Sowndarya

M.com, MA (Eng), MA (Eco), B.Ed

GRAMMAR BASICS TO ADVANCE

1. Reviewing the Basics:

 Parts of Speech: Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inte
rjections.

 Sentence Structure: Subject, Predicate, and Object.

 Subject verb agreement : Singular and plural (subject- verbs)

 Tenses: Present, Past, and Future with their subtypes.

 Articles: Definite (the) and Indefinite (a, an).

2. Building Understanding:

 Clauses: Independent and Dependent Clauses.

 Phrases: Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, etc.

 Active and Passive Voice: Conversion techniques.

 Direct and Indirect Speech: How to report speech.

3. Advanced Grammar:

 Modals: Can, Could, May, Might, Should, Must, etc.

 Conditionals: Zero, First, Second, and Third Conditional.

 Idioms and Phrases: Commonly used expressions.

 Punctuation: Comma, Full stop, Semicolon, Colon, etc.

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 Parts Of Speech
1. Nouns

Definition: Names a person, place, thing, or idea.

 Examples: teacher, city, car, happiness.

Exercise:

Identify the nouns in the following sentences:

1. The book is on the table.

2. Alice went to Paris in July.

3. Happiness is a state of mind.

Answers:

1. book, table

2. Alice, Paris, July

3. Happiness, state, mind

2. Pronouns

Definition: Replaces a noun to avoid repetition.

 Examples: he, she, it, they, we.

Exercise:

Identify the pronouns in the following sentences:

1. She is reading a book.

2. They went to the park.

3. It is raining heavily.

Answers:

1. She

2. They

3. It

3. Adjectives

Definition: Describes or modifies a noun.

 Examples: blue, quick, happy, tall.

Exercise:

Identify the adjectives in the following sentences:

1. The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.

2. She wore a beautiful dress.

3. The tall man entered the room.

Answers:

1. quick, brown, lazy

2. beautiful

3. tall

4. Verbs

Definition: Describes an action or a state of being.

 Examples: run, jump, is, seem.

Exercise:

Identify the verbs in the following sentences:

1. The cat sleeps on the couch.

2. He runs every morning.

3. She seems happy today.

Answers:

1. sleeps

2. runs

3. seems

5. Adverbs

Definition: Modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

 Examples: quickly, very, well, slowly.

Exercise:

Identify the adverbs in the following sentences:

1. She sings beautifully.

2. He is very tall.
 3. They moved quickly.

Answers:

1. beautifully

2. very

3. quickly

6. Prepositions

Definition: Shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word.

 Examples: in, on, at, by, with.

Exercise:

Identify the prepositions in the following sentences:

1. The book is on the table.

2. She lives in Paris.

3. He walked through the park.

Answers:

1. on

2. in

3. through

7. Conjunctions

Definition: Connects words, phrases, or clauses.

 Examples: and, but, or, so, yet.

Exercise:

Identify the conjunctions in the following sentences:

1. She likes apples and oranges.

2. He wanted to go, but he was too tired.

3. You can have tea or coffee.

Answers:

1. and

2. but
 3. or

8. Interjections

Definition: Expresses strong emotion or surprise.

 Examples: wow, ouch, hurray, oh.

Exercise:

Identify the interjections in the following sentences:

1. Wow, that’s amazing!

2. Ouch, that hurt!

3. Hurray, we won!

Answers:

1. Wow

2. Ouch

3. Hurray

Exercise 1: Fill in the Blanks

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate part of speech indicated in parentheses:

1. _____ (Interjection), the _____ (noun) is _____ (adjective) today.

2. She _____ (verb) very _____ (adverb) in the _____ (noun).

3. The _____ (adjective) man gave his _____ (noun) to _____ (pronoun).

4. They went to the _____ (noun) and _____ (verb) some fruits.

5. _____ (Pronoun) likes to _____ (verb) in the _____ (noun).

Answers to Exercise 1

1. Wow, the weather is beautiful today.

2. She sings very beautifully in the choir.

3. The old man gave his book to her.

4. They went to the market and bought some fruits.

5. He likes to swim in the pool.

Exercise 2: Identify the Parts of Speech

Identify the parts of speech for each underlined word in the following sentences:
 1. She runs quickly.

2. The dog barked loudly.

3. He is a brilliant student.

4. Wow, that’s amazing!

5. They went to the market.

Answers to Exercise 2

1. She (Pronoun), runs (Verb), quickly (Adverb)

2. The (Article), dog (Noun), barked (Verb), loudly (Adverb)

3. He (Pronoun), is (Verb), a (Article), brilliant (Adjective), student (Noun)

4. Wow (Interjection), that’s (Pronoun), amazing (Adjective)

5. They (Pronoun), went (Verb), to (Preposition), the (Article), market (Noun)

Exercise 3: Sentence Construction

Construct sentences using the following words (one of each part of speech):

1. Noun: cat, Verb: jump, Adjective: happy, Adverb: quickly

2. Noun: teacher, Verb: teach, Adjective: smart, Adverb: enthusiastically

3. Noun: children, Verb: play, Adjective: joyful, Adverb: energetically

Answers to Exercise 3

1. The happy cat jumped quickly.

2. The smart teacher teaches enthusiastically.

3. The joyful children play energetically.

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 Sentence Structure

1. Subject

The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being something. In other wo
rds, it’s what the sentence is about.

Examples:

 She runs.

 The cat sleeps.

2. Predicate

The predicate of a sentence tells what the subject does or is. It includes the verb and can also include othe
r words that give more information about what the subject is doing.

Examples:

 She runs.

 The cat sleeps on the couch.

3. Object

The object of a sentence is the person or thing that is affected by the action of the verb. There are two typ
es of objects: direct and indirect.

Examples:

 Direct Object: She eats an apple.

 Indirect Object: He gave her a gift.

Putting It All Together

A complete sentence often has a subject, predicate, and sometimes an object.

