of SOMs, where
neurons compete to represent different regions of the input space,
allows for efficient and distributed computation.

5. **Visualization and Interpretability**: SOMs provide a visual


representation of high-dimensional data in a lower-dimensional map,
which can aid in data exploration and interpretation. The topology-
preserving property of SOMs allows for intuitive visualization of the
underlying data structure.
In summary, Kohonen Self-Organizing Maps offer a different paradigm
for learning compared to backpropagation, focusing on unsupervised
learning, topological ordering, robustness to initialization, parallelism,
and visualization, which can help overcome some of the shortcomings
of backpropagation in certain contexts.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------8.

Feature selection techniques are crucial in machine learning and data


analysis for choosing the most relevant features from a dataset. Here
are several techniques classified and explained with suitable examples:

1. *Filter Methods*:

- Filter methods evaluate features using statistical measures and rank


them based on their correlation with the target variable, without
considering the model.

- Example: Pearson's Correlation Coefficient, Chi-Squared Test

- Explanation: In a classification task, we can use the Chi-Squared test


to measure the independence between features and the class label.
Features with higher Chi-Squared scores are considered more
important.

2. *Wrapper Methods*:

- Wrapper methods select features based on their impact on the


performance of a specific machine learning model.
- Example: Recursive Feature Elimination (RFE), Forward/Backward
Selection

- Explanation: RFE works by recursively removing the least important


features and building a model until the desired number of features is
reached. For instance, in linear regression, RFE can be used to select
the most relevant features based on their coefficients.

3. *Embedded Methods*:

- Embedded methods incorporate feature selection into the model


building process itself.

- Example: Lasso Regression, Decision Trees

- Explanation: Lasso Regression penalizes the absolute size of the


coefficients during model training, encouraging simpler models with
fewer non-zero coefficients. As a result, it implicitly performs feature
selection by shrinking some coefficients to zero, effectively eliminating
those features from the model.

4. *Dimensionality Reduction Techniques*:

- Dimensionality reduction techniques aim to reduce the number of


features by transforming the original feature space into a lower-
dimensional space.

- Example: Principal Component Analysis (PCA), t-distributed


Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-SNE)

- Explanation: PCA projects the original high-dimensional dataset onto


a lower-dimensional subspace while preserving as much variance as
possible. It achieves feature selection indirectly by capturing the most
important patterns or relationships among features in fewer
dimensions.

Each of these techniques has its advantages and is suitable for different
types of datasets and machine learning tasks. The choice of technique
depends on factors such as dataset size, feature dimensionality,
computational resources, and the specific requirements of the machine
learning model.

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