UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO TRANSDUCERS AND

SENSORS
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Active and Passive Sensors
1.3 Basic Requirements of a Sensor/Transducer
1.4 Discrete Event Sensors
1.4.1 Mechanical Limit Switches
1.4.2 Proximity Limit Sensors
1.4.3 Photoelectric Sensors
1.4.4 Fluid Flow Switch
1.5 Continuous Sensor
1.5.1 Components of a Continuous Sensing System
1.5.2 Analog to Digital Conversion
1.5.3 Digital to Analog Conversion
1.6 Transducers
1.6.1 Position Transducers
1.6.2 Velocity Transducers
1.6.3 Force of Pressure Transducers
1.6.4 Temperature Transducers
1.7 Smart Sensors
1.8 Summary
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mechatronics can be defined as mechanics controlled by electronic systems.
Sensors are the eyes and ears of the control system. They can be used to provide
real time information for directly controlling processes as well as provide
information for data logging purposes; for example, to provide a count of the daily
units produced off a particular manufacturing line. A sensor can be formally
defined as device that maps a physical or chemical quantity to a signal (normally
electrical). A transducer is defined as a device that converts a signal from one
form of energy to another form. For example, a piezoelectric crystal, properly cut,
can be called a sensor whereas it becomes a transducer with appropriate
electrodes and input-output mechanisms attached to it. Quite often the terms
sensor and transducer are being used interchangeably.
Sensors can be broadly classified in two categories: discrete event and continuous.
Discrete event, or on/off sensor, changes its state based on the occurrence of some
external event. These sensors typically only give knowledge of two states based
on the condition being sensed. They are based on either mechanical, electrical or
optical technology. A continuous sensor provides information over the continuous
range of operation of the process and are commonly used in continuous control
applications, where the process is being regulated based on continuously sensed
attribute data. They are based on electrical, optical and acoustical technologies.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 describe different type of sensors and transducers, and
 understand the concepts of digital to analog conversion and vice-versa.

1.2 ACTIVE AND PASSIVESENSORS

The sensors can be classified as active and passive. A passive sensor has no power
supply and all the energy it delivers to the next stage, the signal conditioning, is
drawn from the measurand. Passive sensors are also known as self-generating
sensors. An active sensor is a modulator and can therefore deliver more energy to
the next stage than it draws from the measurand. If the power supply is d. c., the
output is modulated by the measurand, and has the same frequency. If the supply
is a. c., the output is the carrier frequency with sidebands at signal frequency.

1.3 BASICREQUIREMENTSOFA SENSOR/

TRANSDUCER
A transducer is normally designed to sense a specific measure and or to respond
only to that particular measurand, A complete knowledge of the electrical and
mechanical characteristics of the transducer is of great importance while choosing
a transducer for a particular application. Often, it is deemed essential to get details
of these characteristics during the selection of instrumentation for the experiment
concerned. The basic requirements are:
 Ruggedness
Ability to withstand overloads, with safety stops for overload protection.
 Linearity
Ability to reproduce input-output characteristics symmetrically and
linearly. Overall linearity is the main factor considered.
 Repeatability
Ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when the same measure and
is applied repeatedly under same environmental conditions.
 Convenient Instrumentation
Sufficiently high analog output signal with high signal to noise ratio; digital
output preferred in many cases.
 High Stability and Reliability
Minimum error in measurement, unaffected by temperature, vibrations and
environmental variations.
 Good Dynamic Response
Output is faithful to input when taken as a function of time. This effect is
analysed as the frequency response.
 Excellent Mechanical Characteristics
That can affect the performance in static, quasi-static, and dynamic states.
 The major effects are:
Mechanical Hysteresis
Manifestation of imperfect response of the sensing elements, integrated
over dimensions of the strained transducers. Effect depends on the raw
material used, aging etc.
(i) Viscous Flow or Creep
Effect due to viscous flow in the material of the sensing element.
Magnitude increases with increasing load and temperature. Materials with
low melting point show lager creep values.
(ii) Elastic after Effect
A continued deformation when the load is applied and kept constant. This
effect decreases with time. Like creep, there is a similar relaxation towards
the original position when the load is removed. Virtually no deformation is
observed.
You will study more about these effects in Unit 2.
Built-in integrated device with noise, asymmetry, and other defects
minimized.