Example Sentences:

 The teacher (subject) explained (predicate) the lesson (object).

 Tom (subject) buys (predicate) a new book (object).

Exercises

Fill in the blanks with appropriate subjects, predicates, or objects:

1. _____ (subject) ate the cake.

2. The cat _____ (predicate) on the mat.

 3. She _____ (predicate) her friend a gift.

4. _____ (subject) is reading a book.

5. They _____ (predicate) in the park.

Answers

1. She

2. is sleeping

3. gave

4. John

5. are playing

Direct and Indirect Objects

Understanding direct and indirect objects can help in identifying the structure of a sentence.

1. Direct Object

The direct object is the noun or pronoun that directly receives the action of the verb. It answers the questi
on "What?" or "Whom?" after the verb.

Examples:

 She eats an apple. (What does she eat? An apple)

 He found the book. (What did he find? The book)

2. Indirect Object

The indirect object is the noun or pronoun that indirectly receives the action of the verb. It usually comes
before the direct object and answers the question "To whom?" or "For whom?" after the verb.

Examples:

 He gave her a gift. (To whom did he give a gift? Her)

 She sent them a letter. (To whom did she send a letter? Them)

Examples in Sentences:

1. He gave her (indirect object) a gift (direct object).

 Gave what? A gift (direct object)

 Gave to whom? Her (indirect object)

2. She showed us (indirect object) the project (direct object).

  Showed what? The project (direct object)

 Showed to whom? Us (indirect object)

Exercise:

Identify the direct and indirect objects in the following sentences:

1. She told him a story.

 Direct Object: __________

 Indirect Object: __________

2. I sent my friend a postcard.

 Direct Object: __________

 Indirect Object: __________

3. They offered the students some advice.

 Direct Object: __________

 Indirect Object: __________

Answers:

1. She told him a story.

 Direct Object: story

 Indirect Object: him

2. I sent my friend a postcard.

 Direct Object: postcard

 Indirect Object: my friend

3. They offered the students some advice.

 Direct Object: some advice

 Indirect Object: the students

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 Subject Verb Agreement
1. Singular Subjects and Verbs:

 When the subject of a sentence is singular, the verb must also be singular.

o Example: She runs every morning.

o Example: The cat sleeps on the couch.

2. Plural Subjects and Verbs:

 When the subject of a sentence is plural, the verb must also be plural.

o Example: They run every morning.

o Example: The cats sleep on the couch.

Rules and Examples:

1. Singular Subject with Singular Verb:

 He (subject) plays (verb) the guitar.

 The dog (subject) barks (verb) at strangers.

2. Plural Subject with Plural Verb:

 They (subject) play (verb) the guitar.

 The dogs (subject) bark (verb) at strangers.

3. Special Cases:

 Indefinite Pronouns (e.g., everyone, someone, nobody) are usually singular and take singular verb
s.

o Example: Everyone likes ice cream.

o Example: Someone is at the door.

 Subjects joined by "and" usually take a plural verb.

o Example: Tom and Jerry are friends.

o Example: The book and the pen are on the table.

 Subjects joined by "or" or "nor" take a verb that agrees with the closer subject.

o Example: Neither the teacher nor the students are confused.

o Example: Either the cat or the dogs need food.

Exercises:
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb to match the subject:

1. She _____ (run/runs) every morning.

2. The dogs _____ (bark/barks) loudly.

3. Everyone _____ (like/likes) the new movie.

4. Either the cat or the dogs _____ (need/needs) food.

5. The teacher and the students _____ (is/are) ready.

Answers:

1. She runs every morning.

2. The dogs bark loudly.

3. Everyone likes the new movie.

4. Either the cat or the dogs need food.

5. The teacher and the students are ready.

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TENSE
Tenses Chart

Tense Formula Example

Simple Present Subject + V1 (base form) She writes a letter.

Present Continuous Subject + is/am/are + V1 + ing She is writing a letter.

Present Perfect Subject + has/have + V3 (past participle) She has written a letter.

Present Perfect Continuous Subject + has/have + been + V1 + ing She has been writing a letter.

Simple Past Subject + V2 (past form) She wrote a letter.

Past Continuous Subject + was/were + V1 + ing She was writing a letter.

Past Perfect Subject + had + V3 (past participle) She had written a letter.

Past Perfect Continuous Subject + had + been + V1 + ing She had been writing a letter.

Simple Future Subject + will + V1 (base form) She will write a letter.

Future Continuous Subject + will + be + V1 + ing She will be writing a letter.

Future Perfect Subject + will + have + V3 (past participle) She will have written a letter.

Future Perfect Continuous Subject + will + have + been + V1 + ing She will have been writing a letter.

Examples:

1. Present Tense

Describes actions happening now or regularly.

a. Simple Present

 Usage: Routine actions, general truths.

 Examples:

o She writes every day.

o Water boils at 100°C.

b. Present Continuous (Progressive)

 Usage: Actions happening right now or around the present time.

 Examples:
 o She is writing a letter.

o They are playing football.

c. Present Perfect

 Usage: Actions completed at an unspecified time before now.

 Examples:

o She has written three books.

o We have finished our homework.

d. Present Perfect Continuous (Progressive)

 Usage: Actions that started in the past and are still continuing or just finished.

 Examples:

o She has been writing for an hour.

o They have been playing since morning.

2. Past Tense

Describes actions that happened in the past.

a. Simple Past

 Usage: Actions completed in the past.

 Examples:

o She wrote a letter.

o They played football.

b. Past Continuous (Progressive)

 Usage: Actions that were happening at a specific moment in the past.

 Examples:

o She was writing a letter.

o They were playing football.

c. Past Perfect

 Usage: Actions completed before another action in the past.

 Examples:

o She had written the letter before I arrived.

 o They had finished playing by the time it started raining.

d. Past Perfect Continuous (Progressive)

 Usage: Actions that were ongoing in the past up to another point in the past.

