Wireless Sensor Network &

Mobile- Unit2

1. Explain in brief common MAC protocols used in WSN. (Apr 23)

Ans- Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols are essential for controlling access to the
shared wireless communication medium in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). These
protocols ensure that sensor nodes can communicate effectively while minimizing energy
consumption, which is a critical factor in WSNs due to the limited battery life of sensor
nodes. Some of the common MAC protocols used in WSNs are:

1. S-MAC (Sensor MAC):

 S-MAC is a widely used MAC protocol in WSNs designed to minimize energy

consumption by putting nodes into sleep mode when idle. It uses a periodic listening
and sleeping scheme, where nodes wake up for a short time to check for
communication and then return to sleep.
 Advantages: Reduces energy consumption by reducing idle listening.
 Disadvantages: May introduce delays due to synchronization.

2. T-MAC (Timeout MAC):

 T-MAC improves upon S-MAC by introducing a timeout mechanism. Nodes remain

awake for a period proportional to the activity in the network. If no data is received
within this timeout, nodes go back to sleep to conserve energy.
 Advantages: Reduces energy usage and improves performance during low-traffic
scenarios.
 Disadvantages: Still faces latency issues under high traffic.

3. X-MAC (Extended MAC):

 X-MAC is an improvement over S-MAC, which reduces energy consumption further

by using short preambles. It introduces a more efficient way to listen for incoming
data, thereby reducing the time nodes spend in idle listening.
 Advantages: Reduced energy consumption compared to traditional schemes.
 Disadvantages: May cause additional complexity in synchronization.

4. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance):

 This is a contention-based protocol that uses the Carrier Sense mechanism to detect
if the channel is free before transmitting. It includes collision avoidance strategies,
ensuring that packets are transmitted only when the channel is available.
 Advantages: Simple and efficient in low-density networks.
 Disadvantages: High energy consumption due to continuous listening and collisions
in dense networks.
5. LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy):

 LEACH is a clustering protocol that operates in rounds, where sensor nodes organize
themselves into clusters, and a cluster head is selected to communicate with the base
station. The other nodes communicate with the cluster head, reducing the
communication distance and saving energy.
 Advantages: Energy-efficient due to reduced transmission power and clustering.
 Disadvantages: Not suitable for large-scale networks due to cluster formation
overhead.

2. List and explain components of Sensor MAC. (Apr 23)

Ans- Sensor MAC (S-MAC) is a popular MAC protocol designed to minimize energy
consumption in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). It achieves this by allowing sensor
nodes to alternate between active and sleep modes based on traffic conditions.

Components of Sensor MAC (S-MAC):

1. Synchronization:
o Nodes in S-MAC must synchronize their wake-up and sleep periods to ensure
that they can communicate effectively. This synchronization ensures that
nodes wake up at the same time and can exchange data without collision.
o Synchronization Mechanism: The synchronization is achieved through
periodic synchronization packets sent by nodes in the network.
2. Sleep Scheduling:
o Nodes in S-MAC alternate between active and sleep modes. The sleep mode
significantly reduces the power consumption of nodes by turning off their
radios when not transmitting or receiving.
o Sleep Period: A node stays in sleep mode for the majority of the time, waking
up only for short intervals to listen for incoming messages.
3. Data Exchange and Preamble:
o Preamble: Nodes transmit a preamble signal to alert neighboring nodes that
data transmission is imminent. This helps in ensuring that the receiving node
is awake and can receive the data.
o Data Exchange: Once the receiving node detects the preamble, it stays awake
to receive the data. After receiving the data, it may send an acknowledgment,
and the node returns to sleep mode.
4. Collision Avoidance:
o S-MAC uses a collision avoidance mechanism by scheduling the transmission
periods for each node. By having nodes operate on the same schedule and
using synchronized wake-up times, S-MAC minimizes the chances of data
collisions and reduces interference.
5. Message Scheduling:
o Message Scheduling: S-MAC uses a message passing mechanism where
nodes transmit data in specific time slots during their active periods. This
scheduling helps to organize communication and reduce unnecessary idle
listening.
6. Energy Conservation:
 o The primary goal of S-MAC is energy conservation. It reduces power
consumption through efficient sleep-wake scheduling and collision
avoidance, which helps prolong the battery life of sensor nodes.

3. Explain Routing Strategies in Wireless Sensor Networks. (Apr 19) (Apr 23)

Ans- Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) is critical for efficient data transmission
from sensor nodes to the base station or sink. The challenges in routing include limited
energy resources, dynamic network topologies, and the need for efficient communication to
maximize network lifetime.