1.4 DISCRETE EVENTSENSORS

A discrete event (or on/off) sensor changes its state based on the occurrence of
some external event. They may be contact type (for example, a limit switches) or
non-contact type (for example, proximity switches and photoelectric sensors).
These are being described in detail in this section.
1.4.1 Mechanical Limit Switches
Mechanical limit switches typically consist of a mounted actuator arm that
operates a set of a electrical contacts when the arm is displaced. Two examples are
shown in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1(a) illustrates the operation of a Lever-type limit
switch and Figure 1.1(b) illustrates a plunger, or push-type, limit switch. In the
case of the lever type, the actuator arm is a rod (1) connected to a lever shaft (2),
which is free to rotate when the rod is displaced. When the forces displacing the
rod are removed, the lever shaft is returned to its normal position by a return
spring (3). The lever shaft has a roller mounted on its bottom (4), which rotates a
rocker (5) as it changes position from right to left. This mechanical action operates
one or more sets of contacts, which are mounted on the other side of the limit
switch, as shown in the back view. The rocker shaft is connected through the
housing to the contact lever assembly (6), the head of which moves a set of
electrical contacts (7). The electrical contact may either be closed or open initially.
The action of the actuator and lever arms takes it from its normal, or deactivated,
state to the other state. Hence, a normally open limit switch will be closed when
activated and a normally closed limit switch will be open when activated.
Figure 1.1(b) illustrates the more direct action of a push-type limit switch. It
shows a set of contacts operated from the contact lever assembly. Contact set a-b
is normally closed; set c-d is normally open. When the lever is depressed, each
contact goes to its opposite state. When installed, the user wires the appropriate
contact pair back to the controller, which distinguishes the state of the system by
reading the voltage or current (on/off) supplied through the contact.
Limit switches come in several varieties and designs; Figure 1.1 simply shows two
concepts. They are designed for heavy duty applications in which there is physical
contact between the actuate or and the process being sensed. For example, limit
switches are often used on machine tools to limit the travel of a machine axis.
They are sometimes used in materials handling applications, e.g. to indicate the
passage of a part along a conveyor. They are typically designed to handle
relatively high voltages, both AC and DC. This means they cannot be directly
wired to the input port of a computer without having their signal converted to TTL
level.

