Wireless Sensor Network &

Mobile- Unit1

1. What is a Wireless Sensor Network and its application? (Apr 23) (Apr 19)

Ans- Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a network of spatially distributed autonomous

sensors that monitor physical or environmental conditions such as temperature, sound,
pressure, humidity, etc. These sensors communicate with each other and send data to a
central base station for analysis. WSNs are designed to collect and relay data without relying
on wired infrastructure.

Applications of WSNs:

 Environmental Monitoring: Sensors can detect changes in air quality, temperature,

humidity, and pollutants in the environment. For instance, monitoring forest fires or
pollution levels.
 Health Monitoring: Wearable sensors track a patient's health parameters like heart
rate, temperature, and blood pressure, and transmit this data to healthcare providers.
 Industrial Automation: WSNs can monitor equipment health, control production
lines, and track goods and materials in manufacturing plants.
 Agriculture: Sensors measure soil moisture, temperature, and nutrient levels, helping
farmers optimize irrigation, fertilizers, and overall crop management.
 Smart Homes and Buildings: Used in automation for controlling lighting, heating,
security, and energy management.
 Military Applications: Surveillance, reconnaissance, and battlefield monitoring
using wireless sensors for detecting movement, gunfire, or environmental conditions.

2. Discuss on Issues and Challenges in Designing a Sensor Networks? (Apr 23)

Ans- The design of a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) faces several issues and challenges:

a. Energy Constraints:

 Sensors are often battery-powered and deployed in large numbers, making energy
consumption one of the most critical concerns. Efficient power management and
energy harvesting techniques are essential.

b. Scalability:

 As the number of sensors increases, the network must be able to scale efficiently. This
includes managing communication overhead and ensuring that the system remains
functional without degradation in performance.
c. Connectivity and Communication:

 Maintaining reliable communication in a wireless medium can be challenging due to

signal interference, noise, fading, and limited bandwidth. Routing protocols must
efficiently handle communication between sensors and the base station.

d. Security:

 WSNs are prone to various security risks, such as eavesdropping, data tampering, and
denial-of-service attacks. Robust encryption, authentication, and secure
communication protocols are necessary.

e. Data Management and Processing:

 Sensor nodes generate large amounts of data, which need to be processed and
analyzed. Efficient data aggregation and compression methods must be employed to
minimize data transmission and reduce congestion.

f. Localization and Calibration:

 Sensors need accurate localization to provide meaningful data (e.g., location-based

measurements). Inaccurate positioning can affect the quality of data, making
localization a significant challenge.

g. Fault Tolerance:

 Due to the distributed nature of WSNs, node failure or malfunction can occur. The
network must be fault-tolerant, ensuring continued operation in the event of individual
sensor node failure.

h. Deployment and Maintenance:

 Deploying a WSN in large-scale or inaccessible areas (such as forests, oceans, or

battlefields) is a logistical challenge. Also, post-deployment maintenance for sensor
calibration or battery replacement can be difficult.

3. Explain in detail various components of WSN.

Ans- A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) consists of several key components:

a. Sensor Nodes:

 Sensing Unit: Responsible for detecting the environmental condition. It converts the
physical phenomenon (temperature, pressure, etc.) into electrical signals.
 Processing Unit (Microcontroller): It processes the sensor data and determines the
next action. This could include running algorithms for data aggregation or deciding
the transmission path.
  Communication Unit: Responsible for transmitting the data between nodes and the
base station. This includes wireless radios, antennas, and communication protocols
(e.g., ZigBee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi).
 Power Unit: Provides the necessary energy for the operation of sensor nodes,
typically from batteries, energy harvesting systems, or solar panels.

b. Sink (Base Station):

 This is the central unit that collects data from the sensor nodes and can be a mobile or
fixed entity. It processes the data and acts as the communication point with external
systems (e.g., cloud servers or user devices).

c. Communication Infrastructure:

 This includes the wireless communication channels (e.g., radio frequencies, ZigBee,
Wi-Fi) and protocols used for transmitting data. The network topology and routing
algorithms determine how data flows from sensor nodes to the sink.

d. Power Supply:

 Since WSNs are typically deployed in remote or inaccessible locations, power is

usually provided by batteries or energy harvesting methods like solar energy or
vibration-based generators.

e. Middleware:

 Middleware manages the interaction between sensor networks and applications. It

supports data aggregation, network management, fault tolerance, and security.

f. Software and Applications:

 Software systems manage data collection, processing, and analysis. Applications use
this data for decision-making, such as controlling a smart home, monitoring a patient's
health, or detecting environmental hazards.