Common Routing Strategies in WSNs:

1. Flat Routing:
o Description: In flat routing, all sensor nodes are treated equally, and data is
transmitted to the base station using a single-hop or multi-hop routing
technique. There is no hierarchical structure.
o Example Protocols: Direct Transmission, Multi-Hop Communication.
o Advantages: Simple to implement.
o Disadvantages: Does not scale well in large networks; may result in energy
depletion at sensor nodes due to inefficient data routing.
2. Hierarchical Routing:
o Description: In hierarchical routing, nodes are grouped into clusters. Cluster
heads are elected from the nodes, and they aggregate data from other nodes in
their cluster before transmitting it to the base station. This reduces the energy
consumption of regular nodes.
o Example Protocols: LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering
Hierarchy), HEED (Hybrid Energy-Efficient Distributed Clustering).
o Advantages: Energy efficient, reduces communication overhead.
o Disadvantages: Overhead of forming and maintaining clusters, and possible
imbalance in cluster sizes.
3. Location-Based Routing:
o Description: This type of routing uses the geographical location of nodes
(obtained through GPS or estimation techniques) to forward data. The nodes
forward data toward the base station using location information.
o Example Protocols: Geographic Routing, GEAR (Geographic and Energy
Aware Routing).
o Advantages: Suitable for large-scale networks with spatially distributed
nodes.
o Disadvantages: May suffer from localization errors and requires nodes to
know their location.
4. Data-Centric Routing:
o Description: In data-centric routing, queries are sent to the network, and
nodes respond with the relevant data. The network uses the data contents as a
routing criterion.
o Example Protocols: Directed Diffusion, SPIN (Sensor Protocols for
Information via Negotiation).
 oAdvantages: Reduces communication overhead by only sending data relevant
to a query.
o Disadvantages: May suffer from the explosion of query packets in large
networks.
5. Multipath Routing:
o Description: Multipath routing uses multiple paths for data transmission to
improve fault tolerance and reliability. If one path fails, the network can use
an alternative path.
o Example Protocols: QOSR (Quality of Service Routing), M-LEACH
(Multipath LEACH).
o Advantages: Enhances reliability and fault tolerance.
o Disadvantages: Increases overhead due to multiple paths being maintained
simultaneously.

4. Explain Transport Control Protocol. Explain its design issue. (Apr 23) OR What are

the issues need to consider to design transport protocols for WSNs. (Apr 19)

Ans- Transport Control Protocol (TCP) is a reliable communication protocol that ensures
reliable data transmission over the network. However, due to the specific constraints in
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), the traditional TCP faces several challenges that need
to be addressed to ensure efficient performance in such networks.

Design Issues of Transport Protocols for WSNs:

1. Energy Efficiency:
o Traditional transport protocols like TCP are energy-inefficient in WSNs due
to the frequent packet exchanges for acknowledgment and retransmission,
which consume substantial power.
o Solution: New transport protocols need to minimize energy consumption by
reducing the need for acknowledgments, retransmissions, and idle listening.
2. Reliable Data Transmission:
o WSNs are often subject to packet loss due to unreliable wireless channels,
node failures, or interference. In TCP, loss of data packets typically leads to
retransmissions, which can exacerbate the energy consumption.
o Solution: Efficient transport protocols must handle packet loss in a way that
does not excessively drain the energy of nodes, by introducing more adaptive
loss recovery mechanisms.
3. Congestion Control:
o Congestion is a common issue in WSNs due to the limited bandwidth and
high traffic generated by many nodes. Standard TCP congestion control
mechanisms might be too aggressive and cause network congestion.
o Solution: A congestion control mechanism should be designed to handle
network congestion gracefully, ensuring that traffic is managed without
overloading the network.
4. Quality of Service (QoS):
o WSNs often require low-latency, real-time communication for applications
like monitoring and surveillance. Standard TCP does not provide the
 necessary quality of service (QoS) in terms of delay or throughput for such
applications.
o Solution: Transport protocols should be designed to support real-time QoS
requirements in terms of latency and throughput.
5. Scalability:
o As WSNs can contain hundreds or thousands of nodes, transport protocols
need to scale efficiently. Standard TCP does not scale well due to its overhead
in managing large numbers of connections.
o Solution: The transport protocol should efficiently handle scalable network
sizes without compromising the overall performance.
6. Asymmetric Communication:
o In WSNs, communication is often asymmetric, where sensor nodes have
limited data transmission capabilities and communication is directed towards
the base station. This can create challenges for traditional transport protocols,
which assume symmetric communication.
o Solution: Transport protocols need to handle asymmetric communication and
data aggregation mechanisms in WSNs effectively.

5.Explain WSN Middleware Architecture.

Ans- Middleware in the context of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) refers to the
software layer that resides between the sensor network hardware and application software. Its
primary purpose is to provide a uniform interface to applications while hiding the
complexities of the underlying hardware and network. This abstraction simplifies application
development, improves portability, and enhances scalability in WSNs.