Figure 1.1: Mechanical Limit Switches (a) Lever Type in Open Contact Position, (b)
Push Type
1.4.2 Proximity Limit Switches
The term proximity switch (sometimes called proximity sensor) refers to a non-
contact sensor that works on the principle of inducing changes in an
electromagnetic field. The proximity switches most commonly used in the
manufacturing environment are the inductive proximity switch and the capacitive
proximity switch.
Inductive proximity sensors are designed to operate by generating an
electromagnetic field and detecting the eddy current losses generated when ferrous
or non-ferrous metal target objects enter the field. The sensor consists of a coil on
a ferrite core, an oscillator, a trigger-signal level detector and an output circuit. As
a metal object advances into the field, eddy current are introduced in the target.
The result is a loss of energy and smaller amplitude of oscillation. The detector
circuit then recognises a specific change in amplitude and generates a signal
which will turn the output "ON" or "OFF".
A metal target approaching an inductive proximity sensor absorbs energy
generated by an oscillator. When the target is in close range, the energy drain
stops the oscillator and changes the output state.
The active face of an inductive proximity switch is the surface where a high-
frequency electromagnetic field emerges. A standard target is a mild steel, 1 mm
thick, square form with side lengths equal to the diameter of the circle of the
sensing surface, or 3 times the normal switching distance, if this is greater than the
diameter of the sensing surface circle. The distance at which this approaching
target activates (changes state of) the proximity output is called normal sensing
distance. The size, shape and material affects the sensing distance in the following
fashion:
 Rounded targets may reduce the sensing distance.
 Non-ferrous materials usually reduce the sensing distance.
 Targetssmallerthanthesensingfacetypicallyreducethesensingdistance.
 Targets larger than the sensing face may increase the sensing distance.
One of the short coming of the inductive proximity switch is that it can only sense
metal objects. The capacitive proximity switch, on the other hand, can sense non-
metallic objects as well. It uses a resistor/capacitor (RC) oscillator to generate a
directed magnetic field. Introducing an object within the magnetic field causes a
change incapacitance, which is detected by the control circuitry, which in turn
operates an electronic switch that outputs a signal to the controller.
Proximity switches have relatively short ranges, typically from 1 to 60 mm;
therefore, they must be used in situations where the target is allowed to come
close to the sensor.
1.4.3 Photoelectric Sensors
Photoelectric sensors are non-contact devices that output a signal in response to
the interruption of a light beam. The components of a photoelectric sensing
systems are shown in Figure 1.2. The two main components are the emitter and
the receiver. The light source is a light emitting diode (LED). An LED is a solid
state semiconductor that emits light when current flows through it. LEDs are
manufactured to produce light in the visible range in the near infra-red range. The
light source is paired with a receiver, which is light sensitive transistor, called a
phototransistor. A transistor conducts when its base is forward biased. This is
done by applying a small amount of current on the base lead. A phototransistor
operates in the same fashion except that the base is biased by the energy from a
light source incident on it. Phototransistors are manufactured to be sensitive to
light within the spectrum of the emitter.

Figure 1.2: A Photoelectric Sensor

A photoelectric sensor system comes with an oscillator that modulate, or pulses,
the LED on and off at very high frequencies. The receiver is tuned to the same
frequency, which allows it to differentiate between light from the emitter and
ambient light.
1.4.4 Fluid Flow Switch
A discrete event sensor commonly used in process is the fluid flow switch. This
device is analogus to a limit switch in mechanical systems. It is usually employed
as a device to detect when a fluid travelling in a pipe is over a specified volumetric
flow rate. Such a sensor can be used to govern the speed of an upstream pump,
reducing it when the flow is too fast.
There are different implementations of a fluid switch. One implementation is
shown in Figure 1.3. Here a float is placed in a trapped column that is in line with
the fluid flow. A magnetic ring is seated on the float and, in the absence of
pressure, the movable float is retained in the seated position. Water pressure raises
the float proportional to the flow rate. A switch is positioned at a height where the
float will be displaced when the triggering flow rate is reached. Typically the
switch is a reed switch, which consists of two leaf springs sealed in a glass. These
leaf springs come together when subjected to a magnetic field. This closes the
circuit, providing an input signal to the controller.

Figure 1.3: A Flow Switch

SAQ 1
(a) What is the difference between active and passive sensors and continuous and
discrete sensors?
(b) Briefly explain the principles of operation of limit switch, proximity switch and
photo electric sensors.