 Examples:

o She had been writing for an hour before the power went out.

o They had been playing for two hours before it started raining.

3. Future Tense

Describes actions that will happen in the future.

a. Simple Future

 Usage: Actions that will happen in the future.

 Examples:

o She will write a letter.

o They will play football.

b. Future Continuous (Progressive)

 Usage: Actions that will be happening at a specific moment in the future.

 Examples:

o She will be writing a letter.

o They will be playing football.

c. Future Perfect

 Usage: Actions that will be completed before another future action or time.

 Examples:

o She will have written the letter by tomorrow.

o They will have finished playing by the time you arrive.

d. Future Perfect Continuous (Progressive)

 Usage: Actions that will be ongoing up to a specific point in the future.

 Examples:

o She will have been writing for two hours by midnight.

o They will have been playing for three hours by the time you arrive.
Exercises:

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb in parentheses:

1. She _____ (write) letters every day. (Simple Present)

2. They _____ (play) football now. (Present Continuous)

3. He _____ (finish) his homework already. (Present Perfect)

4. She _____ (write) for an hour. (Present Perfect Continuous)

5. She _____ (write) a letter yesterday. (Simple Past)

6. They _____ (play) football when I called. (Past Continuous)

7. She _____ (write) the letter before I arrived. (Past Perfect)

8. They _____ (play) for two hours before it started raining. (Past Perfect Continuous)

9. She _____ (write) a letter tomorrow. (Simple Future)

10. They _____ (play) football at 5 PM. (Future Continuous)

11. She _____ (write) the letter by tomorrow. (Future Perfect)

12. They _____ (play) for three hours by the time you arrive. (Future Perfect Continuous)

Answers:

1. writes

2. are playing

3. has finished

4. has been writing

5. wrote

6. were playing

7. had written

8. had been playing

9. will write

10. will be playing

11. will have written

12. will have been playing

Exercise 2 : Fill in the Blanks

1. Simple Present:

 He _____ (go) to school every day.

 They _____ (like) to play football.

2. Present Continuous:

 She _____ (read) a book right now.

 The children _____ (play) in the park.

3. Present Perfect:

 I _____ (finish) my homework.

 They _____ (visit) that museum before.

4. Present Perfect Continuous:

 He _____ (study) for two hours.

 We _____ (live) here since 2010.

5. Simple Past:

 She _____ (watch) a movie last night.

 They _____ (go) to the market yesterday.

6. Past Continuous:

 I _____ (cook) dinner when you called.

 They _____ (play) football when it started raining.

7. Past Perfect:

 She _____ (leave) before I arrived.

 They _____ (finish) their work before the meeting.

8. Past Perfect Continuous:

 He _____ (work) there for five years before he left.

 We _____ (wait) for an hour when the train arrived.

9. Simple Future:

 She _____ (go) to the party tomorrow.

 They _____ (visit) their grandparents next week.

 10. Future Continuous:

 He _____ (work) at this time tomorrow.

 They _____ (travel) to Paris next month.

11. Future Perfect:

 She _____ (finish) her project by tomorrow.

 They _____ (complete) the course by next year.

12. Future Perfect Continuous:

 He _____ (study) for three hours by the time you arrive.

 They _____ (live) here for ten years by 2030.

Answers:

1. Simple Present:

 He goes to school every day.

 They like to play football.

2. Present Continuous:

 She is reading a book right now.

 The children are playing in the park.

3. Present Perfect:

 I have finished my homework.

 They have visited that museum before.

4. Present Perfect Continuous:

 He has been studying for two hours.

 We have been living here since 2010.

5. Simple Past:

 She watched a movie last night.

 They went to the market yesterday.

6. Past Continuous:

 I was cooking dinner when you called.

 They were playing football when it started raining.

 7. Past Perfect:

 She had left before I arrived.

 They had finished their work before the meeting.

8. Past Perfect Continuous:

 He had been working there for five years before he left.

 We had been waiting for an hour when the train arrived.

9. Simple Future:

 She will go to the party tomorrow.

 They will visit their grandparents next week.

10. Future Continuous:

 He will be working at this time tomorrow.

 They will be traveling to Paris next month.

11. Future Perfect:

 She will have finished her project by tomorrow.

 They will have completed the course by next year.

12. Future Perfect Continuous:

 He will have been studying for three hours by the time you arrive.

 They will have been living here for ten years by 2030.

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Articles: Definite (the) and Indefinite (a, an)

1. Indefinite Articles: "a" and "an"

Usage:

 "a" is used before words that begin with a consonant sound.

o Example: a cat, a book, a university (sounds like "you-niversity")

 "an" is used before words that begin with a vowel sound.

o Example: an apple, an hour, an honest person

Purpose:

 Indefinite articles refer to non-specific items or one of many similar items.

o Example: I saw a dog. (any dog, not specific)

o Example: She wants to eat an apple. (any apple, not specific)

2. Definite Article: "the"

Usage:

 "the" is used before both singular and plural nouns and is used when referring to a specific item or
items that are known to the speaker and listener.

o Example: the cat, the books, the university

Purpose:

 The definite article specifies a particular item or items.

o Example: I saw the dog that lives next door. (a specific dog)

o Example: She wants to eat the apple on the table. (a specific apple)

Examples and Exercises

Fill in the blanks with "a," "an," or "the":

1. I have _____ book in my bag.

2. She saw _____ elephant at the zoo.

3. Please give me _____ pen.

4. _____ sun rises in the east.

5. He bought _____ umbrella.

6. _____ hour ago, I met _____ friend.

7. _____ apples in that basket are fresh.