WSN Middleware Architecture Components:

1. Data Collection and Aggregation:

o Middleware in WSNs often includes modules for data collection and
aggregation. Data from various sensors are collected, processed, and
aggregated to minimize the amount of data transmitted to the base station.
This reduces energy consumption and network traffic.
o Example: Middleware systems like TinyOS often provide built-in modules
for sensor data aggregation, like averaging or filtering techniques.
2. Communication Management:
o Middleware handles the complex task of managing communication between
sensor nodes, such as routing protocols, error recovery, and reliable data
delivery.
o It ensures that nodes can transmit and receive data in a power-efficient and
reliable manner. It also manages multi-hop communication and network
topology changes.
3. Resource Management:
o Middleware provides resource management capabilities, such as managing
power (through sleep/wake schedules), memory, bandwidth, and processing
power in a way that optimizes energy usage in WSNs.
o It monitors the resources available on nodes and adjusts the system behavior
accordingly.
 4. Abstraction Layer:
o A key function of middleware is to provide an abstraction layer that hides the
low-level sensor network details (hardware, communication protocols, etc.)
from the application layer. This allows applications to focus on higher-level
logic without worrying about network intricacies.
o For example, middleware can expose simple APIs that allow application
developers to access sensor data without dealing with the underlying MAC or
routing protocols.
5. Event and Query Management:
o Middleware provides a way to manage events (e.g., motion detected,
temperature exceeding threshold) and respond to queries (e.g., retrieving
sensor data).
o It may include mechanisms for data filtering or event-triggered data
reporting to ensure that only relevant data is sent to the application,
improving efficiency and reducing energy consumption.
6. Security and Privacy:
o Given the potential vulnerabilities in WSNs, middleware often includes
components for secure communication, data integrity, and privacy. This
may involve encryption techniques, authentication protocols, and data access
controls to protect sensitive information.
7. Middleware Platforms for WSN:
o Examples of WSN middleware platforms include:
 TinyOS: A popular open-source operating system and middleware
platform for low-power wireless devices.
 Contiki: Another open-source operating system that provides a
middleware layer for network management, communication, and low-
level device control.
 MATISSE: A middleware platform designed to support event-based
application development and wireless sensor network management.

6. Give the examples existing Transport Control Protocols for WSN. (Apr 23)

Ans- The traditional TCP/IP stack is not well-suited for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)
due to limitations such as energy constraints, lossy links, and unreliable wireless
communication. Therefore, specialized Transport Control Protocols have been developed
to address the unique challenges in WSNs.

Examples of Transport Protocols for WSNs:

1. ECO (Energy-aware COntrol Protocol):

o ECO is a transport protocol specifically designed for WSNs that focuses on
energy-efficient data transmission while maintaining reliable communication.
It ensures that energy is saved by reducing overhead and retransmissions
during communication.
o Key Feature: It adapts the number of retransmissions and control messages
based on the energy available and the network conditions.
2. TEEN (Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient Sensor Network Protocol):
 o TEEN is a data-centric protocol that applies energy-efficient communication
by minimizing redundant data transmission. It uses thresholds for sensing
data, only sending information when the sensed value exceeds a defined
threshold.
o Key Feature: It reduces unnecessary data transmission, which in turn
conserves energy.
3. LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy):
o While LEACH is a clustering protocol for routing, it also incorporates
energy-efficient communication strategies. It divides the network into clusters
and uses a cluster head for routing data, minimizing the transmission distance
and saving energy in the process.
o Key Feature: Energy is conserved by reducing communication distance and
maintaining localized data aggregation.
4. TCP-WSN (TCP for Wireless Sensor Networks):
o TCP-WSN is an adaptation of traditional TCP that is modified to better suit
the needs of WSNs. The traditional mechanisms like congestion control and
retransmissions are modified for more efficient operation in low-bandwidth
and unreliable wireless links.
o Key Feature: It uses link-layer acknowledgments and adaptive
retransmission strategies to minimize energy consumption.
5. RCRT (Reliable and Congestion-Aware Transport Protocol):
o RCRT is designed to address reliability and congestion control in WSNs. It
provides reliable data delivery by using retransmission strategies while
avoiding congestion through adaptive control mechanisms.
o Key Feature: Combines reliability and congestion control to optimize data
transmission without overwhelming the network.
6. SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) for WSN:
o SCTP is another transport protocol that has been adapted for WSNs. It
provides multi-homing, which means it can use multiple network paths for
data transmission, improving reliability and fault tolerance in WSNs.
o Key Feature: It supports multi-streaming and multi-homing, which enhances
the protocol's reliability in sensor networks with multiple communication
paths.

7. What are Requirements and design constraints for wireless MAC protocols. (Apr 23)

Ans- When designing Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols for Wireless Sensor
Networks (WSNs), several requirements and design constraints need to be considered to
ensure efficient and reliable operation of the network.

Key Requirements:

1. Energy Efficiency:
o One of the most critical design requirements in WSNs is minimizing energy
consumption. Since sensor nodes are typically battery-powered, energy-
efficient MAC protocols help prolong the network's lifetime by reducing idle
listening, unnecessary transmissions, and retransmissions.
2. Low Latency:
 o Many WSN applications (e.g., real-time monitoring) require low-latency
communication. The MAC protocol should ensure that data can be transmitted
with minimal delays.
3. Scalability:
o WSNs can consist of hundreds or thousands of nodes, so the MAC protocol
must scale well with increasing nodes without causing significant delays or
excessive energy consumption.
4. Fairness:
o A fair MAC protocol ensures that all nodes in the network get a fair share of
the communication channel, preventing network congestion and unfair
prioritization of certain nodes.
5. Collision Avoidance:
o A key requirement is to minimize collisions during data transmission.
Collisions waste energy and bandwidth and can lead to retransmissions.
Efficient collision avoidance mechanisms are crucial.

