Geodesy : “geo” - earth and “desa” - to divide ●​ The Geometry of the Eratosthenes

●​ determine the size and shape of the Earth Measurement - observed two cities
or locate positions on the Earth and (Alexandria and Syene) in Egypt.
determine the Earth’s gravity field. Snelius: 17th Century B.C
–Geodetic Glossary (NGS 2009) ●​ Snellius carried out measurements along a
●​ measuring and understanding three meridian in Netherlands. He used a
fundamental properties of the Earth triangulation procedure measuring angles
(geometric shape, orientation in space, with one minute precision.
gravity field) changes of these properties ●​ Era of spherical geodesy started to fall.
with time.– National Ocean Service
●​ exact positions of points and the figure and ●​ 1666- Academe Royale des Sciences -
areas of large portion of the earth’s surface, established to carry out measurements for
the size and shape of the earth, and the the preparation of an accurate map of
variations in the terrestrial gravity. France and the determination of the size of
– Webster the earth
●​ Classical, science of measuring and ●​ The computations made from these
portraying the Earth’s surface” –F. R. measurements indicated that the length of
Helmert, 1880 the meridian arc was smaller towards the
●​ Contemporary, measurement and poles. This tentative conclusion conflicted
representation of the Earth’s surface(gravity with the notion that the earth was spherical
field, in a three-dimensional time varying in shape
space) –Vanicek & Krakiwsky, 1986
●​ These measurements also conflicted with
Concepts of Geodesy the theories being proposed by Isaac
1. the size and shape of the earth Newton
2. the gravity field of the earth - Postulated that the rotating earth should
3. the positioning of points on the surface of be flattened in the polar areas
the earth - As one travels towards the equator we go
Modern definition farther from the center of the earth
1. measurement and modeling of the
geodynamic ●​ To settle the issue the French Academy of
2. phenomena such as polar motion, Earth Sciences, in 1735, sent out an expedition to
rotation and crustal deformation confirm the correctness of the claims.
●​ The measurements of the expedition in
Branches of Geodesy Peru conclusively proved the earth to be
1. Geometrical geodesy- describing flattened.
locations in terms of geometry. Coordinate
systems are one of the primary products of Development of the Geoid
geometrical geodesy. ●​ 1872/3 – Listing introduced the concept of
2. Physical geodesy- concerned with the geoid as the surface of the undisturbed
determining the Earth’s gravity field, which seas and its continuation into the
is necessary for establishing heights. continents. Ellipsoid-approximation of the
3. Satellite geodesy - concerned with using earth
orbiting satellites to obtain data for geodetic ●​ 1884- Helmert defined more precisely the
purposes geoid identifying it with an ocean with no
4. Geodetic Astronomy disturbances such as would be caused by
tides, winds, waves, temperature, pressure
Historical Perspective and salinity differences.
Homer: 9th Century B.C.
●​ Earth was a flat disk supporting a Everyday Geodesy
hemispherical sky ●​ GNSS navigation system- Global Navigation
Phythagoras: 6th Century B.C Satellite System
●​ Suggested that the earth was spherical in ●​ Web-based mapping services
shape ●​ Ships and aircraft
Aristotle: 4th Centruy B.C
●​ The earth must be spherical in shape; Why learn about Geodesy?
a.) changing horizon as one travels in 1. The need for flatness
various directions, 2. Round realities
b.) round shadow of the earth that was
observed in lunar eclipses; and Units in Geodesy
c.) observation of a ship at sea where more A. Angular Units
(or less) of the ship is seen as the sheep 1. Degrees, minutes and seconds
approaches (or goes away) Degrees– 360 divisions of a circle- from the Latin
Eratosthenes: 230 B.C de gradus
Minutes– subdividing the degree into 60 parts- Definitions
from the Latin par minuta prima, “frist small part”’ Astronomic Latitude (Φ) – angle between the
Seconds– subdividing the minutes in sixty parts- astronomic normal (gravity normal), tangent to the
from the Latin pars minuta secunda, “second small plumbline at the point of interest, and the plane of
part” the instantaneous equator measured in the
meridian plane.
2. Radians
Natural angular unit from circle and its Astronomic Longitude (^) - angle between the
circumference. Greenwich Mean Astronomic Meridian and the
astronomic meridian plane measured in the plane
3. Circles and Semicircles of the instantaneous equator
one circle = 2π radians, or 360◦,
one semicircle = π radians, or 180◦. Orthometric Height (H) - height of the point of
interest .above the geoid, measured along the
4. Grade/grad/ gon plumbline, as obtained from spirit leveling and en
Angular unit dividing the circle into 400 parts, so route gravity observations
400 gon = 2π radians.
Geoidal Height (N) - the distance between the
5. Mil geoid and a reference ellipsoid, measured along an
Angular unit developed by militaries to direct ellipsoidal normal.
artillery fire.
Geodetic Azimuth (α) - On the surface of a
6. Mili-arc second (mas) reference ellipsoid, is the clockwise angle from
A milli-arc second, abbreviated mas, is 1/1000 arc north between the geodetic meridian of i and the
second. It is used in geodesy to describe the tangent to the ellipsoidal surface curve of shortest
extremely small angular rotations needed to distance (the geodesic) between i and j.
transform coordinates between different geodetic
reference frames. Astronomic azimuth (A) - angle between the
astronomic meridian plane of i and the astronomic
LECTURE 2: Geodetic Astronomy normal plane of i through j , measured clockwise
Astronomy- The scientific study of the universe from north.
beyond the earth (Morris, 1975)
Celestial coordinate systems- used to define the
Geodetic Astronomy The art and science for coordinates of celestial bodies such as stars.
determining, by astronomical observations, the
positions of points on the earth and the azimuths of Four main celestial coordinate systems
the geodetic lines connecting such points. (Mueller,
1969)