 8. There is _____ interesting movie on TV tonight.

Answers:

1. I have a book in my bag.

2. She saw an elephant at the zoo.

3. Please give me a pen.

4. The sun rises in the east.

5. He bought an umbrella.

6. An hour ago, I met a friend.

7. The apples in that basket are fresh.

8. There is an interesting movie on TV tonight.

Fill in the Blanks

Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks with "a," "an," or "the":

1. There is _____ bird on the branch.

2. She wants to become _____ engineer.

3. _____ moon looks beautiful tonight.

4. He found _____ old coin in his garden.

5. They are going to _____ beach this weekend.

6. I bought _____ apple and _____ banana.

7. _____ library is next to the park.

8. She gave me _____ interesting book to read.

9. _____ Eiffel Tower is in Paris.

10. Would you like _____ cup of tea?

Exercise 2: Multiple Choice

Choose the correct article ("a," "an," or "the") for each sentence:

1. I saw _____ (a/an/the) man with _____ (a/an/the) umbrella.

2. We need to find _____ (a/an/the) solution to this problem.

3. She is _____ (a/an/the) artist and _____ (a/an/the) teacher.

4. He bought _____ (a/an/the) car and _____ (a/an/the) bicycle.

 5. _____ (A/An/The) sun rises in _____ (a/an/the) east.

Exercise 3: Correct the Mistakes

Correct the incorrect use of articles in the following sentences:

1. She is an best student in her class.

2. I saw a elephant at the zoo.

3. The apple a day keeps the doctor away.

4. He is the honest man.

5. We visited an Taj Mahal last year.

Answers to Exercise 1:

1. There is a bird on the branch.

2. She wants to become an engineer.

3. The moon looks beautiful tonight.

4. He found an old coin in his garden.

5. They are going to the beach this weekend.

6. I bought an apple and a banana.

7. The library is next to the park.

8. She gave me an interesting book to read.

9. The Eiffel Tower is in Paris.

10. Would you like a cup of tea?

Answers to Exercise 2:

1. I saw a man with an umbrella.

2. We need to find a solution to this problem.

3. She is an artist and a teacher.

4. He bought a car and a bicycle.

5. The sun rises in the east.

Answers to Exercise 3:

1. She is the best student in her class.

2. I saw an elephant at the zoo.

 3. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.

4. He is an honest man.

5. We visited the Taj Mahal last year.

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Clauses: Independent and Dependent

1. Independent Clauses

An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a complete sentence. It has a subject a
nd a predicate and expresses a complete thought.

Examples:

 She runs every morning.

 The cat slept on the couch.

2. Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It h
as a subject and a predicate but does not express a complete thought. It often begins with a subordinating
conjunction like "because," "although," "if," "when," etc.

Examples:

 Because she runs every morning.

 Although the cat slept on the couch.

Combining Clauses

Independent and dependent clauses are often combined to form complex sentences.

Examples:

 Independent Clause: She runs every morning.

 Dependent Clause: Because it helps her stay fit.

 Combined: She runs every morning because it helps her stay fit.

 Independent Clause: The cat slept on the couch.

 Dependent Clause: While the dog was outside.

  Combined: The cat slept on the couch while the dog was outside.

Exercises:

Identify the independent and dependent clauses in the following sentences:

1. She went to the store because she needed groceries.

 Independent Clause: ___________________________

 Dependent Clause: ____________________________

2. Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk.

 Independent Clause: ___________________________

 Dependent Clause: ____________________________

3. When he arrived, the meeting had already started.

 Independent Clause: ___________________________

 Dependent Clause: ____________________________

Combine the following clauses to form complex sentences:

4. The dog barked. / The mailman approached the house.

5. I finished my homework. / Before the deadline.

Answers:

Identify the independent and dependent clauses:

1. She went to the store because she needed groceries.

 Independent Clause: She went to the store

 Dependent Clause: because she needed groceries

2. Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk.

 Independent Clause: they decided to go for a walk

 Dependent Clause: Although it was raining

3. When he arrived, the meeting had already started.

 Independent Clause: the meeting had already started

 Dependent Clause: When he arrived

Combine the clauses:

4. The dog barked when the mailman approached the house.

5. I finished my homework before the deadline.

Independent Clauses:

1. Simple Sentence:

 Contains a single independent clause.

 Example: She runs every day.

2. Compound Sentence:

 Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, n
or, but, or, yet, so).

 Example: She runs every day, and she swims every weekend.

Dependent Clauses (Subordinate Clauses):

1. Adjective (Relative) Clauses:

 Functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.

 Introduced by relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, that, which).

 Example: The book that she wrote is a bestseller.

2. Adverb Clauses:

 Functions as an adverb, modifying a verb, adjective, or another adverb.

 Introduced by subordinating conjunctions (because, although, if, when, etc.).

 Example: She runs every day because it keeps her healthy.

3. Noun Clauses:

 Functions as a noun, serving as a subject, object, or complement.

 Introduced by words like that, what, who, whether, etc.

 Example: What she said was surprising.

Examples and Exercises:

Identify the type of dependent clause in each sentence:

1. The movie that we watched was thrilling.

 Type: ________________

2. He left the party because he was tired.

  Type: ________________

3. When she arrived, everyone was waiting.

 Type: ________________

4. She didn't know what to say.

 Type: ________________

Combine the clauses into a complex sentence:

5. The cat slept on the couch. / The dog was outside.

6. He finished his homework. / Before the deadline.

Answers:

Identify the type of dependent clause:

1. The movie that we watched was thrilling.

 Type: Adjective (Relative) Clause

2. He left the party because he was tired.

 Type: Adverb Clause

3. When she arrived, everyone was waiting.

 Type: Adverb Clause

4. She didn't know what to say.

 Type: Noun Clause

Combine the clauses:

5. The cat slept on the couch while the dog was outside.

6. He finished his homework before the deadline.

Compound Sentences

Definition:

 A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conju
nction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Formula:

 Independent Clause + Coordinating Conjunction + Independent Clause

Examples:

 She likes to read, and he enjoys writing.