Design Constraints:

1. Limited Energy Resources:

o Since sensor nodes rely on limited battery power, the MAC protocol should
prioritize low power consumption, minimizing time spent in active mode and
efficiently managing idle times.
2. Unreliable Communication:
o Wireless communication is often unreliable due to interference, multipath
fading, and node mobility. The MAC protocol should be robust to these
challenges, ensuring reliable communication even in harsh conditions.
3. Variable Topology:
o In WSNs, the network topology can change frequently due to node failures,
mobility, or energy depletion. The MAC protocol should adapt to these
topology changes and maintain effective communication.
4. Low Data Rates:
o Sensor networks typically operate at low data rates compared to traditional
wireless networks, so the MAC protocol should be efficient in handling low-
throughput communication while minimizing overhead.
5. Synchronization:
o Proper synchronization between nodes is often necessary for efficient
communication. The protocol should minimize synchronization overhead
while ensuring that nodes can effectively coordinate their transmission and
reception times.

8. Discuss issues in designing MAC protocol for adhoc-networks. (Apr 23)

Ans- Ad-hoc networks, unlike traditional networks, do not rely on fixed infrastructure like
routers and base stations. The nodes in Ad-hoc networks communicate with each other
dynamically, which introduces several challenges for designing an effective MAC protocol.

Key Issues in Designing MAC Protocols for Ad-hoc Networks:

 1. Dynamic Topology:
o In ad-hoc networks, the topology is constantly changing due to node
mobility. As nodes move, the network topology evolves, causing frequent
changes in the route and communication paths. The MAC protocol needs to
handle frequent topology changes without introducing excessive overhead.
2. Hidden and Exposed Terminal Problems:
o In ad-hoc networks, hidden terminal and exposed terminal problems can
occur, leading to collisions and underutilized channels.
 Hidden Terminal Problem: A node may not detect another node’s
transmission, leading to collision.
 Exposed Terminal Problem: A node may unnecessarily defer
transmission, leading to inefficient channel utilization.
o The MAC protocol must handle these problems through techniques like
collision avoidance (e.g., RTS/CTS).
3. Interference:
o Ad-hoc networks are prone to interference due to the shared wireless
medium. The MAC protocol should minimize interference between nodes,
possibly through power control or frequency management.
4. Scalability:
o Ad-hoc networks can scale to hundreds or thousands of nodes. The MAC
protocol should be scalable, ensuring efficient communication in both small
and large networks without excessive overhead or delays.
5. Energy Efficiency:
o Since nodes in ad-hoc networks are typically battery-powered, energy
conservation is crucial. The MAC protocol should minimize energy
consumption, particularly during idle listening, unnecessary retransmissions,
and control overhead.
6. Fairness:
o Fair access to the communication medium is important in ad-hoc networks.
The MAC protocol should prevent starvation of nodes and ensure that all
nodes can transmit data fairly.
7. QoS (Quality of Service):
o Some applications in ad-hoc networks require specific QoS guarantees, such
as low latency, high throughput, or reliability. The MAC protocol must
address these requirements while managing the contention for the channel.

9. Explain SPIN protocol. (Apr 19)

Ans-The SPIN (Sensor Protocols for Information via Negotiation) protocol is a data-
centric protocol designed for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). It aims to reduce
redundant data transmission and conserve energy by using a negotiation mechanism. The
core concept behind SPIN is to ensure that each sensor node only transmits data that is new
or relevant to other nodes in the network. This helps to reduce energy consumption, which
is critical in WSNs where nodes typically operate on limited battery power.

How SPIN Works:

1. Negotiation:
 o When a node wants to send data, it advertises its data to its neighbors. The
advertisement contains a metadata description (e.g., type of data, size).
o The neighboring nodes reply to the advertisement if they are interested in
receiving the data. This negotiation prevents redundant transmissions,
ensuring that only nodes with a genuine interest in the data will receive it.
2. Data Transfer:
o Once the negotiation is successful, the node sends the actual data to interested
neighbors.
o This reduces unnecessary data forwarding and ensures that only nodes that
need the data will receive it.
3. Data Propagation:
o The data is then propagated through the network in a similar fashion, with
each node negotiating data before sending it to its neighbors. This process
helps in controlling the amount of traffic in the network and conserving
energy.
4. Benefits of SPIN:
o Energy-Efficiency: SPIN reduces unnecessary communication by preventing
redundant data transfers.
o Data-Centric: The protocol focuses on data rather than addressing individual
nodes, making it more suited for sensor networks where data is more
important than the specific origin of the data.
5. Drawbacks:
o SPIN may not be as efficient in highly dynamic networks where the network
topology changes frequently.

10. Explain periodic listen and sleep operation in S-MAC. (Apr 19)

Ans-S-MAC (Sensor MAC) is a Medium Access Control protocol specifically designed for
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), with a focus on energy efficiency. S-MAC reduces
energy consumption by introducing sleeping and listening schedules.