4. Explain sensor taxonomy in WSNs.

Ans-Sensor taxonomy in WSNs classifies sensors based on various criteria like their
functionality, deployment, or the type of data they collect. The common taxonomies are:

a. Based on Functionality:

 Environmental Sensors: Measure physical parameters like temperature, humidity,

light, pressure, etc.
 Proximity Sensors: Detect the presence of nearby objects or people (e.g., motion
sensors, RFID).
 Position Sensors: Determine location, e.g., GPS sensors.
 Acoustic Sensors: Used to detect sound or vibrations.
  Chemical Sensors: Measure the concentration of chemicals in the air or water.

b. Based on Deployment:

 Fixed Sensors: Sensors that remain stationary and continuously monitor a specific
region.
 Mobile Sensors: Sensors that are movable and can change locations (e.g., drones,
robots).

c. Based on Communication Range:

 Short-Range Sensors: Have limited communication range, typically used for indoor
environments.
 Long-Range Sensors: Designed to work over long distances, typically used for
outdoor monitoring (e.g., satellite, cellular-based sensors).

d. Based on Power Consumption:

 Low-Power Sensors: Designed to operate efficiently on small batteries for long

periods (often used in remote monitoring).
 High-Power Sensors: Require more energy for high processing and communication
requirements (e.g., real-time data transmission, video sensors).

e. Based on Application:

 Health Sensors: Monitor health parameters like heart rate, blood pressure, glucose
levels.
 Agricultural Sensors: Measure soil moisture, temperature, and crop health.
 Industrial Sensors: Used in factories to monitor machine performance, safety, and
productivity.

This taxonomy helps in selecting the appropriate sensor type for specific applications within
a WSN.

5. Explain Design principles for WSNs.

Ans- Designing a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) involves several principles to ensure
efficient, scalable, and reliable operation. The key design principles are:

a. Energy Efficiency:

 Since sensor nodes are often battery-powered, energy conservation is a crucial aspect
of WSN design. Protocols and algorithms should minimize energy consumption
through low-power operation modes, energy-efficient routing, data aggregation, and
low communication overhead.

b. Scalability:
  WSNs may consist of a large number of sensor nodes. The network should be scalable
to accommodate increasing sensor nodes without significant performance
degradation. This requires scalable protocols for communication, data aggregation,
and routing that can efficiently handle growing data traffic.

c. Fault Tolerance:

 WSNs are prone to node failures due to environmental conditions, battery depletion,
or physical damage. The design should include mechanisms for fault detection and
recovery, as well as ensuring that the network can continue functioning even if some
nodes fail.

d. Self-Configuration and Self-Organization:

 A WSN should be able to automatically configure and organize itself upon

deployment, adapting to the environment and topology. This includes node discovery,
network initialization, and establishing communication paths without human
intervention.

e. Data Aggregation and Compression:

 To minimize communication overhead and conserve energy, the data from multiple
sensors should be aggregated before being transmitted. Aggregation can be done in-
network (at the sensor nodes or intermediate nodes) to reduce the volume of
transmitted data.

f. Quality of Service (QoS):

 WSNs may need to meet specific performance requirements such as delay,

throughput, and reliability. QoS mechanisms ensure that the network can meet these
demands under varying conditions by prioritizing critical data and optimizing
resources.

g. Security:

 WSNs are susceptible to various attacks, including eavesdropping, data manipulation,

and denial of service. Security mechanisms like encryption, authentication, and secure
communication protocols must be incorporated to protect the network and data
integrity.

h. Cost Efficiency:

 Since WSNs are often deployed in large quantities, the cost of each sensor node,
including energy consumption, processing power, and communication capabilities,
should be optimized.

i. Minimal Latency:
  Time-sensitive applications (e.g., emergency alerts) require low latency in data
collection and transmission. Efficient routing and processing techniques must be
employed to minimize delays.

6. State the reasons why gateways are needed in WSN. (Apr 23)

Ans- Gateways play a critical role in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), and their need
arises from several factors:

a. Connectivity Between Different Network Layers:

 Gateways serve as intermediaries between the sensor network and external networks
(e.g., the internet, or corporate networks). They bridge communication between
sensor nodes (which use low-power, short-range communication) and external devices
or servers (which typically use high-power, long-range communication).

b. Protocol Translation:

 Sensor nodes use specific communication protocols such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, or

6LoWPAN, which may not be compatible with the protocols used by external
networks (e.g., TCP/IP). Gateways handle protocol translation, enabling seamless
communication between different network layers.

c. Data Aggregation:

 Gateways can aggregate data from multiple sensor nodes before transmitting it to the
external network. This reduces the amount of data being transmitted and helps in
efficient bandwidth utilization.

d. Energy Conservation:

 Since sensor nodes have limited power, using gateways for data aggregation and
transmission helps conserve energy by reducing the frequency of communication
between sensor nodes and the external network.

e. Security Management:

 Gateways can also enforce security protocols such as data encryption, authentication,
and intrusion detection before data is sent out from the sensor network to the external
systems, protecting sensitive information.

f. Network Management:

 Gateways provide centralized network management functions like monitoring sensor

node health, controlling network configuration, and diagnosing problems within the
network, ensuring that the WSN operates efficiently.
g. Interoperability:

 Gateways enable interoperability between heterogeneous WSNs, allowing different

types of sensors to work together even if they use different communication standards.