Why study Geodetic Astronomy

1. knowledge of celestial coordinate systems
2. celestial coordinate systems define the link
between satellite and terrestrial coordinate
systems;
3. the concepts of time for geodetic purposes are
developed;
4. tidal studies require a knowledge of geodetic
astronomy; Two fundamental differences between celestial
5. when dealing with new technologies an coordinate systems and terrestrial and orbital
understanding of the local astronomic coordinate coordinate systems.
system is essential; 1. Only directions are considered in celestial
6. astronomic coordinates of terrain points, which coordinate systems.
are expressed in a "natural" coordinate system, are 2. that celestial geometry is spherical rather than
important when studying 3-D terrestrial networks; ellipsoidal
7. astronomically determined azimuths provide
orientation for terrestrial networks; The Celestial Sphere
8. the determination of astrogeodetic deflections of ●​ imaginary surface whose center is the earth,
the vertical are useful for geoid determination where all celestial bodies are contained.
9. useful for the determination of the origin and ●​ pair of coordinates referred from celestial
orientation of independent surveys in remote objects define a position.
regions; ●​ speed of rotation of the celestial sphere is
10. essential for the demarcation of astronomically 360˚ 59.14’ per 24 hours
defined boundaries. ●​ rotation of the earth about its axis from west
to east
 ●​ celestial poles- points of intersection of Obliquity of the Ecliptic– the angle between the
the axis of rotation of the earth and the plane of the ecliptic and the plane of the equator.
sphere
●​ celestial equator- perpendicular to this axis The Horizon System
is a great circle