Key Concepts of S-MAC:

1. Periodic Listen and Sleep Operation:

o In S-MAC, nodes alternate between listening (active) and sleeping (inactive)
modes. This periodic operation helps in conserving energy.
o Sleep Mode:
 When a node is not transmitting or receiving data, it enters a sleep
mode to save energy.
 During sleep, the node does not listen to the channel, which reduces
its energy consumption significantly.
o Listen Mode:
 Nodes wake up periodically to listen for incoming data or control
messages. This means the node is actively listening for any
transmission from other nodes.
 The listen period allows nodes to receive data or control messages that
might have been sent during the sleep period.
2. Schedule Coordination:
 o To ensure that nodes do not miss any important communication during sleep,
nodes in the network use a synchronized schedule. Each node coordinates its
sleep and listen cycles with its neighbors.
o Synchronization is crucial to avoid collisions when multiple nodes try to
transmit at the same time.
3. Benefits of Periodic Listen and Sleep in S-MAC:
o Energy Conservation: By only listening periodically, nodes can save
significant amounts of energy compared to always-on listening (as in
traditional MAC protocols like IEEE 802.11).
o Improved Network Lifetime: The protocol extends the lifetime of the sensor
network by reducing energy usage.
4. Drawbacks:
o Latency: The periodic wake-up and sleep cycles can introduce delays in data
transmission, making it less suitable for real-time applications.
o Synchronization Overhead: Maintaining synchronization among nodes can
introduce additional complexity and overhead.

11. How Power-efficient gathering in sensor information systems (PEGASIS) routing

protocol works? (Apr 19)

Ans-PEGASIS (Power-Efficient GAthering in Sensor Information System) is a

hierarchical routing protocol designed for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). The primary
goal of PEGASIS is to minimize energy consumption by reducing the number of
transmissions and consolidating data. It achieves this through clustering and data
aggregation techniques.

How PEGASIS Works:

1. Clustering:
o PEGASIS organizes the network into clusters, where each node in a cluster
communicates with a cluster leader (also called a cluster head).
o The nodes within each cluster gather and aggregate data from their local
sensors. This aggregation reduces the overall amount of data that needs to be
transmitted.
2. Data Aggregation and Transmission:
o Once data is aggregated at the cluster head, the cluster head transmits the
aggregated data to a higher-level node, which may be a base station or
another cluster head.
o The idea is that the data is aggregated at each level, minimizing the amount of
data transmitted over long distances, which in turn conserves energy.
3. Rotation of Cluster Heads:
o To prevent a single node from consuming too much energy by constantly
being the cluster head, PEGASIS rotates the role of cluster head among nodes.
This helps balance the energy usage across the network.
4. Benefits of PEGASIS:
 oEnergy Efficiency: By reducing the number of transmissions (via
aggregation), PEGASIS significantly reduces the overall energy consumption
in the network.
o Improved Network Lifetime: Energy-efficient transmission and clustering
help to extend the lifetime of the sensor network.
o Scalability: PEGASIS is highly scalable, and it can handle networks with
large numbers of nodes.
5. Drawbacks:
o Complexity: PEGASIS requires cluster formation and data aggregation,
which introduces complexity in terms of network management and
synchronization.
o Latency: Since data must be aggregated at intermediate nodes, there may be a
slight delay in the delivery of data to the base station.

12. Explain different performance requirements of MAC protocol. (Apr 19)

19)

Ans-In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), the MAC (Medium Access Control) protocol
plays a crucial role in managing access to the shared wireless medium. For a MAC protocol
to be effective, it must satisfy various performance requirements that ensure efficient use of
resources, reliable communication, and energy conservation.

Key Performance Requirements of MAC Protocols:

1. Energy Efficiency:
o Since nodes in WSNs are typically battery-powered, energy efficiency is one
of the most critical performance requirements.
o MAC protocols must minimize energy consumption, especially during idle
listening, data transmission, and control overhead.
o Techniques like sleep schedules and duty cycling (e.g., in S-MAC) are
commonly used to save energy.
2. Throughput:
o The throughput of the MAC protocol refers to the amount of data transmitted
successfully over the network in a given time period.
o A good MAC protocol should provide a reasonable throughput while avoiding
congestion and excessive retransmissions, which can waste energy.
3. Fairness:
o Fairness ensures that all nodes in the network have an equal opportunity to
access the communication medium and send their data without any node being
starved or overwhelmed.
o A MAC protocol should avoid scenarios where some nodes monopolize the
channel while others are not able to transmit.
4. Latency:
o The latency refers to the time it takes for a message to travel from the sender
to the receiver.
o For some applications (e.g., real-time monitoring), low latency is critical, and
the MAC protocol must ensure timely delivery of data.
 5. Scalability:
o A MAC protocol should scale effectively as the number of nodes in the
network increases.
o In large-scale sensor networks, the protocol should be able to handle increased
traffic, node density, and topology changes without significant degradation in
performance.
6. Reliability:
o Reliability ensures that data is delivered successfully to the intended
destination despite challenges like signal interference, collisions, or fading
channels.
o The MAC protocol should provide mechanisms like retransmissions and
error detection to enhance reliability.
7. Collision Avoidance:
o Collisions occur when multiple nodes attempt to transmit data simultaneously.
Collisions waste energy and bandwidth.
o The MAC protocol should incorporate mechanisms like RTS/CTS (Request
to Send/Clear to Send) or collision-free scheduling to minimize collisions.
8. Quality of Service (QoS):
o For certain applications, such as industrial or military monitoring, Quality of
Service (QoS) guarantees like bandwidth allocation, delay bounds, or data
integrity might be needed.
o The MAC protocol must support QoS requirements for different types of data
traffic.
9. Robustness:
o A MAC protocol must be robust to network failures, node mobility, and
environmental changes. This includes adapting to changes in topology and
handling packet loss and retransmissions effectively.