7. What are the different functionalities that a service interface should provide in WSN?

(Apr 19)

Ans- The service interface in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) acts as a communication
and interaction layer between the sensor network and external systems or applications. It
should provide the following functionalities:

a. Data Collection:

 The interface should allow the external system to request and retrieve data from the
sensor nodes. This data can include various environmental parameters like
temperature, humidity, pressure, etc.

b. Data Aggregation:

 It should allow the aggregation of sensor data to reduce the amount of transmitted
data. This can include techniques for filtering, compression, or fusion to send only the
necessary information.

c. Event Notification:

 The service interface should support event-driven communication, where the network
can send notifications or alerts to external systems when predefined conditions (such
as thresholds) are met (e.g., detection of fire, gas leakage, or security breach).

d. Sensor Management:

 The interface should provide functions for managing the network's sensors, such as
configuring sensor parameters, checking node status, and controlling sensor behavior
(e.g., turning sensors on/off based on network requirements).

e. Localization Services:

 For applications requiring location-based data, the service interface should support
localization services, enabling the determination of the position of sensor nodes in the
network.

f. Fault Detection and Diagnosis:

 The interface should allow for monitoring the health of sensor nodes and provide
mechanisms to detect and diagnose any network or node failures. This includes
alerting the system to malfunctioning nodes or connectivity issues.
g. Security Management:

 The service interface should provide access to security-related functions, including

authentication, encryption, and access control, to ensure secure communication and
data exchange between sensor nodes and external systems.

h. Network Configuration:

 The interface should support the configuration and reconfiguration of the network,
enabling it to adjust to changes in the environment or network topology. This could
include altering routing paths, adjusting communication parameters, or adding new
sensors.

i. QoS Monitoring:

 For applications requiring Quality of Service (QoS), the interface should provide
monitoring of network performance metrics like latency, throughput, and reliability,
ensuring the network meets the necessary service levels.

8. Explain Ad-hoc Network. Describe its characteristics and state the challenges faced

by it in WSN.

Ans- Ad-hoc Network:

An Ad-hoc Network is a decentralized network that does not rely on any pre-existing
infrastructure such as routers or access points. In ad-hoc networks, nodes communicate
directly with each other, forming a dynamic and self-configuring network. These networks
are particularly useful in situations where it is impractical to set up infrastructure, such as in
mobile environments or emergency situations.

Characteristics of Ad-hoc Networks:

1. Dynamic Topology:
o Ad-hoc networks have a constantly changing topology as nodes join or leave
the network. This requires protocols capable of adapting to the dynamic nature
of the network.
2. Decentralized Control:
o There is no centralized control in ad-hoc networks. Each node has equal
responsibility for managing network tasks, such as routing and forwarding
data.
3. Autonomous Operation:
o Nodes in an ad-hoc network can operate autonomously without relying on a
fixed infrastructure. This makes them suitable for temporary or emergency
networks.
4. Limited Resources:
o Nodes in ad-hoc networks are often resource-constrained (in terms of power,
memory, and processing capacity), so efficient resource management is
crucial.
 5. Multihop Communication:
o Nodes may communicate indirectly, passing data through intermediate nodes.
This requires efficient routing protocols to ensure reliable communication.

Challenges Faced by Ad-hoc Networks in WSN:

1. Routing Complexity:
o Due to the dynamic topology and multihop communication, efficient routing
protocols are required to handle node mobility, link failure, and the constantly
changing network.
2. Energy Consumption:
o Ad-hoc networks often rely on battery-powered nodes. Ensuring energy
efficiency in terms of communication, processing, and maintaining the
network is a significant challenge.
3. Security:
o Ad-hoc networks are vulnerable to various security threats, such as
eavesdropping, malicious attacks, and unauthorized access. Ensuring secure
communication in a decentralized network is challenging.
4. Scalability:
o As the number of nodes increases, the network may suffer from congestion,
increased overhead, and higher latency. Designing protocols that scale
effectively is a key challenge.
5. Interference and Collisions:
o Since nodes in ad-hoc networks often operate on shared channels, interference
and data collisions are common issues. Protocols need to minimize collisions
and ensure reliable data transmission.
6. Network Partitioning:
o Due to mobility or environmental obstacles, the network may become
partitioned into disconnected sub-networks, which can disrupt communication.
Handling network partitions and reconnecting the network efficiently is a
challenge.
7. Quality of Service (QoS):
o Providing consistent QoS in terms of delay, throughput, and reliability is
difficult in ad-hoc networks due to resource constraints, network changes, and
interference.