 I wanted to go to the park, but it started raining.

 You can come with us, or you can stay home.

Complex Sentences

Definition:

 A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent (subordinate)
clauses.

Formula:

 Independent Clause + Subordinating Conjunction + Dependent Clause

 Dependent Clause + , + Independent Clause

Examples:

 Because it was raining, I took an umbrella.

 She studied hard so that she could pass the exam.

 Although he was tired, he finished his homework.

Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS):

 For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So

Subordinating Conjunctions:

list of common subordinating conjunctions. These words are used to introduce dependent (subordinate) cl
auses and show the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence:

Common Subordinating Conjunctions:

 After: He went home after he finished his work.

 Although: Although it was raining, they went for a walk.

 As: As she was reading, the phone rang.

 Because: She stayed home because she was feeling sick.

 Before: We need to leave before the sun sets.

 Even if: Even if he studies hard, he might not pass the exam.

 Even though: She went to the party even though she was tired.

 If: If it rains, we will cancel the picnic.

  Once: Once you finish your homework, you can watch TV.

 Since: They have been friends since they were kids.

 So that: She saved money so that she could travel.

 Than: He is taller than his brother.

 Though: She smiled though she was nervous.

 Unless: You won't succeed unless you work hard.

 Until: Wait here until I come back.

 When: When he arrives, we will start the meeting.

 Whenever: You can call me whenever you need help.

 Where: She found her keys where she left them.

 Wherever: I will follow you wherever you go.

 Whether: I don't know whether he will come or not.

 While: She was cooking while he was cleaning.

Exercises:

Identify whether the following sentences are compound or complex:

1. She was tired, so she went to bed early.

 Type: _______________________

2. When he arrived, everyone was already there.

 Type: _______________________

3. I will go to the store, but I need to finish my work first.

 Type: _______________________

4. Although it was late, they decided to watch a movie.

 Type: _______________________

Combine the following clauses into compound or complex sentences:

5. The dog barked. / The cat ran away.

6. He missed the bus. / He was late for work.


 7. I stayed home. / Because it was raining.

8. She studied hard. / So she passed the exam.

Fill in the blanks with appropriate coordinating or subordinating conjunctions to make compound or co
mplex sentences:

9. I wanted to go for a walk, _____ it started to rain.

10. _____ she was hungry, she waited until dinner.

11. He finished his work, _____ he went out to play.

12. _____ he didn’t know the answer, he guessed.

Answers:

Identify whether the sentences are compound or complex:

1. She was tired, so she went to bed early.

 Type: Compound Sentence

2. When he arrived, everyone was already there.

 Type: Complex Sentence

3. I will go to the store, but I need to finish my work first.

 Type: Compound Sentence

4. Although it was late, they decided to watch a movie.

 Type: Complex Sentence

Combine the clauses:

5. The dog barked, and the cat ran away.

6. He missed the bus, so he was late for work.

7. I stayed home because it was raining.

8. She studied hard, so she passed the exam.

Fill in the blanks:

9. I wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain.

10. Although she was hungry, she waited until dinner.

11. He finished his work, and he went out to play.

 12. Since he didn’t know the answer, he guessed.

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Phrases
Phrases are groups of words that work together as a unit but do not form a complete sentence. They can a
ct as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs within a sentence. Here are some common types of phrases:

1. Noun Phrase

A noun phrase includes a noun and any modifiers (such as adjectives, determiners, or additional nouns) th
at add more information about the noun.

Example:

 The big red ball bounced.

o big red ball is the noun phrase (noun: ball, modifiers: big, red)

2. Verb Phrase

A verb phrase includes the main verb and any auxiliary (helping) verbs, as well as modifiers, that go along
with the verb.

Example:

 She is running quickly.

o is running quickly is the verb phrase (main verb: running, auxiliary verb: is, modifier: quickl
y)

3. Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase includes an adjective and any modifiers or complements that describe the adjective.

Example:

 The book is very interesting.

o very interesting is the adjective phrase (adjective: interesting, modifier: very)

4. Adverb Phrase

An adverb phrase includes an adverb and any modifiers that describe the adverb.

Example:

 He speaks quite loudly.

 o quite loudly is the adverb phrase (adverb: loudly, modifier: quite)

5. Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase includes a preposition and its object, along with any modifiers of the object.

Example:

 She sat on the comfortable chair.

o on the comfortable chair is the prepositional phrase (preposition: on, object: chair, modifie
r: comfortable)

6. Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase includes the infinitive form of a verb (to + base verb) and any modifiers or complemen
ts.

Example:

 She loves to read books.

o to read books is the infinitive phrase (infinitive: to read, object: books)

7. Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase includes a gerund (verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun) and any modifiers o
r complements.

Example:

 Running in the park is fun.

o Running in the park is the gerund phrase (gerund: running, modifier: in the park)

Exercises:

Identify the type of phrase in each sentence:

1. The big yellow house was sold.

 Type: _______________

2. She is eating lunch right now.

 Type: _______________

3. He ran very quickly to catch the bus.

 Type: _______________

4. They live in a small village.

 Type: _______________
 5. Reading books is her favorite hobby.

 Type: _______________

6. She wants to learn Spanish.

 Type: _______________

Combine the following words to form phrases:

7. adjective: extremely beautiful

8. noun: the old oak tree

9. preposition: under the table

10. verb: has been working diligently

Answers:

Identify the type of phrase:

1. The big yellow house was sold.

 Type: Noun Phrase

2. She is eating lunch right now.

 Type: Verb Phrase

3. He ran very quickly to catch the bus.

 Type: Adverb Phrase

4. They live in a small village.

 Type: Prepositional Phrase

5. Reading books is her favorite hobby.

 Type: Gerund Phrase

6. She wants to learn Spanish.

 Type: Infinitive Phrase

Combine the words to form phrases:

 7. Adjective Phrase: extremely beautiful

8. Noun Phrase: the old oak tree

9. Prepositional Phrase: under the table

10. Verb Phrase: has been working diligently

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Active and Passive Voice

1. Active Voice

Definition:

 In active voice, the subject performs the action of the verb.