1.5 CONTINUOUSSENSOR
The term continuous sensor is used to describe a device that converts one
measured physical quantity into another that is proportional to the measured
physical quantity. The measured physical quantity might be position, velocity or
temperature; the converted physical quantity is typically one that can be used in an
electronic circuit, such as electrical resistance.
1.5.1 Components of a Continuous Sensing System
The components of a sensing system and their relationship to a digital controller
are shown in Figure 1.4. Each component of the chain has a unique purpose,
which shall be briefly explained.
 Figure 1.4: Components of a Continuous Sensing System
The sensor takes the actual physical input, such as force or temperature, and
provides an output that can be used by an electronic measurement circuit. The
measurement circuit is used for calibration and reading of the sensor output. The
output of a measurement circuit will be a voltage or current that is proportional to
the physical property of the system being measured by the sensor. For example, it
may be a voltage whose magnitude is proportional to a force being measured at
the sensor/process interface.
Sometimes a signal will have electronic noise or be too week to processes directly
from the measurement circuit. In such cases the signal may be filtered to remove
the noise or may be amplified for further processing. This is the role of signal
conditioning.
Since computers and controller processors are digital devices, any analog signal
will have to be digitized before it can be read by the computer. An A/D converter
provides the conversion. In cases where the sensor signal is already in digital
form, such as that emitted from an optical encoder such step is unnecessary.
Finally, the signal is presented to the computer for processing.
1.5.2 Analog to Digital Conversion
When a sensor provides an analog voltage input to the controller, it will be
necessary to convert the signal to digital form for computer processing. This is the
role of the A/D converter. This is accomplished by sampling the analog input at
discrete intervals of time and mapping each sample into one of the discrete
quantizing levels of the converter. An A/D converter has 2ndiscrete quantizing
levels, where n is the number of bits in the register of the A/D converter.
Figure 1.5 illustrates a 2-bit A/D converter, with a full range voltage of 6.0 volts,
i.e. it is designed to be used over the range 0 to 6.0 volts. The mapping of voltage
into a binary count is shown in Table 1.1. An A/D converter maps a voltage range
to a binary count. In general, the analog signal will fall into one of the quantizing
levels of the converter. There are 4 quantizing levels and 3 incremental changes of
2.0 volts each.

Figure 1.5: A 2-bit A/D Block Diagram

Table 1.1: Analog Input and Binary Output
Input Voltage B0 B1
0-2 0 0
2-4 0 1
4-6 1 0
>6 1 1

The resolution of an A/D converter is determined by the step size, which is 2.0 volts.
The percent resolution can be completed using the following equations.
step size
% resolution = × 100% ….(i)
full range
1
% resolution = × 100% ….(ii)
2𝑛 −1
In the above example, therefore, the percent resolution is. The term accuracy is used
to describe the worst case error between the actual analog input signal and the
recorded value as determined from the digital reading. In general, the accuracy is one
half of the resolution.
1.5.3 Digital to Analog Conversion
The basic process of taking a binary number and converting it to a voltage level is
illustrated for a 4-bit binary D/A converter in Figure 1.6(a). With 4 bits provided by
the computer, 24= 16 possible input states can be presented to the D/A converter. The
desired range of the output voltage must be designed into the D/A device. For Figure
1.6 the full range of the device is 0 to 15 volts. The input binary count can range
between 0-15. Since there are 15 increments over the full range of the 15 volts, each
increment of the binary count equals volts. Table 1.2 illustrates the relationship
between the binary input and analog output. Each increment of the binary count adds
1.0 volts to the output voltage.

Figure 1.6: Digital to Analog Converter (a) 4-bit D/A Block Diagram,(b)
Implementation of a 4 -bit D/A Converter
Table 1.2: Binary Input and Analog Output
B3 B2 B1 B0 Vout
0 0 0 0 0.00
0 0 0 1 1.00
0 0 1 0 2.00
0 0 1 1 3.00
 0 1 0 0 4.00
0 1 0 1 5.00
0 1 1 0 6.00
0 1 1 1 7.00
1 0 0 0 8.00
1 0 0 1 9.00
1 0 1 0 10.00
1 0 1 1 11.00
1 1 0 0 12.00
1 1 0 1 13.00
1 1 1 0 14.00
1 1 1 1 15.00