9. Explain various optimization goals for Wireless Sensor Networks. (Apr 19)

Ans- In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), optimization is crucial for ensuring efficient
performance, minimal resource consumption, and reliable service. Various optimization goals
are pursued during the design and operation of WSNs, including:

a. Energy Efficiency:

 Since sensor nodes are typically battery-powered and deployed in remote areas,
energy efficiency is the most important optimization goal. Techniques like data
aggregation, low-power modes, energy-efficient routing, and sleep/wake scheduling
can significantly extend the lifetime of the network.
b. Network Lifetime Maximization:

 This goal focuses on maximizing the operational lifetime of the network. This can be
achieved by balancing the energy consumption across all nodes to avoid early
depletion of some nodes, which may result in network fragmentation.

c. Data Throughput:

 Optimizing the throughput of the network is essential for ensuring that the network
can deliver data efficiently from sensor nodes to the sink or base station. This includes
minimizing delays and ensuring high data rates, especially in applications with real-
time requirements.

d. Latency Minimization:

 For time-sensitive applications, such as monitoring of health parameters or emergency

alerts, it’s crucial to reduce transmission delays and ensure low latency. This requires
efficient routing protocols and data management techniques.

e. Scalability:

 A WSN should be able to efficiently handle an increasing number of sensor nodes and
growing amounts of data. Scalable network protocols ensure that performance does
not degrade as the network expands.

f. Load Balancing:

 Proper distribution of computational, communication, and energy load among nodes

helps to avoid overloading a few nodes while others are underutilized. This ensures
that the network remains balanced and avoids premature node failure.

g. Fault Tolerance:

 WSNs must be resilient to node failures and communication disruptions. Optimization

goals focus on ensuring that the network can continue to function effectively even if
some nodes fail or become unreachable.

h. Security Optimization:

 Securing data and communication in a WSN is critical due to the potential for
eavesdropping, data tampering, and other attacks. Optimizing for robust security
mechanisms without consuming excessive energy or resources is a vital goal.

i. Cost Optimization:

 Reducing the deployment and operational costs, including the cost of hardware,
communication, and energy, is another goal. Lowering the cost makes large-scale
deployment of WSNs more viable, especially for applications with many nodes.
10. What are the characteristics of an ideal routing-protocol for Adhoc networks? (Apr 23)

Ans-An ideal routing protocol for Ad-hoc networks should possess several characteristics
to ensure efficient and reliable communication in a highly dynamic, decentralized, and
resource-constrained environment. The main characteristics include:

a. Dynamic and Adaptive:

 The protocol should be able to adapt to changes in the network topology due to node
mobility, link failures, or network partitioning. It should be capable of dynamically
selecting new routes in response to such changes.

b. Scalability:

 The protocol should scale efficiently as the network grows in terms of the number of
nodes. It must support a large number of devices without significant performance
degradation or excessive overhead.

c. Energy Efficiency:

 Energy is a critical resource in ad-hoc networks, especially for battery-powered

nodes. The routing protocol must minimize energy consumption by optimizing route
selection, reducing the frequency of route updates, and conserving power.

d. Low Overhead:

 The protocol should minimize control message overhead and unnecessary data
transmission. This includes minimizing the need for routing table maintenance,
reducing flooding, and using efficient routing algorithms.

e. Robustness and Fault Tolerance:

 The protocol must be robust against node failures, network partitioning, and other
disruptions. It should include mechanisms to quickly recover from these failures and
maintain connectivity.

f. Low Latency:

 For time-sensitive applications (e.g., real-time communication), the routing protocol

should ensure low-latency communication, reducing the delay in packet delivery
between source and destination nodes.

g. Security:

 Security features are essential to protect data confidentiality, integrity, and

authenticity. The routing protocol should prevent attacks like eavesdropping, man-in-
the-middle attacks, and routing attacks (e.g., blackhole or sinkhole attacks).

h. Fairness:
  The protocol should fairly allocate network resources (such as bandwidth and energy)
among nodes, preventing some nodes from being overwhelmed while others remain
idle.

i. Load Balancing:

 To prevent some nodes from depleting their energy or being overloaded, the protocol
should evenly distribute the communication load across the network, ensuring
efficient use of resources.

j. Quality of Service (QoS):

 An ideal routing protocol should ensure that the network can meet the required QoS
parameters such as bandwidth, delay, and packet delivery ratio, especially in
applications like video streaming or voice over IP.

11. Describe Network Architecture in WSNs.

Ans- Network Architecture in WSNs defines the structure and design of how sensor nodes
communicate and share data within the network. There are two main architectures used in
WSNs:

a. Flat Architecture:

 In a flat architecture, all sensor nodes are identical, and there is no hierarchy or
differentiation among nodes. Each node performs the same function of sensing,
processing, and communicating with other nodes or the base station. This architecture
is simpler and suitable for small-scale networks, but it may not scale well in large
networks due to high communication overhead and energy consumption.

b. Hierarchical Architecture:

 In this architecture, nodes are organized into clusters. There are two main categories:
o Cluster-based Architecture: Sensor nodes are grouped into clusters, with
each cluster having a leader called the Cluster Head (CH). The CH is
responsible for aggregating data from other nodes and forwarding it to the
sink. This reduces communication overhead and conserves energy, as CHs
handle most of the communication tasks.
o Tree-based Architecture: The nodes form a tree-like structure, with the sink
or base station at the root and other nodes organized hierarchically beneath it.
Data flows from leaf nodes to parent nodes, reducing energy consumption by
minimizing the number of transmissions.

c. Hybrid Architecture:

 This architecture combines elements of both flat and hierarchical architectures. Some
nodes may function as ordinary nodes, while others take on roles such as gateways or
 cluster heads. Hybrid architecture aims to balance energy efficiency and scalability,
providing better performance in large-scale WSNs.

