CHAPTER THREE

Gravimetry
 Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Gravity measurements
3.3 Gravity Anomaly
3.4 Gravity Reduction
3.1 Introduction
• Gravimetry refers to the measurement of gravity,
that allow the determination of gravity
acceleration or gravity, for specific positions as
well as the detection and determination of gravity
changes with time at a given location.

• Geodetic networks with local, regional or global

extent can be surveyed to monitor short-term
and long-term gravity variations.
 Cont’d
• The national and international gravity base
networks are not stable with time because of

• The dynamics within the Earth’s system

(tectonics)

• Climate change

• Sea-level rise
 Cont’d
• The recommended unit of acceleration in the

System International (SI) Unit is the unit m/ .

• In geodesy and geophysics, the non-SI unit is Gal

(gu).

• (1 Gal = 1 cm/ = 0.01 m/ ) is also used to

express acceleration due to gravity.

 Cont’d
• In order to provide gravity differences and to

describe small deviations or uncertainties of the

measurements, the following units are helpful:

1 m gal = m/

and

1 μ gal =10 m/
3.2 Gravity Measurement
The two basic gravity measurements are:

1. Absolute Gravity Measurement

2. Relative Gravity Measurement

 Cont’d
1. Absolute Gravity Measurement

– The determination of g from the fundamental

acceleration quantities length and time.

– Done by experts in a laboratory, using special

advance and precise instruments.

– Quite expensive
 Cont’d
– Absolute Gravity Measurement Methods :

i. Free fall

ii. Rise-and-fall

iii. Pendulum
 Cont’d
i. Free Fall Method:

• Relation between time travelled, t, through

distance z
• Through integration of =g

z= +ż t+

• The constants of integration , ż represent the

position and velocity of the body at t=0.

• If the body fall through at least three planes z and

ż can be eliminated.
Cont’d
 Cont’d

ii. Rise and Fall Method:

• Relation between time travelled, t, through

distance z
• For a symmetric rise and fall
it is sufficient to measure the
crossing times , , , at
only two planes(separated by
a distance ∆ )
 Cont’d
iii. Pendulum Method:

• Relation between time travelled, t, through distance z

• The pendulum method is based on the measurement

of the period and the length l of a freely swinging
pendulum.

• Due to the development of free fall method, the

absolute pendulum method is no longer applied
 Cont’d
2. Relative Gravity Measurements

- The measurement of a difference in gravity,

∆g by direct or indirect observation.

- The observation done by one of the two

acceleration quantities time or length kept
fixed.

- Can be performed with considerably more

ease than the ‘absolute’ measurement.
 Cont’d
• Two Categories :

- Dynamic

- Static

• Measurement : difference in gravity (∆g)

between two stations

• Instrument used : Gravimeter

Cont’d
 Cont’d
1) Dynamic Method - pendulum measurement
- The periods of oscillation T1, T2, of the same
pendulum are measured
- Calculation based on :

- With the invention of the spring gravimeter which

is more exact and economical, the pendulum
measurements have lost their importance.
 Cont’d
2) Static Method – spring gravimeter
- based on the principle of a spring
balance.
- the equilibrium position of a mass is
observed as it is influenced by the
acceleration of gravity and the
counterforce of the elastic spring.
- if gravity changes, the spring length
will also change in order to reach
static equilibrium again.
 Cont’d
Static Method – In ‘Vertical spring balance’,
the condition of equilibrium
is given by:

- by differentiating the above equation,

change in gravity (∆g) and observed
difference in length ∆l is given by:

∆g = ∆l
 Cont’d
∆g = ∆l

Where

∆g is the difference in gravity

f is the spring constant

m is mass of the load

l is the length of the spring with a load

is the length of the spring without a load

∆l is the observed difference in length

 Cont’d
Static Method – In ‘Lever Spring balance’, the
spring counterforce (l-lo) can act under arbitrary angle
on the lever carrying the mass m.
- the equilibrium condition for torques reads :
 Methods of Measuring Relative Gravity
1) Traverse method
• Similar to theodolite traverse
• Starts at a known reference station (g is
available) and closed to the same station other
known station.
• Usually used for measuring the gravity value
of an area
Cont’d
 Cont’d

2) Profile method
• Each points will be read twice.
• Only needs one known reference station
(g is available)
• Will provide more reading for adjustment
and better result.
Cont’d
 Cont’d

3) Star method
• Needs only one reference station
• Each point observed, have to referred back to
the reference station
• More time needed, if observed points are quite
distant
• Instrument ‘drift’ can be detected since repeated
readings are available
Cont’d
 Cont’d

4) Step method
• If precise result needed, this method will be
chosen, such as establishing basic gravity network.
• Each point observed three times.
• Observation can be closed to the starting station or
other reference station.
• Able to provide better ‘drift’ information at every
measured points
• Costly in terms of time and money.
Cont’d
3.3 Gravity Anomaly
• The difference between the observed gravity at a
place and its theoretical value depending on its
latitude is known as a gravity anomaly.