There is a relationship between the binary position weights and the output
voltages. In particular, a '1' in each successive binary position results in a doubling
of the output voltage. This is a clue to the way in which D/A converters are
constructed, which is illustrated in Figure 1.6(b).
Each binary output signal from the computer at five volts controls an electronic
switch. Each electronic switch is used to connect or disconnect a branch to a
reference voltage, VRef. Current will flow in connection branches. The op amp is a
device that produces a weighted sum of the input voltages.
The op amp voltage, Vout is the output voltage of a ladder of resistors which are
electronically switched (connected) to a reference voltage, VRef. Hence, by placing
the appropriate binary code on B0 - B3, the voltage level Vout can be produced.
The values of the resistors on the ladder are incremental in binary powers, i.e.2R,
4R, . . . , 2nR. Hence, from the law of passive linear circuits, the current in each
branch of the ladder is:
𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓
𝐼1 = =
𝑅1 2𝑅
𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓
𝐼2 = =
𝑅2 4𝑅
𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓
𝐼3 = = (1.3)
𝑅3 8𝑅
: : :
𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓
𝐼𝑛 = = 𝑛
𝑅𝑛 2 𝑅
The current at point A in the circuit is the summation of the current through each
branch:
𝑛
𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓
𝐼𝐴 = ( ) ∑ 𝑎𝑖 2−𝑖 (1.4)
𝑅
𝑖=1
where IA is the current in the junction point A, VRef is the reference voltage, R is the
resistance basis, ai is a binary indicator (0 or 1) of whether the ith bit position is off or
on, where the first position is the most significant bit (MSB) and n is the number of
bits in the output resister and, therefore, the number of branches in the ladder.
The above equations can be combined to yield the following function for a D/A
converter:
𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑅𝑒𝑓 𝑁 (1.5)
𝑅
where
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛
𝑁 = ( 1 ) + ( 2 ) + … … . . + ( 𝑛 ). (1.6)
2 2 2
SAQ 2
(a) A 6-bit D/A converter gives an output voltage of 8.625 volts for an input of
010111. What is the step size, the full range voltage and the percentage
resolution?
(b) A typical A/D converter has 12-bit resolution and a full range of 10 volts.
What is the percent resolution and voltage resolution of this device?

1.6 TRANSDUCERS
A useful way to classify transducers is on the basis of the physical property the
device is intended to measure. The important properties discussed in this section
are:
 Position
 Velocity
 Force or Pressure
 Temperature
1.6.1 Position Transducers
Position transducers are widely used in servomotors, linear position tables, and
other applications where prices position is important. In this section we will
discuss four analog position transducers (potentiometers, linear variable
differential transformers, floats and resolvers) and two digital position transducers
(the optical encoder and ultrasonic range sensor).
(a) Potentiometers
An often-used position sensor is the potentiometer. The potentiometer is
composed of a resistor and a contact slider that allows position to be made
proportional to resistance. There are linear and rotary potentiometers
depending on whether the displacement to be measured is linear or angular.
An angular potentiometer is shown in Figure 1.7. Potentiometers are quite
inexpensive, very rugged, and easy to use. However, they are not as
accurate as some other position transducers.
 Figure 1.7: A Rotary Potentiometer
(b) Linear Variable Differential Transformers

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a high-resolution

contact transducers. As Figure 1.8 illustrates, it is constructed with three
coils, one primary and two secondary. A magnetic core sits within the coils.

Figure 1.8: Principle of a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (a)

Operation of LVDT, (b) Core Displacement and Voltage Out
If an alternating current is imposed in the primary coil, a voltage will be
induced across the secondary coil. The magnitude of that voltage is a linear
function of the position of the magnetic core. Deviations from the null
position of the core are translated into voltages by the equation:
∆𝑉𝑜 = 𝐾∆𝑋 (1.7)
where ∆Vo is the change in output voltage, K is a proportionality constant and
∆X is change in position.
LVDTs come in varying size. A typical limit to travel is in the range of 750
mm. The resolution of an LVDT is excellent, easily able to measure
displacement below 0.25 mm. Since this is an analog devices, the limits of
resolution are usually governed by the resolution of the A/D converter.
It is readily apparent that the LVDT has an advantage over the potentiometer
as a position measurement device. Since its core does not touch the coil, there
 is no mechanical wear that would result in deterioration of performance over
time. On the other hand, it is a more expensive transducer, justifiable
primarily where very high and repeatable accuracy is required.
(c) Resolvers
The resolver, shown in Figure 1.9, is a rotary transformer. The primary
winding is on the rotor and the secondary windings on the stator. The
secondary windings are set 90 degrees apart. An alternating current is
imposed on the primary winding. As the shaft is rotated by the device where
position is being monitored, the voltages on the secondary windings will vary
as the sine and cosine of the angle of the rotor.