Formula:

 Subject + Verb + Object

Examples:

 The chef (subject) cooked (verb) the meal (object).

 The dog (subject) chased (verb) the cat (object).

2. Passive Voice

Definition:

 In passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb.

Formula:

 Object + Auxiliary Verb (be) + Past Participle + (by Subject)

Examples:

 The meal (object) was cooked (auxiliary verb + past participle) by the chef (subject).

 The cat (object) was chased (auxiliary verb + past participle) by the dog (subject).

Conversion Techniques:

Converting from Active to Passive:

1. Identify the subject, verb, and object in the active sentence.

  Example: The chef cooked the meal.

o Subject: The chef

o Verb: cooked

o Object: the meal

2. Move the object to the beginning of the sentence.

 Example: The meal

3. Add the appropriate form of the verb "to be" (is, am, are, was, were, being, been) based on the te
nse of the original sentence.

 Example: The meal was

4. Use the past participle form of the main verb.

 Example: The meal was cooked

5. Optionally, include the original subject at the end preceded by "by."

 Example: The meal was cooked by the chef.

Converting from Passive to Active:

1. Identify the agent (doer of the action), action, and receiver of the action in the passive sentence.

 Example: The meal was cooked by the chef.

o Agent: the chef

o Action: cooked

o Receiver: the meal

2. Move the agent to the beginning of the sentence.

 Example: The chef

3. Place the action (verb) after the agent.

 Example: The chef cooked

4. Place the receiver of the action after the verb.

 Example: The chef cooked the meal.

Examples and Exercises:

Convert the following active sentences to passive sentences:

1. The gardener waters the plants.

 Passive: _______________________________________
 2. The police arrested the thief.

 Passive: _______________________________________

3. The chef is preparing the meal.

 Passive: _______________________________________

Convert the following passive sentences to active sentences:

4. The song was sung by the choir.

 Active: _______________________________________

5. The house was built by the workers.

 Active: _______________________________________

6. The cake was eaten by the children.

 Active: _______________________________________

Fill in the blanks with appropriate forms of the verb to convert between active and passive voice:

7. Active: The teacher teaches the students.

 Passive: The students ___________________________

8. Passive: The letter was written by John.

 Active: John ___________________________

Answers:

Active to Passive:

1. The gardener waters the plants.

 Passive: The plants are watered by the gardener.

2. The police arrested the thief.

 Passive: The thief was arrested by the police.

3. The chef is preparing the meal.

 Passive: The meal is being prepared by the chef.

Passive to Active:

4. The song was sung by the choir.

 Active: The choir sang the song.

5. The house was built by the workers.

  Active: The workers built the house.

6. The cake was eaten by the children.

 Active: The children ate the cake.

Fill in the blanks:

7. Active: The teacher teaches the students.

 Passive: The students are taught by the teacher.

8. Passive: The letter was written by John.

 Active: John wrote the letter.

Active and Passive Voice Using Forms of "To Be"

When converting between active and passive voice, it's essential to use the correct form of the verb "to be
" (is, am, are, was, were, being, been) based on the tense of the original sentence. Here's a guide on how t
o use these forms in active and passive voice.

1. Present Tense

Active:

 The chef cooks the meal.

o Subject: The chef

o Verb: cooks

o Object: the meal

Passive:

 The meal is cooked by the chef.

o is (present) + cooked (past participle)

Exercises:

1. Active: She writes a letter.

 Passive: The letter _____________ by her. (is written)

2. Active: They play football.

 Passive: Football _____________ by them. (is played)

2. Past Tense

Active:

 The chef cooked the meal.

 o Subject: The chef

o Verb: cooked

o Object: the meal

Passive:

 The meal was cooked by the chef.

o was (past) + cooked (past participle)

Exercises:

3. Active: He painted the house.

 Passive: The house _____________ by him. (was painted)

4. Active: She completed the project.

 Passive: The project _____________ by her. (was completed)

3. Present Continuous Tense

Active:

 The chef is cooking the meal.

o Subject: The chef

o Verb: is cooking

o Object: the meal

Passive:

 The meal is being cooked by the chef.

o is being (present continuous) + cooked (past participle)

Exercises:

5. Active: They are watching a movie.

 Passive: A movie _____________ by them. (is being watched)

6. Active: She is cleaning the room.

 Passive: The room _____________ by her. (is being cleaned)

4. Past Continuous Tense

Active:

 The chef was cooking the meal.

 o Subject: The chef

o Verb: was cooking

o Object: the meal

Passive:

 The meal was being cooked by the chef.

o was being (past continuous) + cooked (past participle)

Exercises:

7. Active: He was fixing the car.

 Passive: The car _____________ by him. (was being fixed)

8. Active: They were building a house.

 Passive: A house _____________ by them. (was being built)

5. Present Perfect Tense

Active:

 The chef has cooked the meal.

o Subject: The chef

o Verb: has cooked

o Object: the meal

Passive:

 The meal has been cooked by the chef.

o has been (present perfect) + cooked (past participle)

Exercises:

9. Active: She has finished the report.

 Passive: The report _____________ by her. (has been finished)

10. Active: They have repaired the roof.

 Passive: The roof _____________ by them. (has been repaired)

Answers to Exercises:

1. Passive: The letter is written by her.

2. Passive: Football is played by them.

 3. Passive: The house was painted by him.

4. Passive: The project was completed by her.

5. Passive: A movie is being watched by them.

6. Passive: The room is being cleaned by her.

7. Passive: The car was being fixed by him.

8. Passive: A house was being built by them.

9. Passive: The report has been finished by her.

10. Passive: The roof has been repaired by them.

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Narration
Narration

Narration is the act of telling a story, describing events, or recounting experiences. It is an essential eleme
nt of storytelling and writing. Let's explore different aspects of narration, including the types of narration,
narrative tenses, and how to convert direct speech to reported speech (indirect narration).