13. What is Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy? State its advantages and

disadvantages. (Apr 23)

Ans-Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) is a clustering-based routing

protocol designed to improve energy efficiency in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs).
LEACH helps to reduce the overall energy consumption by organizing the sensor nodes into
clusters, where each cluster has a cluster head (CH) that aggregates data from its members
and sends it to the base station.

How LEACH Works:

1. Cluster Formation:
o In LEACH, the network is divided into clusters, and each cluster is managed
by a cluster head. The cluster head is responsible for collecting data from
other nodes within its cluster, performing data aggregation, and sending it to
the base station.
o The cluster heads rotate periodically to balance energy consumption among
the nodes.
2. Data Transmission:
 oThe sensor nodes transmit their data to their respective cluster head, which
then aggregates the data and sends it to the base station.
o The rotation of cluster heads helps distribute the energy load and prevents any
node from depleting its battery quickly.
3. Energy Efficiency:
o LEACH minimizes energy consumption by reducing the number of
transmissions to the base station, as only cluster heads transmit data over long
distances.
o By using local communication within clusters, LEACH reduces the overall
energy consumption, especially for nodes further away from the base station.

Advantages of LEACH:

1. Energy Efficiency:
o LEACH reduces energy consumption by limiting the transmission distance of
nodes. The use of local communication within clusters minimizes the overall
energy expenditure.
2. Scalability:
o LEACH can work in large-scale networks as the clustering mechanism helps
in managing the network size efficiently.
3. Load Balancing:
o By rotating the cluster head role, LEACH prevents energy depletion in any
single node, balancing the energy consumption across the network.
4. Data Aggregation:
o LEACH performs data aggregation, which reduces the amount of data that
needs to be sent to the base station, conserving bandwidth and energy.

Disadvantages of LEACH:

1. Synchronization Overhead:
o LEACH requires synchronization among nodes for proper clustering and
cluster head rotation, which can result in some overhead.
2. Cluster Head Selection:
o The process of selecting cluster heads is random in LEACH, which might
result in suboptimal cluster head placement, especially in highly
heterogeneous networks.
3. Scalability Limitations:
o While LEACH is scalable to some extent, it may face difficulties in extremely
large networks due to the limitations in cluster size and the overhead of
maintaining clusters.
4. Single-Hop Communication:
o LEACH uses single-hop communication from sensor nodes to cluster heads,
which can cause issues in networks with large distances between nodes and
base stations.

14. Explain directional busy-tone-based MAC protocol in detail (Apr 23)

Ans- The Directional Busy-Tone-Based MAC Protocol is a method used to manage the
sharing of the wireless medium in a network by preventing interference between nodes
during communication. It uses directional antennas and a busy tone signal to indicate when a
node is engaged in communication.

Working Principle:

1. Directional Antennas: The nodes use directional antennas to focus their transmission
in specific directions rather than broadcasting in all directions. This allows for more
efficient use of the medium by reducing interference to other nodes outside the
communication range.
2. Busy Tone: When a node is engaged in communication, it emits a busy tone (a
special signal) in the direction of the transmitting or receiving node. This busy tone
acts as an indicator to other nodes in the network that the medium is currently in use,
preventing them from transmitting in that direction to avoid collisions.
3. Collision Avoidance: The busy tone mechanism helps in collision avoidance by
ensuring that only one node can transmit in a particular direction at a time. When
other nodes receive the busy tone, they defer their transmission, avoiding interference.
4. Capacity Enhancement: The use of directional antennas increases network capacity
as multiple communications can take place simultaneously in different directions
without causing interference. The busy tone signal acts as a coordination mechanism
for nodes to avoid simultaneous transmissions in the same direction.
5. Applications: This protocol is particularly useful in environments where there is high
demand for bandwidth and where interference management is critical. It is commonly
applied in wireless networks, such as mesh networks or ad-hoc networks.

15. Explain Single-Hop versus Multi-Hop Networks. (Apr 23)

Ans-A Single-Hop Network and a Multi-Hop Network are two types of network
configurations that define the path a data packet takes to travel from a source node to a
destination node.