Figure 1.9: A Resolver

The two output voltages can be converted to a binary count using a
resolver-to-digital converter (RDC). This device combines the circuitry
necessary to interpolate the output voltages into angular positions and the
A/D circuitry required to digitize the result.
The resolver is a non-contact transducer. Unlike the rotary potentiometer, it
will not lose accuracy due to wear. The high precision of the resolver is
usually limited by the A/D converter, which converts the analog voltage
into a digital count. Typical A/D converter incorporate in RDCs have 12- to
16- bit resolution.
(d) Optical Encoders

An optical encoder is a digital position measuring device. It is available in

both linear and rotor construction. Figure 1.10 shows the principle of an
optical encoder in rotary form. A slotted disc is rotated in the part of a
photo emitter/detector pair. The emitter is typically a light-emitting diode
and the detector is a photo-sensitive transistor. When light is incident on the
base of the transistor, current flows from collector to emitter. As the disc
rotates, the light will be alternatively blocked and allowed to pass. In the
blocked state, the transistor will stop conducting. The voltage output from
the detector circuit is a saw tooth. This is fed into a Schmitt trigger, which
is a digital device that converts the saw tooth pattern into a square wave.
The square wave, with amplitude of five volts, is digital data in a form that
is readable by a digital controller. It is typical for the detector circuit to
output a high signal when light is blocked and low signal when a slot is
encountered.
 Figure 1.10: Principle of an Optical Encoder
(e) Float Transducers
Float transducers are the simplest method of measuring continuous position
(height or level) of a liquid in a tank. Floats are widely used in process
industries in which batches of liquids are feeding production processes.
There are different implementations of a float; one simple device is shown
in Figure 1.11. Here a float is attached to a rod that moves the wiper of a
rotary potentiometer.

Figure 1.11: Principle of a Float Transducer

(f) Ultrasonic Range Sensors
For continuous measurement of a level in a tank, floats are being
supplanted by ultrasonic range sensors, an example of which is shown in
Figure 1.12. Ultrasonic sensors use pulses of sound to measure distance. A
transmitter senses out a pulse, i.e. reflected against the fluid of which the
level is being measured. When the transmitter sends out the pulse, it
simultaneously initiates a timer circuit that counts clock cycles. A receiver,
housed with the transmitter, receives the reflection of sound. The received
signal terminates the timer and initiates a computation of distance. A
microprocessor computes distance based on the speed of sound through the
medium, typically air. The microprocessor may take several samples and
compute and average to obtain a more accurate measurement.
The reflected signal will travel 2d during the period that the timer is on, ∆t.
If v is the velocity of sound in the medium, the distance between transducer
and liquid level is
𝑑 = 𝑣(2∆𝑡) (1.8)
 Figure 1.12: Principle of an Ultrasonic Range Sensor
1.6.2 Velocity Transducers
Velocity transducers are used for speed control. We shall describe the primary
digital (optical encoder) and analog (DC techometer) velocity transducers.
(a) Optical Encoders
Since velocity is the positional change with respect to time, any positional
transducer can be used to measure velocity. If θ1and θ2 are two sequential
angular positions of the encoder given in radians, then
𝜃2 − 𝜃1
𝜔𝑖 = (1.9)
∆𝑡
where is the instantaneous angular velocity in radians/sec and ∆t is the
increment of time between sequential position changes.
(b) Tachometers
The basic analog velocity measurement device is the tachometer, or
generator. This device can be based on the operating principle of an AC
generator or a DC generator. The principle of a DC machine will be
covered in detail in the next unit. As shown in Figure 1.13(a) DC
tachometer consists of an armature (rotating conductor) mounted on the
shaft of a device whose angular velocity is to be measured. The stator, or
stationary component of the tachometer, is a permanent magnet. As the
rotating conductor passes through the magnetic field, a current is induced in
the conductor, resulting in a measurable voltage at Vout. In an ideal
tachometer the relationship between speed and velocity is linear. Simply
put
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=𝐾 (1.10)
𝑉𝑖𝑛
where K is the tachometer constant. Since the tachometer is an analog device, A/D
conversion is required.
 Figure 1.13: Principle of a DC Tachometer or Generator
1.6.3 Force or Pressure Transducers
Force sensors are used extensively in automatic weighing operation in the process
industries and in robotic applications when it is necessary to control gripping
pressure. In this section we shall examine two analog transducers: the load cell
and the strain gage.
(a) Load Cells
A load cell is used in processes where precise weighing is required. It can
be implemented using a strain gage or a LVDT. Figure 1.14 illustrates a
load cell implemented by using a LVDT and a spring with linear force
displacement. The appropriate transfer function is
𝐹 = 𝐾∆𝑑 (1.5)
where F is force, K is the spring constant and ∆d is the displacement from
the unloaded rest position.