Key Components of WSN Architecture:

 Sensor Nodes: The primary components that sense and collect data.
 Sink/Server/Base Station: Collects data from sensor nodes, processes it, and may
communicate with external systems.
 Gateway: Serves as an interface between the WSN and other networks (e.g., the
internet).
 Communication Protocols: Define how nodes communicate, including routing and
data aggregation.

12. What is Low- Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy? State its advantages and disadvantages.

Ans- Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) is a popular hierarchical

clustering protocol designed to optimize energy usage in wireless sensor networks by forming
clusters of nodes. The protocol divides the sensor network into clusters, with each cluster
having a leader, called a Cluster Head (CH). Nodes within each cluster send their data to the
CH, which aggregates the data and forwards it to the sink (base station).

How LEACH Works:

1. Cluster Formation: Each sensor node decides periodically whether to become a CH

based on a probabilistic approach. Nodes that are elected as CHs aggregate data from
nearby nodes in their cluster.
2. Data Aggregation: The CH collects data from its member nodes, aggregates it (e.g.,
by averaging), and sends the aggregated data to the base station.
3. Rotation of CHs: To distribute the energy load evenly across the network, the role of
CH is rotated periodically, so different nodes take turns serving as CHs.

Advantages of LEACH:

1. Energy Efficiency: LEACH reduces the communication range by allowing nodes to

transmit data only to the CH, significantly lowering energy consumption compared to
direct communication with the base station.
2. Load Balancing: The periodic rotation of CHs ensures that no single node bears the
entire energy burden, improving network lifetime.
3. Data Aggregation: The CHs aggregate data from multiple nodes, which reduces the
amount of data transmitted to the base station, further conserving energy.
4. Scalability: LEACH is scalable and works well in large-scale WSNs.

Disadvantages of LEACH:

1. Cluster Head Selection Overhead: The process of selecting cluster heads involves
extra communication overhead. If too many nodes attempt to become CHs
simultaneously, it may lead to congestion.
 2. Time Synchronization: LEACH relies on time synchronization among nodes, which
can be challenging in large networks or networks with variable power.
3. Uneven Energy Consumption: Although LEACH distributes the CH role
periodically, the energy consumption for CHs is still higher than that of regular nodes.
This can lead to a scenario where some CHs run out of energy more quickly.
4. Assumption of Uniform Distribution: LEACH assumes that the nodes are
uniformly distributed, which may not be the case in real-world scenarios, leading to
inefficiencies in certain deployments.

In summary, LEACH is an effective protocol for energy-efficient data transmission and load
balancing in WSNs, but it also has limitations related to overhead, energy consumption
imbalance, and time synchronization.

13. In Wireless Sensor Networks, state the three types of Mobility. (Apr 23)

Ans- In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), mobility refers to the movement of sensor
nodes or the network as a whole, affecting communication and energy consumption. The
three types of mobility in WSNs are:

a. Node Mobility:

 Node mobility refers to the movement of individual sensor nodes within the network.
These nodes may change their position dynamically, which can affect the routing and
communication strategies. This mobility introduces challenges in maintaining
network topology and reliable communication.

Example: Robots or vehicles in a WSN deployed for monitoring the environment

could be mobile sensor nodes.

b. Group Mobility:

 Group mobility refers to the movement of a set of sensor nodes that move together as
a unit or group. In this case, the nodes are coordinated, and their mobility is somewhat
predictable. This type of mobility is commonly observed in applications like
environmental monitoring, where groups of sensors are mounted on vehicles or
drones.

Example: A fleet of mobile sensor nodes attached to a moving vehicle or a swarm of

drones used for monitoring purposes.

c. Field Mobility:

 Field mobility refers to the movement of the entire network, where sensor nodes are
distributed over a large area that moves or changes location. Field mobility typically
occurs in dynamic environments where the sensor network itself might be displaced,
such as in military or disaster response scenarios.
 Example: The sensor field deployed for monitoring a wildfire area may need to move
or adjust based on the shifting environmental conditions or human interventions.

14. Explain about mobile adhoc network with a neat diagram? (Apr 23)

Ans- A Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configuring, infrastructure-less

network of mobile devices (nodes) connected by wireless communication. In a MANET, each
device can act as both a host and a router, allowing data to be routed through multiple hops to
reach the destination. The key characteristics of a MANET are that the devices are mobile,
the network topology is dynamic, and there is no fixed infrastructure or centralized control.

Characteristics of MANET:

1. Dynamic Topology: Nodes can move freely, changing the network's structure as they
go.
2. Autonomous Operation: Each node operates independently and can make decisions
about routing and data transmission.
3. Wireless Communication: Communication between nodes occurs wirelessly,
without any fixed infrastructure.
4. Decentralized Control: No centralized management or control; each node
participates in the routing and decision-making process.
5. Energy Constraints: Nodes are usually battery-powered, which limits energy
consumption for communication and routing.

Challenges in MANET:

1. Routing Complexity: Constant changes in topology require routing protocols that

can quickly adapt.
2. Security Issues: Open wireless channels make MANETs susceptible to various
security threats like eavesdropping and attacks.
3. Interference and Congestion: Wireless communication may suffer from interference
and congestion, affecting network performance.