Single-Hop Network:

 Definition: In a single-hop network, data is transmitted directly from the source node
to the destination node without any intermediate nodes or relays.
 Communication: The communication occurs in one hop, meaning that the source and
destination are within the range of each other (in a wireless network, within radio
range).
 Advantages:
o Simple to implement.
o Lower latency due to direct communication.
o No reliance on intermediate nodes, making it less prone to routing errors or
delays.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited by the range of the nodes, which may not be feasible in large
networks.
o Scalability issues, as nodes must be within direct communication range.
Multi-Hop Network:

 Definition: In a multi-hop network, data is transmitted from the source node to the
destination node through one or more intermediate nodes, called relays.
 Communication: The message is forwarded through multiple hops, with each
intermediate node forwarding the packet to the next until it reaches the destination.
 Advantages:
o More scalable than single-hop networks because nodes do not need to be in
direct communication range of each other.
o Can cover a larger geographic area by using multiple relay nodes.
o Reduces power consumption for nodes that do not need to transmit over long
distances directly.
 Disadvantages:
o Increased latency due to the multiple hops.
o Higher complexity in routing and managing the data across multiple nodes.
o Risk of bottlenecks or failures if any of the intermediate nodes fail.

16. How Congestion Detection and Avoidance works? (Apr 19)

Ans-Congestion detection and avoidance mechanisms are crucial in network protocols (such
as TCP) to prevent excessive data traffic from overloading the network and causing packet
loss, delays, or reduced throughput.

Congestion Detection:

1. Packet Loss: One of the most common signs of congestion in a network is packet
loss. If a router or switch is overwhelmed with traffic, it may drop packets. This
packet loss is often used by protocols (like TCP) as an indicator of congestion.
2. Round-Trip Time (RTT) Increase: If congestion occurs, the time it takes for
packets to travel to their destination and back (RTT) often increases. This delay can
be monitored and used to detect congestion.
3. Buffer Overflows: Network devices (routers/switches) maintain buffers to hold
packets in case of congestion. If the buffer overflows, this results in packet loss. This
can be monitored to detect congestion.
4. Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN): Some modern networks use ECN, where
network devices mark packets instead of dropping them when congestion is detected.
This helps the source node detect and react to congestion without packet loss.

Congestion Avoidance:

1. TCP Congestion Control: TCP uses mechanisms like slow start, congestion
avoidance, fast retransmit, and fast recovery to avoid congestion. For example:
o Slow Start: Initially, TCP sends data slowly and increases the transmission
rate until packet loss occurs, indicating congestion.
o Congestion Avoidance: Once a threshold is reached, TCP reduces the rate of
increase in the sending window to avoid congestion.
 2. Traffic Shaping: This involves regulating the amount of data sent into the network to
prevent congestion. For instance, controlling the data rate sent to the network using
techniques like leaky bucket or token bucket.
3. Random Early Detection (RED): RED is a congestion avoidance algorithm that
works by monitoring average queue sizes in routers. If the queue size exceeds a
certain threshold, packets are randomly dropped or marked, signaling congestion to
the sender.
4. Backpressure: In networks with flow control, backpressure signals the sender to
reduce its transmission rate if network buffers are filling up.

17. Explain TCP operation.

Ans-Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented, reliable transport layer

protocol used to ensure that data is sent and received accurately over an unreliable network
like the internet. The operation of TCP involves several stages:

1. Connection Establishment (Three-Way Handshake):

 SYN: The client sends a SYN (synchronize) message to the server, requesting a
connection.
 SYN-ACK: The server responds with a SYN-ACK message, acknowledging the
connection request.
 ACK: The client sends an ACK (acknowledgment) message back, confirming the
connection.

2. Data Transmission:

 Segmentation: Data is broken into smaller segments, each with a sequence number.
Each segment has a header containing control information like sequence numbers,
acknowledgment numbers, and flags.
 Flow Control: TCP uses a sliding window mechanism to ensure that data is sent at a
rate that the receiver can handle.
 Error Detection: TCP includes a checksum in each segment to detect errors in
transmission. If an error is detected, the data is retransmitted.

3. Acknowledgment and Retransmission:

 The receiver sends an acknowledgment (ACK) back to the sender after receiving a
segment. The ACK includes the sequence number of the next expected byte.
 If the sender does not receive an ACK within a timeout period, it retransmits the
segment.

4. Congestion Control:

 TCP adjusts its transmission rate based on network congestion. It uses algorithms like
slow start, congestion avoidance, fast retransmit, and fast recovery to control the
flow of data and avoid overloading the network.
5. Connection Termination:

 FIN: Either side of the connection sends a FIN (finish) message to indicate that they
have no more data to send.
 ACK: The other side acknowledges the termination request with an ACK.
 This process may involve two or more steps to ensure that both sides have completed
the transmission.

Summary of Key TCP Features:

 Reliable Delivery: Ensures data is delivered correctly and in order.

 Flow Control: Prevents network congestion by controlling the rate of data transfer.
 Congestion Control: Adjusts the transmission rate based on network conditions.
 Error Recovery: Retransmits lost or corrupted data packets.

TCP’s operation ensures that data transfer over the network is reliable, efficient, and
managed properly to avoid congestion and packet loss.