• It is also referred to spatially as the difference

between the gravity fields observed at two
points.

• The gravitational effect of an anomalous mass δg,

with horizontal and vertical components δgx and
δgz, respectively, on the local gravity field g and
its representation on a vector diagram.
 Cont’d

Terms in are insignificantly

small and can thus be
ignored. Binomial expansion
of the equation then gives

Relationship between the gravitational field and the

components of the gravity anomaly of a small mass.
 3.4 Gravity Data Reduction

• The variation of gravity is caused by the

irregular shape and earth topography.

• The gravity reduction have to be referred to a

certain reference before any gravity data can
be define and used.

• The aims of the gravity reduction is to

determine the geoid surface.
 Cont’d
• Gravity Reduction of the Earth’s gravity or
Reduction on Geoid refers to correction for all
variations in the Earth’s gravitational field which
do not result from the differences of density in
the underlying rocks.
 Cont’d
• This can be done taking care of the following
correction

1. Drift Correction (DC)

2. Latitude Correction (Cgϕ)

3. Elevation Correction (EC)

4. Tidal Correction (TiC)

5. Eötvös Correction (EöC)

 Cont’d
1. Drift Correction (DC)

• Correction for instrumental drift is based on

repeated readings at a base station at recorded
times through-out the day.

• The meter reading is plotted against time and

drift is assumed to be linear between
consecutive base readings.
 Cont’d
• The drift correction at time t is d, which is subtracted
from the observed value.
 Cont’d
• After drift correction the difference in gravity
between an observation point and the base is
found by multiplication of the difference in meter
reading by the calibration factor of the gravimeter.

• Knowing this difference in gravity, the absolute

gravity at the observation point can be
computed from the known value of gravity at the
base.
 Cont’d
2. Latitude Correction (Cgϕ)

• Gravity varies with latitude because of the non-

spherical shape of the Earth and because the
angular velocity of a point on the Earth’s surface
decreases from a maximum at the equator to zero
at the poles.

• The net effect of these various factors is that

gravity at the poles exceeds gravity at the equator
by some 51860gu, with the north–south gravity

gradient at latitude f being 8.12sin2f gu −1 .

 Cont’d
C ϕ= (1 + sin2ϕ – sin 2ϕ)

Where = 9780318 gu,

= 0.0053024,
= 0.0000059;

Based on IGSN 1971

Cgϕ = 9780318.5 (1+ 0 005278895 sin ϕ +
0.000023462 sin ϕ) gu
 Cont’d
3. Elevation Corrections (EC)
• Correction for the differing elevations of gravity stations is made in three
parts.

(a) FAC =3.086h gu

(b) BC = 2πGρh = 0.4191ρh (gu) BC = 2πG(ρr - ρw)z gu (On water) (h in
meters, ρ in Mg m-3)
 Cont’d

ρ
TC = 0.4191 (r - r + + - + )

Where TC = Terrain correction of the compartment (gu)

ρ = Bouguer correction density (Mg )
n = number of compartments in the zone
= Inner radius of zone (m)
= Outer radius of zone (m)
z = Modulus of elevation difference between observation
point and mean elevation of compartment (m)
Cont’d
Cont’d
 Cont’d
4. Tidal Correction (TiC)
• Gravity measured at a fixed location varies with
time be-cause of periodic variation in the
gravitational effects of the Sun and Moon
associated with their orbital motions, and
correction must be made for this variation in a
high precision survey.

• It has a maximum amplitude of some 3 gu and a

minimum period of about 12h.
 Cont’d
5. Eötvös Correction (EöC)
• The Eötvös correction (EöC) is applied to
gravity measurements taken on a moving
vehicle such as a ship or an aircraft.

• Depending on the direction of travel, vehicular

motion will generate a centripetal acceleration
which either reinforces or opposes gravity.
 Cont’d
• The correction required is
EöC = 75.03Vsin cos + 0.04154 gu
Where

V is the speed of the vehicle in knots,

α is the heading and

ϕ the latitude of the observation.

In mid-latitudes the Eötvös correction is about

+75 gu for each knot of E to W motion so that
speed and heading must be accurately known.
 Cont’d
• Gravity Reduction = DC + Cgϕ + EC + TiC + EöC

• Therefore,

Gravity = Observed Gravity + Gravity Reduction

OR

Gravity = Observed Gravity + DC + Cgϕ + EC + TiC + EöC

Thanks