Diagram of a Mobile Ad-hoc Network (MANET):

[Node A] ------ [Node B] ------ [Node C]

| | |
[Node D] ------ [Node E] ------ [Node F]
| |
[Node G] ------ [Node H]

 Node A to Node C could communicate via Node B.

 Node D to Node G could communicate through Node E.
 The network forms without a fixed infrastructure, and nodes can move freely,
affecting the connectivity.
15. Explain sensor node with its different categories (Apr 19)

Ans-A sensor node is the basic unit in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). It is a small,
battery-powered device that collects data from the environment and transmits it to other
nodes or a base station. Sensor nodes typically consist of several key components:

Components of a Sensor Node:

1. Sensing Unit:
o Responsible for sensing physical phenomena (e.g., temperature, humidity,
light, pressure). The sensing unit can include various types of sensors,
depending on the application.
2. Processing Unit:
o Includes a microprocessor or microcontroller that processes the collected data
and performs necessary computations or data aggregation. It also manages the
overall functionality of the node.
3. Communication Unit:
o Responsible for transmitting the data to other nodes or the base station. It uses
wireless communication protocols like ZigBee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or
6LoWPAN.
4. Power Supply Unit:
o Provides energy to the node, often in the form of batteries or energy harvesting
mechanisms (like solar cells). Power efficiency is critical to prolonging the
network’s operational life.
5. Storage Unit:
o Used to store data locally before transmission. This is essential for buffering
data in case of network disruptions.

Categories of Sensor Nodes:

1. Active Sensor Nodes:

o These nodes actively sense the environment and frequently transmit data.
They may also perform tasks like data aggregation and in-network processing.
o Example: Environmental sensors that monitor temperature, humidity, or
pollution levels.
2. Passive Sensor Nodes:
o These nodes detect external stimuli but do not generate data actively. Instead,
they rely on external stimuli like light or a certain signal to trigger data
collection.
o Example: Passive infrared (PIR) sensors for motion detection.
3. Mobile Sensor Nodes:
o These are sensor nodes mounted on mobile devices like vehicles or drones.
Their movement can lead to dynamic network topologies.
o Example: Drones used for environmental monitoring in large areas.
4. Static Sensor Nodes:
o These nodes are placed in fixed positions. They have a stable network
connection and are typically used in situations where mobility is not required.
o Example: Nodes placed in agricultural fields to monitor soil conditions.
16. Explain the block diagram of a sensor node (Apr 19)

Ans- The block diagram of a sensor node illustrates its key components and how they work
together to sense, process, and communicate data in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN).

Block Diagram of a Sensor Node:

+---------------------------+
| Power Supply |
| (Battery / Energy Harvesting)|
+-----------+---------------+
|
|
+------------v------------+
| Sensing Unit | <--- Sensors (e.g., Temperature,
Pressure)
+------------+------------+
|
|
+------------v------------+
| Processing Unit | <--- Microcontroller/Processor
| (Data Processing & Control)|
+------------+------------+
|
|
+------------v------------+
| Communication Unit | <--- Wireless Transceiver (e.g.,
ZigBee, Wi-Fi)
+------------+------------+
|
|
+------------v------------+
| Storage Unit | <--- Local memory (e.g., for
buffering data)
+-------------------------+

Explanation of Each Block:

1. Power Supply:
o The power supply unit provides the necessary energy for the operation of the
sensor node. This can come from batteries or other renewable energy sources
like solar cells. Energy efficiency is a critical factor in WSNs.
2. Sensing Unit:
o The sensing unit consists of sensors that detect physical or environmental
parameters. Examples include temperature, humidity, light, motion, and
pressure sensors.
3. Processing Unit:
o The processing unit consists of a microcontroller or microprocessor that
performs the necessary computations, such as data processing, filtering, and
aggregation. It also manages the overall functionality of the node, including
sleep cycles for energy conservation.
4. Communication Unit:
o The communication unit is responsible for transmitting data to neighboring
nodes or the base station. It can use various wireless communication protocols
like ZigBee, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or LoRa to send or receive data.
 5. Storage Unit:
o The storage unit is responsible for temporarily storing data before
transmission. It helps in situations where the communication unit is not
available, or when there are delays in transmission.

In summary, a sensor node is a critical component in WSNs that includes sensing, processing,
communication, and power management functionalities, designed to work autonomously
while being energy-efficient and reliable.

17. Define and explain any five tasks of transceivers (Apr 19)

Ans- In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), a transceiver is a critical component that

performs both transmission and reception of data. It is responsible for enabling wireless
communication between sensor nodes and between nodes and the base station. The five main
tasks of a transceiver in a sensor node are:

1. Signal Transmission:

 The primary function of a transceiver is to transmit data from the sensor node to other
nodes or to a base station. It converts digital data into a radio signal (modulation) and
sends it over the wireless channel using an appropriate communication protocol.