18. Explain feasibility of using TCP/UDP for WSN.

Ans-Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are networks of sensors that collect data and
communicate wirelessly. The suitability of TCP and UDP protocols in WSNs depends on the
network's characteristics and application requirements. Here’s an analysis of their feasibility:

TCP in WSNs:

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that guarantees reliable delivery of data. However, it

has several challenges when used in WSNs:

1. Reliability and Overhead: While TCP ensures reliable data transfer with features
like acknowledgment and retransmission, WSNs often deal with lossy and unreliable
channels, frequent node mobility, and limited resources (battery, processing power).
The overhead introduced by these features (such as acknowledgments,
retransmissions, and congestion control) can be very high for sensor nodes.
2. Congestion Control: TCP has built-in congestion control mechanisms that could lead
to unnecessary delays or packet drops in WSNs. In networks with high loss rates or
limited bandwidth, these congestion control features may not work optimally and
could result in inefficient data delivery.
3. Energy Consumption: Due to the frequent communication needed for packet
acknowledgment, retransmissions, and connection maintenance (handshakes), TCP
can cause higher energy consumption in sensor nodes, which is a significant concern
in WSNs, where energy efficiency is crucial.
4. Complexity: TCP's complex mechanisms (like flow control, congestion avoidance,
and retransmission) may be too heavy for the limited computational and memory
resources available on many sensor nodes.

UDP in WSNs:
UDP is a connectionless protocol that does not guarantee reliable delivery of packets but is
much simpler and faster than TCP. UDP is often more suitable for WSNs due to the
following reasons:

1. Low Overhead: UDP has much lower protocol overhead compared to TCP because it
does not require connection establishment, acknowledgments, or retransmissions.
This makes it more efficient for applications that tolerate some packet loss but need
low-latency communication.
2. Real-time Data: Many WSN applications (like environmental monitoring or
surveillance) require real-time data transmission where some packet loss is
acceptable. UDP is well-suited for these applications because it enables faster
communication without the delays associated with TCP.
3. Energy Efficiency: Since UDP does not involve the extensive acknowledgment,
retransmission, and flow control mechanisms of TCP, it is more energy-efficient,
which is crucial for battery-powered sensor nodes.
4. Simplicity: UDP is simpler to implement and requires fewer resources, making it
suitable for resource-constrained sensor devices.

Challenges for UDP in WSNs:

 Packet Loss: Without reliability mechanisms, UDP can suffer from packet loss,
which is common in WSNs due to unreliable wireless links.
 No Congestion Control: UDP does not provide any congestion control mechanisms,
which can lead to network congestion if many nodes are transmitting data
simultaneously.

Conclusion:

 TCP is not well-suited for WSNs due to its overhead, energy consumption, and
complexity. It might be used in scenarios where reliable communication is necessary,
and network conditions are controlled (e.g., in static, low-loss networks).
 UDP is more feasible for most WSN applications because of its simplicity, low
overhead, and energy efficiency. It is ideal for applications where some loss of data is
acceptable (e.g., monitoring systems with real-time requirements) and low latency is
critical.

19. Write a short note on SMACS.

Ans-SMACS (Sensor Medium Access Control) is a protocol designed for medium access
control (MAC) in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). It focuses on efficiently managing
how sensor nodes access the shared wireless channel to transmit data, considering the unique
challenges of WSNs, such as limited energy, processing power, and bandwidth.

Key Features of SMACS:

1. Low Power Consumption: SMACS is designed to reduce energy consumption,

which is a crucial consideration for sensor networks that rely on battery-powered
 devices. It uses techniques like duty cycling, where nodes alternate between active
and sleep states to save energy.
2. Channel Access Mechanism: SMACS typically uses a combination of contention-
based and contention-free mechanisms for medium access:
o Contention-based: In low traffic scenarios, nodes may use a random access
method (like CSMA/CA) to avoid collisions.
o Contention-free: In high traffic scenarios, SMACS may switch to scheduled
access, where time slots are assigned to nodes to avoid collisions and reduce
the chances of interference.
3. Efficient Collision Avoidance: By using a hybrid approach, SMACS helps to reduce
collisions, which can waste energy and cause delays. The protocol ensures that when
nodes have data to send, they either access the medium randomly (if the traffic is
light) or follow a schedule (in case of heavy traffic).
4. Adaptive: SMACS can adapt to varying network conditions, like node density, traffic
load, and energy constraints. The protocol dynamically adjusts the channel access
mechanism (contention-based or contention-free) based on the current network
conditions.
5. Scalability: SMACS is designed to scale efficiently as the number of nodes in the
network grows. It ensures that even in large-scale sensor networks, the medium access
is managed effectively to prevent congestion and collisions.

Applications of SMACS:

 Environmental Monitoring: In applications where sensor nodes are deployed to

monitor environmental parameters like temperature, humidity, or pollution, SMACS
ensures energy-efficient communication.
 Industrial IoT: SMACS can be used in industrial settings to monitor machinery and
equipment, ensuring that sensor nodes can transmit data without consuming too much
power.
 Healthcare: In medical sensor networks, where energy and timely data transmission
are crucial, SMACS can help ensure efficient communication between sensors.

Conclusion:

SMACS is designed to address the unique challenges of Wireless Sensor Networks by

providing an energy-efficient, scalable, and adaptive solution for medium access control. It
optimizes communication and reduces energy consumption, which is essential for the long-
term operation of sensor networks.