1. Types of Narration

a. First-Person Narration:

 The narrator is a character in the story, using pronouns like "I" and "we."

 Example: I went to the market and bought some apples.

b. Second-Person Narration:

 The narrator addresses the reader directly using the pronoun "you."

 Example: You walk into the room and see a mysterious box.

c. Third-Person Narration:

 The narrator is outside the story, using pronouns like "he," "she," "they," and "it."

 Example: She walked to the market and bought some apples.

2. Narrative Tenses

Narrative tenses are used to place events in time within a story. Here are the common tenses used in narr
ation:
a. Simple Past Tense:

 Describes actions that happened in the past.

 Example: He walked to the store.

b. Past Continuous Tense:

 Describes ongoing actions in the past.

 Example: She was reading a book when the phone rang.

c. Past Perfect Tense:

 Describes actions that were completed before another past action.

 Example: They had finished dinner before the movie started.

d. Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

 Describes actions that were ongoing in the past up to a certain point.

 Example: He had been studying for two hours when the guests arrived.

3. Direct and Indirect Narration (Reported Speech)

a. Direct Speech:

 The exact words spoken by a character.

 Example: She said, "I am going to the market."

b. Indirect Speech (Reported Speech):

 The narrator reports what a character said, without quoting their exact words.

 Example: She said that she was going to the market.

Conversion Techniques:

Converting Direct Speech to Indirect Speech:

1. Change the pronouns to match the perspective of the narrator.

 Direct: He said, "I am happy."

 Indirect: He said that he was happy.

2. Change the tense of the verb according to the sequence of tenses.

 Direct: She said, "I will go."

 Indirect: She said that she would go.

3. Remove the quotation marks and adjust punctuation.

  Direct: They said, "We are coming."

 Indirect: They said that they were coming.

4. Use appropriate conjunctions (that, if, whether, etc.).

 Direct: She asked, "Are you coming?"

 Indirect: She asked if I was coming.

Exercises:

Convert the following sentences from direct to indirect speech:

1. Direct: He said, "I am tired."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

2. Direct: She asked, "Do you like ice cream?"

 Indirect: ____________________________________

3. Direct: They said, "We have finished our work."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

4. Direct: He said, "I will call you tomorrow."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

5. Direct: She said, "I went to the market."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

Answers:

1. Indirect: He said that he was tired.

2. Indirect: She asked if I liked ice cream.

3. Indirect: They said that they had finished their work.

4. Indirect: He said that he would call me tomorrow.

5. Indirect: She said that she had gone to the market.

Understanding how to convert between direct and indirect speech (reported speech) is a key skill in Englis
h. Let's break it down step by step:

1. Direct Speech

Definition:

 Direct speech involves quoting the exact words spoken by someone, enclosed in quotation marks.
Structure:

 [Reporting Verb] + , + " [Exact Words] "

 Example: She said, "I am going to the market."

Examples:

 He said, "I am tired."

 She asked, "Do you like ice cream?"

 They said, "We have finished our work."

2. Indirect Speech (Reported Speech)

Definition:

 Indirect speech reports what someone said without quoting their exact words.

Structure:

 [Reporting Verb] + that + [Reported Speech]

 Example: She said that she was going to the market.

Changes to Note When Converting:

1. Pronouns: Change to match the perspective of the narrator.

 Direct: He said, "I am happy."

 Indirect: He said that he was happy.

2. Tenses: Shift back one step if the reporting verb is in the past tense.

 Present Simple to Past Simple:

o Direct: She said, "I eat apples."

o Indirect: She said that she ate apples.

 Present Continuous to Past Continuous:

o Direct: He said, "I am eating."

o Indirect: He said that he was eating.

 Present Perfect to Past Perfect:

o Direct: They said, "We have finished."

o Indirect: They said that they had finished.

 Future Simple to Conditional:

 o Direct: She said, "I will go."

o Indirect: She said that she would go.

3. Time and Place References: Adjust to fit the new context.

 Direct: He said, "I will see you tomorrow."

 Indirect: He said that he would see me the next day.

 Direct: She said, "I am leaving now."

 Indirect: She said that she was leaving then.

4. Quotation Marks: Removed in indirect speech.

 Direct: They said, "We are coming."

 Indirect: They said that they were coming.

5. Questions and Commands: Use appropriate conjunctions (if, whether) and change the sentence st
ructure.

 Direct: She asked, "Are you coming?"

 Indirect: She asked if I was coming.

 Direct: He said, "Close the door."

 Indirect: He told me to close the door.

Examples and Conversion Exercises:

Convert the following sentences from direct to indirect speech:

1. Direct: He said, "I am tired."

 Indirect: He said that he was tired.

2. Direct: She asked, "Do you like ice cream?"

 Indirect: She asked if I liked ice cream.

3. Direct: They said, "We have finished our work."

 Indirect: They said that they had finished their work.

4. Direct: He said, "I will call you tomorrow."

 Indirect: He said that he would call me the next day.

5. Direct: She said, "I went to the market."

 Indirect: She said that she had gone to the market.

6. Indirect: He said that he was happy.

  Direct: He said, "I am happy."

7. Indirect: She asked if I liked ice cream.

 Direct: She asked, "Do you like ice cream?"

8. Indirect: They said that they had finished their work.

 Direct: They said, "We have finished our work."

9. Indirect: He said that he would call me the next day.

 Direct: He said, "I will call you tomorrow."

10. Indirect: She said that she had gone to the market.

 Direct: She said, "I went to the market."