2. Signal Reception:

 A transceiver also receives signals from other nodes. It converts the received analog
signal into a digital signal (demodulation) so that the sensor node can process it. This
process is necessary for receiving data from other sensor nodes or the base station.

3. Frequency Modulation/Demodulation:

 Transceivers use modulation techniques to encode digital information into a carrier

signal, which is transmitted over the wireless medium. Similarly, demodulation is
used to decode the received signal back into its original digital form.
 Example: Frequency modulation (FM), amplitude modulation (AM), and phase
modulation (PM) are some techniques used by transceivers.

4. Error Detection and Correction:

 Transceivers often incorporate mechanisms for error detection and correction, such as
checksums or cyclic redundancy checks (CRC). This ensures that the data transmitted
and received is error-free and reliable. It also helps in correcting errors caused by
noise or interference in the wireless channel.

5. Power Management:

 Power management is a crucial task for transceivers in WSNs, where energy

conservation is a priority. Transceivers often include features like low power modes
 (sleep, idle), which help reduce energy consumption during inactive periods, such as
when no data is being transmitted or received.

18. How to turn relatively imprecise optimization goals into measurable figures of merit

for sensor node network? (Apr 23)

Ans- Turning relatively imprecise optimization goals into measurable figures of merit for
a sensor node network involves defining clear and quantifiable metrics that reflect the
performance of the network. Here's how to achieve this:

1. Energy Efficiency:

 Goal: Minimize energy consumption of sensor nodes to maximize network lifetime.

 Measurable Metric: Average energy consumption per node (mJ per data packet),
total network energy consumption, and the time until the first node runs out of energy.

2. Network Lifetime:

 Goal: Maximize the operational lifetime of the sensor network.

 Measurable Metric: Time until the first node failure, network lifetime (time from
network deployment until the last node is operational), and the fraction of nodes still
alive after a given time period.

3. Data Throughput:

 Goal: Maximize the rate at which data is successfully transmitted from nodes to the
base station.
 Measurable Metric: Network throughput (bits per second or packets per second) and
successful packet delivery ratio (percentage of packets delivered without errors).

4. Latency:

 Goal: Minimize the time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination.
 Measurable Metric: End-to-end delay (in milliseconds) from the time data is
generated by a sensor node to the time it is received by the base station.

5. Scalability:

 Goal: Ensure that the network performs efficiently as the number of sensor nodes
increases.
 Measurable Metric: Performance degradation as the network size increases, such as
throughput, latency, and energy consumption. A scalable system should show
minimal performance drop as the number of nodes grows.

6. Reliability:
  Goal: Ensure that data is reliably transmitted and received despite failures or
disruptions.
 Measurable Metric: Packet delivery ratio (the percentage of successfully received
packets out of total packets sent) and fault tolerance (ability of the network to recover
from node failures).

19. Write a short note on WSN tunnelling. (Apr 23)

Ans-WSN Tunnelling refers to a technique used in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) to

route data from one part of the network to another, often over a long distance or through
challenging communication paths, by creating a virtual "tunnel" for data to traverse. This can
be necessary when a direct communication path is unavailable due to obstacles, interference,
or network partitioning.

Key Concepts in WSN Tunnelling:

1. Virtual Path Creation: A virtual tunnel is established by creating a logical

communication path, which can be used to forward packets to a base station or a
destination node.
2. Data Encapsulation: Data packets are encapsulated within other packets before
being sent through the tunnel. The outer packet's header provides routing information,
while the inner packet contains the actual data.
3. Mesh or Multi-hop Routing: Tunnelling may involve mesh or multi-hop routing
where intermediate nodes forward packets through a series of steps to reach the
destination.
4. Energy Efficiency: Tunnelling can improve energy efficiency by enabling the use of
intermediate nodes to forward data, reducing the overall energy consumption for
distant communications.

Applications of Tunnelling in WSN:

 Network Partitioning: Tunnelling helps in maintaining network connectivity even

when part of the network is isolated.
 Data Aggregation: Tunnelling can be used to collect data from various nodes
scattered over a large area and transmit it to a base station in an energy-efficient
manner.

20. Discuss Salient features of TinyOS. (Apr 19)

Ans-TinyOS is an operating system designed specifically for resource-constrained devices,

such as sensor nodes in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). It is open-source, highly
modular, and optimized for low-power and low-memory systems. Here are the salient
features of TinyOS:

1. Event-Driven Architecture:
  TinyOS operates on an event-driven model where tasks (like reading a sensor or
transmitting data) are triggered by events (such as sensor input or timer expiration).
This ensures that the system consumes minimal resources by only performing actions
when necessary.

2. Low Power Consumption:

 TinyOS is designed with power efficiency in mind. It uses low-power modes (sleep,
idle) for sensor nodes when they are not actively transmitting or sensing, extending
the overall network lifetime.

3. Modularity and Reusability:

 TinyOS is highly modular, with many small components that can be combined to suit
specific applications. This allows developers to reuse existing code for various tasks
like sensing, communication, and data processing, improving development efficiency.