Celestial Horizon– the intersection of the

observer’s horizon/horizontal plane and the
celestial sphere.
Almucantars– parallels of altitude, intersection of
any plane parallel to the celestial horizon and the
celestial sphere.
Vertical Circles– great circles of the celestial
sphere that passes through the zenith and the
nadir.
Prime Vertical Circle– vertical circle that is
perpendicular to the observer’s celestial meridian. ‘
Observer’s Celestial meridian– the celestial ALTITUDE (H or a) - the angular distance of the
meridian that passes through the zenith and the body from the horizon as measured along the
nadir. vertical circle; complement of zenith distance
Zenith– the point of intersection (at the top) of the AZIMUTH (Z or A) - the angle, measured clockwise
observer’s vertical line and the celestial sphere. along the celestial horizon, from the north or south
Nadir– the point of intersection (at the top) of the point to the vertical circle of the star
observer’s vertical line and the celestial sphere. ZENITH DISTANCE (z) – the angular distance
North Point– the point of intersection of the between the zenith and the celestial body
celestial horizon and observer’s celestial meridian measured along the vertical circle through the body
nearest to the North Celestial Pole (NCP).
South Point– the point of intersection of the THE HOUR ANGLE SYSTEM
celestial horizon and observer’s celestial meridian
nearest to the South Celestial Pole (SCP). East and
West Point– points of intersection of the prime
vertical circle and the celestial horizon.
Celestial Equator– a great circle in the celestial
sphere perpendicular to its axis of rotation.
Celestial Parallel– the intersection of any plane
parallel to the celestial equator and the celestial
sphere.
Hour Circle– any great circle in the celestial
sphere that passes through the north and south
celestial poles.
Ecliptic– the intersection of the plane of the earth’s
orbit around the sun and the celestial sphere.
Vernal Equinox– the point of intersection of the
celestial equator and the ecliptic (when the sun’s HOUR ANGLE (t or h) - the angle, measured
declination is 0°) following the winter season. clockwise along the equatorial plane, from the
Autumnal Equinox– the point of intersection of the zenith side of the celestial meridian (t = 0°) to the
celestial equator and the ecliptic (when the sun’s hour circle of the star
declination is 0°) following the summer season. DECLINATION (δ or D) - the angular distance,
Winter/Summer Solstice– point on the ecliptic north or south of the equator, measured along the
defined when the sun’s declination is greatest. hour circle from the equator to the body;
Equinoctial Colure– a great circle in the celestial complement of polar distance
sphere passing through the celestial poles and the POLAR DISTANCE (P) - the angular distance
equinoxes. ​ between the pole and the celestial body measured
Solsticial Colure- a great circle in the celestial along the hour circle through the body
sphere passing through the celestial poles and the
solstices. THE RIGHT ASCENSION SYSTEM
Ecliptic Poles– points of intersection of the line
perpendicular to the ecliptic and the celestial
sphere.
Ecliptic Parallel– intersection of any plane parallel
to the ecliptic and the celestial sphere.
Ecliptic Meridian– great circle in the celestial
sphere that passes through the ecliptic poles.
RIGHT ASCENSION (α) - the angle between the Cosine law
equinoctial colure and the hour circle of the star,
measured from the vernal equinox τ, in the plane of
the celestial equator
DECLINATION (δ or D) - the angular distance,
north or south of the equator, measured along the
hour circle from the equator to the body
complement of polar distance

THE ECLIPTIC SYSTEM

ECLIPTIC LATITUDE (β) - the angular distance,

measured along the ecliptic meridian of the star,
between the ecliptic and the direction of the star
ECLIPTIC LONGITUDE (λ) - the angle measured
counterclockwise along the ecliptic, measured from
the vernal equinox τ, to the ecliptic meridian of the
star
ECLIPTIC POLAR DISTANCE - the complement of
the ecliptic latitude

Lecture 3: Geodetic Astronomy II

Transformation Methods
●​ from one system to another through a
certain flow.
●​ done using spherical trigonometry or matrix
method.
●​ using spherical trigonometry utilizes
celestial or astronomic triangles to derive
the transformation expressions.
●​ By matrix method use matrix algebra
utilizing the general cartesian coordinates of
the celestial body (through conversion of the
celestial coordinates)

THE CELESTIAL/ASTRONOMIC TRAINGLE

●​ Concerned on the determination of angular
relations, measured on earth between
celestial bodies or between points on earth
and the celestial body being observed
●​ combining two celestial coordinate systems

Two celestial triangles that can be formed in the

celestial sphere:
1. The PZS triangle
2. The PES triangle

SINE LAW