Direct to Indirect Speech Exercises:

1. Convert the following sentences from direct to indirect speech:

1. She said, "I am going to the market."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

2. He asked, "Do you like chocolate?"

 Indirect: ____________________________________

3. They said, "We have completed our project."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

4. She said, "I will meet you at the station."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

5. He said, "I have been working all day."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

6. She said, "The sun rises in the east."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

7. He said, "I am writing a letter."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

8. She asked, "Why are you late?"

 Indirect: ____________________________________
 9. They said, "We will travel to Paris next month."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

10. He said, "I can solve this problem."

 Indirect: ____________________________________

Indirect to Direct Speech Exercises:

2. Convert the following sentences from indirect to direct speech:

1. She said that she was going to the market.

 Direct: ____________________________________

2. He asked if I liked chocolate.

 Direct: ____________________________________

3. They said that they had completed their project.

 Direct: ____________________________________

4. She said that she would meet me at the station.

 Direct: ____________________________________

5. He said that he had been working all day.

 Direct: ____________________________________

6. She said that the sun rises in the east.

 Direct: ____________________________________

7. He said that he was writing a letter.

 Direct: ____________________________________

8. She asked why I was late.

 Direct: ____________________________________

9. They said that they would travel to Paris next month.

 Direct: ____________________________________

10. He said that he could solve this problem.

 Direct: ____________________________________

Answers:

1. Direct to Indirect Speech:

 1. She said that she was going to the market.

2. He asked if I liked chocolate.

3. They said that they had completed their project.

4. She said that she would meet me at the station.

5. He said that he had been working all day.

6. She said that the sun rises in the east.

7. He said that he was writing a letter.

8. She asked why I was late.

9. They said that they would travel to Paris next month.

10. He said that he could solve this problem.

2. Indirect to Direct Speech:

1. She said, "I am going to the market."

2. He asked, "Do you like chocolate?"

3. They said, "We have completed our project."

4. She said, "I will meet you at the station."

5. He said, "I have been working all day."

6. She said, "The sun rises in the east."

7. He said, "I am writing a letter."

8. She asked, "Why are you late?"

9. They said, "We will travel to Paris next month."

10. He said, "I can solve this problem."

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Modals
1. Modals: Can, Could, May, Might, Should, Must, etc.

Modals are auxiliary verbs that express ability, possibility, permission, or obligation.

Examples and Usage:

 Can: Expresses ability or permission.

o I can swim. (ability)

o Can I leave early? (permission)

 Could: Expresses past ability or polite requests.

o I could swim when I was a child. (past ability)

o Could you help me? (polite request)

 May: Expresses possibility or permission.

o It may rain tomorrow. (possibility)

o May I come in? (permission)

 Might: Expresses a lower possibility.

o She might come to the party. (possibility)

 Should: Expresses advice or recommendation.

o You should see a doctor. (advice)

 Must: Expresses strong obligation or necessity.

o You must wear a seatbelt. (obligation)

Exercises:

1. Fill in the blanks with the correct modal: can, could, may, might, should, must.

 You _____ go to the doctor if you feel sick.

 _____ I borrow your pen?

 They _____ arrive late due to traffic.

 He _____ swim very well when he was younger.

 You _____ finish your homework before playing.

Conditionals
2. Conditionals: Zero, First, Second, and Third Conditional
Zero Conditional:

 Used for general truths and facts.

 Structure: If + Present Simple, Present Simple

o If you heat water, it boils.

First Conditional:

 Used for real and possible future events.

 Structure: If + Present Simple, will + base verb

o If it rains, we will stay home.

Second Conditional:

 Used for unreal or hypothetical situations in the present or future.

 Structure: If + Past Simple, would + base verb

o If I won the lottery, I would travel the world.

Third Conditional:

 Used for unreal situations in the past.

 Structure: If + Past Perfect, would have + past participle

o If I had known, I would have acted differently.

Exercises:

2. Identify the type of conditional in each sentence:

 If I were you, I would take the job.

 If she had studied, she would have passed the exam.

 If you freeze water, it becomes ice.

 If it rains, we will cancel the picnic.

Idioms and Phrases

3. Idioms and Phrases: Commonly Used Expressions

Examples and Meaning:

 Break the ice: To start a conversation in a social setting.

 o He told a joke to break the ice at the meeting.

 A piece of cake: Something very easy.

o The test was a piece of cake.

 Hit the nail on the head: To describe exactly what is causing a situation or problem.

o You hit the nail on the head with your analysis.

Exercises:

3. Match the idioms with their meanings:

 Break the ice

 A piece of cake

 Hit the nail on the head

 Meanings:

o a. To start a conversation

o b. Something very easy

o c. Describe exactly the problem

4. Punctuation: Comma, Full Stop, Semicolon, Colon, etc.

Comma (,):

 Used to separate items in a list, clauses, or after introductory elements.

o I bought apples, oranges, and bananas.

Full Stop (.)

 Used to mark the end of a sentence.

o She went home.

Semicolon (;)

 Used to link closely related independent clauses.

o I have a big test tomorrow; I can't go out tonight.

Colon (:)

 Used to introduce a list, quote, explanation, or example.

o She gave me three options: start now, wait, or quit.

Exercises:
 4. Correct the punctuation in the following sentences:

 She likes pizza pasta and salad

 He said I will come tomorrow

 I have two pets a dog and a cat

Answers:

1. Modals:

 You should go to the doctor if you feel sick.

 May I borrow your pen?

 They might arrive late due to traffic.

 He could swim very well when he was younger.

 You must finish your homework before playing.

2. Conditionals:

 Second Conditional

 Third Conditional

 Zero Conditional

 First Conditional

3. Idioms:

 Break the ice - a. To start a conversation

 A piece of cake - b. Something very easy

 Hit the nail on the head - c. Describe exactly the problem

4. Punctuation:

 She likes pizza, pasta, and salad.

 He said, "I will come tomorrow."

 I have two pets: a dog and a cat.

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