4. Tiny Kernel:

 TinyOS has a small and efficient kernel that manages tasks and resources with
minimal overhead. It does not include unnecessary features, making it lightweight and
suitable for embedded systems.

5. Concurrent Task Execution:

 TinyOS provides support for concurrent tasks, allowing multiple events and tasks to
be handled simultaneously. This is achieved through the use of a non-preemptive,
cooperative multitasking model, where tasks yield control to the kernel when they
complete their execution.

6. Networking Stack:

 TinyOS includes support for various networking protocols, including protocols for
communication, routing, sensing, and data aggregation. It supports multi-hop
communication, enabling efficient data transmission in large-scale sensor networks.

7. Support for Custom Applications:

 TinyOS is flexible, allowing developers to build custom applications for WSNs. It

supports sensor drivers, communication protocols, and data aggregation
techniques, making it versatile for various sensing applications.

8. Resource Constraints:

 The operating system is specifically designed for devices with limited memory
(RAM and ROM) and low processing power, making it ideal for small, embedded
systems such as sensor nodes.

9. Extensive Hardware Support:

  TinyOS supports a wide range of hardware platforms, including sensor platforms like
Mote (e.g., Tmote, MICAz), providing a strong foundation for real-world WSN
applications.

In summary, TinyOS provides a lightweight, power-efficient, and modular platform that is

optimized for low-resource devices, making it an ideal choice for building applications in
Wireless Sensor Networks and other embedded systems.

21. Discuss any 2 Mobile and wireless devices. (Apr 19)

Ans- Mobile and wireless devices have become integral parts of modern communication
systems, enabling connectivity and data transfer across various platforms. Below are two
common mobile and wireless devices used today:

1. Smartphone

A smartphone is a mobile device that integrates a wide range of communication

technologies, including wireless connectivity (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks),
along with features like touchscreens, internet browsing, and application support. It is a
combination of a mobile phone and a computer, offering a variety of functionalities beyond
traditional voice communication.

Key Features of a Smartphone:

 Communication: Smartphones support various wireless communication technologies such

as 4G/5G, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and NFC (Near Field Communication), enabling fast internet
access, file transfers, and voice/video calls.
 Touchscreen Interface: Most smartphones come with multi-touch capacitive screens, which
provide a highly interactive user interface for browsing, gaming, and media consumption.
 Operating System: Smartphones run advanced operating systems like Android, iOS, or
HarmonyOS, offering users a rich ecosystem of apps and services.
 Sensors: Smartphones are equipped with a variety of built-in sensors such as GPS (for
location tracking), accelerometer (for detecting motion), gyroscope (for orientation), and
proximity sensors (for screen activation during calls).
 Multimedia and Applications: Smartphones offer features like high-resolution cameras,
video recording, audio playback, and access to a wide range of applications through app
stores.

Applications:

 Communication: Smartphones are used for voice calls, messaging, and video conferencing
via apps like WhatsApp, Skype, and Zoom.
 Navigation: Using GPS and mapping apps like Google Maps, smartphones provide turn-by-
turn navigation and location-based services.
 Entertainment: Smartphones support media streaming services like YouTube, Netflix, and
Spotify for entertainment purposes.
  Productivity: Smartphones allow users to access email, manage calendars, create
documents, and use office applications like Google Docs and Microsoft Office.

2. Wi-Fi Router

A Wi-Fi router is a wireless device that connects a local area network (LAN) to the internet
and facilitates wireless internet access for devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, and
smart home devices. It acts as a bridge between the wired internet connection (usually
provided by an ISP) and the wireless devices within a home or office network.

Key Features of a Wi-Fi Router:

 Wireless Connectivity: A Wi-Fi router uses wireless transmission to send and receive data
over short to medium-range distances (typically up to 100 meters indoors). It supports
standards like Wi-Fi 5 (802.11ac) or Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) for faster speeds and greater
coverage.
 Security: Modern routers provide advanced security features such as WPA3 encryption,
firewalls, and virtual private network (VPN) support, helping protect the network and
devices connected to it from unauthorized access and cyberattacks.
 Multiple Device Support: Wi-Fi routers can connect multiple devices simultaneously,
allowing a large number of devices in a household or office to access the internet and
communicate with each other over the local network.
 Quality of Service (QoS): Many Wi-Fi routers feature QoS settings to prioritize certain types
of traffic (e.g., streaming, gaming) to ensure better performance for critical applications.

Applications:

 Internet Access: Wi-Fi routers enable wireless internet access for devices in a home or
office, allowing users to browse the web, stream content, and connect to cloud services.
 Home Automation: Routers are essential in smart homes, where they connect various smart
devices (e.g., smart thermostats, lights, cameras) to the internet, enabling remote control
and automation.
 File Sharing: Wi-Fi routers can facilitate the sharing of files between devices on the same
local network without the need for physical cables.

Advantages of Wi-Fi Routers:

 Mobility: Devices connected to a Wi-Fi network can move around within the range of the
router while staying connected to the internet, offering more flexibility than wired
connections.
 Convenience: Setting up a Wi-Fi network eliminates the need for physical cables, reducing
clutter and offering a more user-friendly experience.