Figure 1.14: LVDT Used in Weight Measurement

(b) Strain Gages
The most widely used pressure and force sensitive transducer is the strain
gage. The principle of the strain gage is based on the resistance properties
of electrical conductors. Electrical conductors possess resistance based on
the relationship.
 𝐿
∆𝑅 = 𝜌 (1.12)
𝐴
where R is resistance in ohms, ρ is resistivity constant, which is a property
of the specific conductor material being in the wire. It is measured in the
unit of ohm-cm, L is the length of the wire in cm2 and A is the cross-
sectional area in cm2.
Since the resistivity is a constant, a change in the length and/or area of the
wire will cause a change in the resistance. This phenomenon is called
'piezoresistivity'.
1.6.4 Temperature Transducers
Temperature transducers are used extensively in process industries such as
chemical, food and pharmaceuticals, where control of temperature during
manufacturing is important. Three commonly used temperature transducers are the
thermocouple, the resistance temperature detector (RTD) and the thermistor.
(a) Thermocouples
When a temperature differential exists across the length of a metal, a small
voltage differential will exist due to the migration of electrons in the metal.
By joining two dissimilar metal wires together at one end, a small current
will be induced at the junction due to differences in the molecular structure
of the metals. This is shown in Figure 1.15. Point (b), the other ends of the
metal wires, is held at a reference temperature.
For dissimilar metals at a given temperature, the density of free electrons
are different. This results in an electron migration at junction (a), causing a
small current to flow from one metal to other. This small induced electric
differential, with proper signal conditioning, is measured at point (c). The
electric signal has the property of being linear with the temperature
differential between points (a) and (b). In particular, as simplified model is
of the form:
Vout = α (T - TRef)
where Vout is the induced voltage, α is a constant in volts/degrees K and T, TRef are
the measured temperature and the reference temperature respectively.

Figure 1.15 : Principle of a Thermocouple

 (b) Resistance-temperature Detectors(RTD)
The RTD temperature sensor is based on a particular property of metals wherein
their electrical resistance changes with temperature. In particular, as temperature
increases, so does electrical resistance. This is due to the fact that a higher
temperature in a metal results in electron vibrations that impede the flow of free
electrons in the metal.
When discussing strain gages, we introduced the relationship
𝐿
∆𝑅 = 𝜌
𝐴
where R is resistance in ohms, ρ is resistivity constant, which is a property of the
specific conductor material being in the wire. It is measured in the unit of ohm-
cm, L is the length of the wire in cm and A is the cross-sectional area in cm2. In
fact, ρ is a temperature sensitive parameter. With the knowledge of the
relationship between ρ and T for a particular metal, it is possible to construct on
RTD with a specific relationship between R and T.
(c) Thermistors
A thermistor is made of a semiconductor material that exhibits a predictable and
repeatable change in resistance as temperature is changed. Unlike a metal, the
molecular structure of a semiconductor is such that increasing its temperature
reduces its resistance. As the temperature of the material increases, electrons break
free of their covalent bonds and conductivity is improved. The response function
is as follows:
Rt = Ro eβ[(1/ T ) - (1/ To)] ……(1.13)
where Rt and Ro are the resistances of the thermistor at temperatures T and at a
reference temperature, respectively. T and To are the thermistor temperature and
the reference temperature respectively, in degrees Kelvin, β is a property of a
material used to make the thermistor. The non-linearity of the thermistor response
function makes its use limited only over the most linear range of the device.
Manufacturers of thermistors specify the useful range and the percent error over
that range.

1.7 SMARTSENSORS
The next stage of a sensor development is smart sensors, defined by the IEEE as 'a
device with built-in intelligence, whether apparent to the user or not'. These
sensors are equipped with dedicated 'microcomputers' for 'sensor-specific'
methods of signal processing. These sensors are also called intelligent sensors.
The motivation behind the development of smart sensors are (a) compensation for
the non-ideal behavior of the sensors, and (b) provision for communication of the
process data with the 'host' system. Traditional sensors that are being used have
varying requirements of compensation and signal processing objectives and the
number of measurands in industrial establishments is growing each day. The
variety of variables, both physical and chemical is also increasing and newer
sensing mechanisms are being exploited increasing the load on signal processing
which already is much.
Thus for each variable or rather each type of variables, a different processing is
required and with increasing number of types in industries such load is becoming
too much for a centralized computer. The smart sensor is intended to sense as well
as do the sensing related processing within it.
SAQ 3
(a) Differentiate between a resolver and an encoder.
(b) What is the difference between a thermocouple and a thermistor?

1.8 SUMMARY
Sensors can be broadly divided into two types: discrete and continuous. Discrete
sensors are used in applications for which it is only necessary to know the state of
the physical process being sensed. Continuous sensors are used when it is
necessary to measure the magnitude of some physical property of the process.
In this unit, we examined the components of a sensing system, which included a
sensor and measurement circuit, and may include some form of signal processing.
Sensors, their measurement circuit and, sometimes, a signal conditioner are
designed and sold by vendors as a complete package. The term 'transducer' is used
to describe such a sensing system when the electrical output of a transducer is to
be interfaced to a computer, an analog to digital converter is required. The
functioning of A/D and D/A converters are discussed in some detail and a number
of typical transducers are described for measuring position, velocity, force and
temperature. Finally, a brief introduction to smart sensors is presented.

1.9 KEYWORDS
Accuracy : The closeness of the measured value to the true value.
A/D : Abbreviation for analog to digital converter.
Analog : A quantity which is continuously varying as distinct from
a digital quantity.
Analog to : The device which converts the signal from analog to digital
Digital Converter form.
D/A : Abbreviation for digital to analog converters.
Digitization : The process of converting an analog signal to digital form.
Hysteresis : The maximum difference in output for the same
measurand value within the transducer's range, one
obtained by increasing from zero and the other by
decreasing from a higher value of a measurand.
Measured : The quantity being measured.
Precision : The closeness together of the measured values when the
measurement is repeated.
Range : The measured values over which a transducer is intended
to measure, specified by upper or lower limits.
Resolution : The smallest change in the measured which can be
detected. In a analogue system, the resolution in limited
 by size of the least significant bit or the noise level,
whichever is larger.
1.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ 2
(a) 0.375 volts/step, 23.625 volts,1.587%.
(b) 0.02442%, 0.002442.
Check your answers of all other SAQs with respective preceding text of each
SAQ.